P1OLOG* 
LIBRARY 


VETERINARY  MEDICINES 

THEIR  ACTIONS  AND  USES 


BY 

FINLAY   DUN 

FORMERLY  LECTURER  ON  MATERIA   MEDICA  AND   DIETETICS   AT  THE 

EDINBURGH  VETERINARY  COLLEGE 
EXAMINER  IN  CHEMISTRY  TO  THE  ROYAL  COLLEGE  OB'  VETERINARY   SURGEONS 

REVISED  AND  EDITED   BY 

JAMES   MACQUEEN,  F.R.C.V.S. 

AND 

HAROLD  A.  WOODRUFF,  M.R.C.V.S. 

ROYAL  VETERINARY  COLLEGE,  LONDON 


€&ition 


NEW  YORK 
WILLIAM   K.  JENKINS   CO. 

PUBLISHERS 

851-853  SIXTH  AVENUE 

1911 

\_Att  Rights  Reserved] 


PREFACE  TO  THE  TWELFTH  EDITION 

THIS  Edition  has  been  thoroughly  revised  and  brought  up 
to  date.  The  pharmacology  has  been  largely  rewritten  by 
my  colleague  and  joint  editor,  Professor  Woodruff  ;  many 
additions  and  alterations  have  been  made  in  other  portions 
of  the  text ;  and  a  few  of  the  older  and  least  useful  drugs 
have  been  deleted. 

To  Professor  Lander,  D.Sc.,  for  revising  the  chemical 
formulae,  and  to  Professor  German  Sims  Woodhead,  for 
again  undertaking  the  revision  of  the  pages  on  bacteriology, 
I  desire  to  tender  my  grateful  thanks.  Of  the  many 
valuable  works  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  this  edition, 
mention  must  be  made  of  Cushny's  Pharmacology,  Dixon's 
Manual  of  Pharmacology,  Kaufmann's  Traite  de  Thera- 
peutique  et  de  Matiere  Medicale  Veterinaires,  Gobert's 
Therapeutique  Veterinaire  Appliquee ;  Mollereau  and  Porcher 's 
Vade-mecum  du  Veterinaire ;  Winslow's  Veterinary  Materia 
Medica  and  Therapeutics,  Bocquillon-Limousin's  Formulaire 
des  Medicaments  Nouveaux ;  Squire's  Companion  to  the 
British  Pharmacopoeia,  and  Merck's  Annual  Reports  of  recent 
advances  in  Pharmaceutical  Chemistry  and  Therapeutics. 

J.  MACQUEEN. 

ROYAL  VETERINARY  COLLEGE, 
LONDON,  25th  April  1910. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  TENTH  EDITION 

A  NEW  Edition  of  this  standard  work  on  Veterinary  Materia 
Medica  has  been  wanted  for  some  time.  Prior  to  his 
lamented  death,  Mr.  Finlay  Dun,  recognising  the  urgency 
of  the  demand,  had  commenced  the  preparation  of  the 
Tenth  Edition,  which,  on  the  plans  indicated  by  his  MS. 
and  marginal  notes,  has  now  been  completed.  Numerous 
important  alterations,  rendered  necessary  by  the  publica- 
tion of  the  new  British  Pharmacopoeia  (1898),  have  been 
made  and  many  new  remedies  have  been  inserted.  The 
body  of  the  work  has  been  rearranged,  and  while  every 
article  has  been  revised,  no  change  has  been  made  in  the 
principles  enunciated  by  the  author.  To  provide  space 
for  the  various  additions  and  alterations  without  enlarging 
the  volume,  the  text  in  places  dealing  with  the  Chemistry 
of  Drugs  has  been  curtailed.  Revision  has  been  carried 
out  with  a  constant  regard  to  practical  utility,  and  in  the 
hope  that  Dun's  Veterinary  Medicines  will  continue  to  serve 
effectually  the  requirements  of  students  and  practitioners. 

The  Editor  desires  gratefully  to  acknowledge  his  in- 
debtedness to  Professor  German  Sims  Woodhead,  Cam- 
bridge University,  for  revising  and  extending  the  pages 
on  bacteria  and  antitoxins  ;  and  to  Professor  John  F. 
M'Fadyean,  Principal,  Royal  Veterinary  College,  for  per- 
mission to  insert  the  directions  for  using  mallein,  tuberculin, 
and  black-quarter  vaccine.  Much  valuable  information 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

has  been  obtained  from  Guinard's  Therapeutique  et  Pharma- 
codynamie  (1899),  Delaud  and  Stourbe's  Pharmacie  et 
Toxicologie  Veterinaires  (1900),  Cagny's  Formulaire  des 
Veterinaires,  Hale  White's  Materia  Medico,  (fourth  edition), 
Squire's  Companion  to  the  British  Pharmacopoeia  (1899), 
Martindale  and  Westcott's  Extra  Pharmacopoeia  (ninth 
edition),  Coblentz's  The  Newer  Remedies  (1899),  and  Hare's 
Practical  Therapeutics. 

J.  MACQUEEN. 

ROYAL  VETERINARY  COLLEGE, 
LONDON,  Wth  April  1901. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  EIGHTH  EDITION 

(ABRIDGED) 

THE  First  Edition  of  Veterinary  Medicines  was  published 
in  1854,  while  I  was  Lecturer  on  Materia  Medica  and 
Dietetics  at  the  Edinburgh  Veterinary  College.  The  work 
continues  a  text-book  at  the  British  Veterinary  Colleges, 
is  used  by  Veterinarians  and  Agriculturists,  and  meets  with 
increasing  demand  in  the  United  States  of  America  and  in 
the  Colonies. 

The  increased  bulk  of  the  present  volume  results  from  the 
introduction  of  the  recently  discovered  antiseptics  and  anti- 
pyretics of  the  benzol  series,  and  other  new  remedies  ;  from 
details  of  various  British  and  foreign  experiments  made  with 
alkaloids  and  other  medicines  ;  and  from  fuller  and  more 
systematic  treatment  of  the  actions  of  various  important 
drugs. 

As  in  previous  editions,  the  general  actions  and  uses  of 
Veterinary  Medicines,  and  the  more  important  principles 
and  practice  of  Pharmacy,  are  dealt  with  in  the  Intro- 
duction. The  several  drugs,  discussed  in  alphabetical  order 
according  to  their  English  names,  occupy  the  bulk  of  the 
volume.  Under  each  individual  medicine  the  space  allotted 
to  preparation  and  properties  has  been  curtailed,  while 
careful  revision  has  been  made  of  the  matter  relating  to 
the  actions  on  the  several  domesticated  animals,  the 
curative  uses,  doses,  and  medicinal  forms. 

ix 


X  PREFACE 

In  preparing  the  present  edition  the  following  works  have 
been  consulted : — Dr.  Lauder  Brunton's  Pharmacology, 
Therapeutics,  and  Materia  Medica ;  Robertson's  Equine 
Medicine  ;  Williams'  volumes  on  the  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery  ;  and  the  Journal  of 
Comparative  Pathology  and  Therapeutics.  Hertwig's  Prak- 
tische  Arzneimittellehre  fur  Thierdrzte,  and  Moiroud's  Traite 
Elementaire  de  Matiere  Medicale  et  de  Pharmacologie  Veteri- 
naire — for  many  years  the  standard  works  on  Veterinary 
Pharmacology  in  Germany  and  France  respectively.  Fur- 
ther valuable  information  has  been  derived  from  the  Lehr- 
buch  der  Arzneimittellehre  fur  Thierdrzte,  von  Dr.  Eugen 
Frohner ;  Traite  Therapeutique  et  de  Matiere  Medicale 
Veterinaires,  par  M.  Kaufmann ;  Precis  de  Therapeutique 
de  Matiere  Medicale  et  de  Pharmacie  Veterinaires,  par  Paul 
Cagny  ;  as  well  as  from  Pathologie  et  Therapeutique  Speciales 
des  Animaux  Domestiques,  par  Friedberger  et  Frohner. 

FINLAY  DUN. 


CONTENTS 

PACK 

INTRODUCTION,          ...  1 

I.  THE  ACTIONS  AND  USES  OF  MEDICINAL  AGENTS,  2 

II.  VETERINARY  MEDICINES,       .            .            .            .  152 

THE  ALKALINE  METALS,  AMMONIUM,  POTASSIUM, 

SODIUM,  .  .  .  .  .  .  160 

THE  ALKALINE  EARTHS,  CALCIUM,  MAGNESIUM, 

BARIUM,  ALUMINIUM,  .  '  -  .  .  .  203 

THE  METALS,  BISMUTH,  LEAD,  ZINC,  COPPER,  SILVER, 

IRON,  ANTIMONY,  ARSENIC,  MERCURY,         ,            .  224 

THE  NON-METALS,  PHOSPHORUS,  BROMINE,  CHLORINE, 

IODINE,  SULPHUR,      .....  304 

ACIDS,     .         .   .    f    .  •  .  .          .            .            .            .  325 

CARBON  COMPOUNDS,  ALCOHOLS,  ETHERS,        .            .  349 

III.  MEDICINES   DERIVED    FROM   THE   VEGETABLE 

KINGDOM,           .            .            .                        .            .  437 

MEDICINES     DERIVED     FROM     THE     ANIMAL 

KINGDOM,          .            .                        .            .            .  669 

IV.  VETERINARY  PHARMACY,      .            .          ' .  .         .  700 
INDEX  OF  DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES,       .            .  739 
INDEX  OF  MEDICINES,  804 


VETERINARY    MEDICINES 

THEIR  ACTIONS   AND   USES 


INTRODUCTION 

VETERINARY  MATERIA  MEDICA,  in  the  extended  sense  of 
the  term,  treats  of  every  agent  which  is  used  for  the  relief 
or  cure  of  disease  or  injury,  or  for  the  preservation  of 
health,  among  the  domesticated  animals.  The  full  con- 
sideration of  a  subject  so  large  and  diversified  would, 
however,  fill  several  volumes,  and  the  present  work  has 
been  restricted  to  the  description  of  drugs,  their  characters 
and  properties,  their  pharmaceutical  preparations,  and 
their  actions  and  uses  among  veterinary  patients.  Medi- 
cines or  drugs,  although  derived  from  the  mineral,  vege- 
table, and  animal  kingdoms,  possess  many  actions  in 
common,  and  are  prepared  for  use  by  similar  chemical 
and  pharmaceutical  processes.  In  this  work  the  first 
section  is  devoted  to  general  observations  on  Pharmacology, 
which  treats  of  the  actions  of  drugs,  and  Therapeutics,  or 
the  application  of  remedies  to  the  cure  of  disease.  A 
description  of  the  medicines,  arranged  according  to  their 
source,  occupies  the  body  of  the  volume,  which  is  com- 
pleted by  a  section  on  Pharmacy,  the  administration  of 
medicines,  and  an  index  of  diseases  and  remedies. 

A 


SECTION    I 

THE    ACTIONS    AND    USES    OF   MEDICINES 

THE  general  and  medical  management  of  the  domestic 
animals  has  greatly  improved  during  the  past  forty  years. 
The  laws  of  health,  the  causes  and  nature  of  disease,  as  well 
as  the  actions  and  uses  of  remedies  have  been  more  fully 
studied.  The  beneficent  curative  effects  of  fresh  air,  diet, 
suitable  surroundings  and  good  nursing  are  more  thoroughly 
realised.  Preventive  treatment  also  receives  more  attention 
alike  from  stock-owners  and  practitioners.  Disease  accord- 
ingly is  not  only  less  prevalent,  but  it  is  generally  less 
serious,  and  the  attacks  of  shorter  duration.  In  Great 
Britain  such  equine  maladies  as  specific  ophthalmia,  canker 
of  the  feet,  and  mange,  are  now  seldom  seen,  while  colic  and 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  are  not  nearly  so  common  as 
they  were  forty  years  ago.  Cattle  plague,  contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia,  rabies,  and  sheep-pox  have  been  exterminated. 
The  prevalence  of  glanders  or  farcy,  swine-fever,  anthrax, 
and  bovine  tuberculosis  should  be  greatly  limited  by  the 
measures  now  being  adopted  in  dealing  with  these  disorders. 
Puller  and  more  definite  knowledge  of  the  actions  of 
remedial  agents  has  been  obtained  by  systematic  experi- 
ments and  clinical  observations  not  only  on  the  lower 
animals  but  on  man  himself.  Numerous  illustrations  might 
be  adduced  of  the  practical  benefits  of  such  investigations. 
Magendie's  experiments  with  the  Java  upas  antiar  and  nux 
vomica  demonstrated  that  these  strychnine-containing  plants 
violently  stimulate  the  spinal  cord,  producing  tetanic  con- 
vulsions. In  virtue  of  this  stimulation  of  the  cord,  and  its 
reflex  functions,  carefully  regulated  doses  of  this  drug  have 
been  utilised  to  restore  disturbed  co-ordination  of  the 
gastro-intestinal  functions,  and  to  relieve  some  forms  of 
paralysis.  Experiments  on  animals  also  have  demonstrated 
the  action  of  digitalis  and  strophanthus  as  cardiac  stimu- 


BACTERIOLOGY  3 

lants,  and  hence  have  led  to  their  use  in  strengthening  and 
steadying  the  weak  and  overtaxed  heart.  It  has  been 
proved  in  the  same  way  that  ergot  of  rye,  and  its  active 
constituent,  ergotin,  have  the  power  of  causing  contraction 
of  the  arterioles,  hence  their  employment  for  the  arrest  of 
internal  haemorrhage.  Belladonna,  and  its  active  principle 
atropine,  have  been  shown  to  diminish  sensibility  of  the 
ends  of  the  vagi  and  sensory  nerves,  and  from  this  results 
their  value  in  quickening  slow,  irregular  heart  rhythm, 
diminishing  excessive  bronchial  secretion,  and  relieving 
certain  forms  of  pain.  When  the  precise  action  of  medi- 
cines is  recognised  their  practical  use  is  obviously  rendered 
not  only  safer,  but  more  effective. 

The  Study  of  Bacteriology  within  the  last  twenty  years 
has  done  much  to  throw  light  on  the  diagnosis,  prevention 
and  treatment  of  disease  both  in  men  and  animals,  and  is 
apparently  destined  to  do  much  more.  A  number  of 
diseases  classified  as  zymotic,  and  comprising  anthrax, 
glanders,  tuberculosis,  black-quarter,  strangles,  swine- 
fever,  tetanus,  with  typhoid,  eruptive  and  other  fevers, 
have  been  shown  to  depend  upon  the  introduction  into  the 
body  of  micro-organisms  belonging  to  the  lower  class  of 
vegetable  fungi  which,  in  susceptible  subjects,  multiply 
rapidly,  and  produce  chemical  ferments,  alkaloidal  poisons, 
and  deadly  albumoses.  Pasteur,  Koch,  and  others  have 
investigated  the  life-history  of  many  of  these  disease- 
producing  microbes,  the  pathogenic  conditions  to  which 
they  give  rise,  and  the  methods  by  which  their  invasion 
may  be  averted  or  counteracted. 

Rabies  differs  somewhat  from  the  other  types  of  disease 
here  mentioned.  Although  the  most  elaborate  searches  have 
been  made  for  organisms  of  bacterial  character,  these  have 
been  unsuccessful.  It  has  been  suggested  from  time  to  time 
that  organisms  more  resembling  protozoa  might  be  present, 
but  it  was  not  until  Negri  described  what  are  now  called 
4  Negri-bodies,'  that  any  advance  was  made  in  this  quest. 
Lying  in  the  protoplasm  of  the  nerve  cells  or  in  their 
branches,  or  in  some  cases  outside  them,  they  are  seen 
as  oval,  triangular,  or  slightly  spindle-  or  sausage-shaped 
bodies,  which,  taking  on  an  eosin  ground  stain,  are  studded 


4  BABIES 

with  basophile  granules,  rods,  and  '  circles.'  These  bodies 
are  from  0.5//,  to  20^  in  diameter,  the  size  increasing 
with  the  time  that  the  disease  has  run,  the  larger  forms 
being  met  with  in  less  susceptible  animals,  the  smaller  in 
specially  susceptible  animals,  and  in  those  cases  in  which 
the  disease  runs  a  very  rapid  course.  In  some  cases  these 
bodies  may  be  constricted  in  the  middle,  or,  if  the  bodies 
are  somewhat  elongated,  there  may  be  two  or  three  constric- 
tions. These  bodies  may  be  found  in  any  of  the  nerve  cells 
of  the  central  nervous  system  in  cases  of  rabies,  but  they 
are  most  numerous  and  are  found  most  readily  in  the  cells 
of  Ammon's  horn  and  in  the  Purkinji  cells  of  the  cere- 
bellum. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  a  small  central  corpuscle, 
surrounded  by  no  clear  space,  may  correspond  to  a  proto- 
zoan nucleus  ;  this,  however,  can  be  little  more  than  a 
suggestion.  The  presence  of  these  Negri  bodies  certainly 
appears  to  be  specific  to  rabies  and  hydrophobia.  Such 
bodies  are  present  in  large  numbers  even  at  an  early  stage 
of  the  disease,  but  are  then  so  small  that  they  may  easily 
escape  detection  ;  they  may  be  so  small,  indeed,  that  they 
pass  through  the  pores  of  a  Berkefeld  filter.  Later,  and 
this  of  course  is  best  seen  in  more  chronic  cases,  they 
attain  a  considerable  size. 

These  bodies  may  be  simply  the  result  and  not  the 
cause  of  disease,  but  many  who  have  examined  them 
acknowledge  that  they  may  be  protozoan  in  character. 

Microbes,  when  cultivated  in  media  containing  chemicals, 
or  when  repeatedly  passed  by  inoculation  through  the 
bodies  of  certain  animals,  become  weakened,  and  lose  their 
virulence.  Attenuated  cultures  or  vaccines,  properly  em- 
ployed, confer  on  certain  animals  more  or  less  protection 
against  poisonous  doses  of  the  natural  virus  subsequently 
introduced  by  infection,  or  by  experimental  inoculation. 
In  districts  of  France,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Switzerland, 
where  anthrax  abounds,  cattle  and  sheep  for  many  years 
have  been  vaccinated  with  attenuated  anthrax  virus,  the 
mortality  among  the  vaccinated  is  stated  to  be  less  than 
one-tenth  of  that  which  occurs  amongst  the  unvaccinated 
stock.  Pasteur,  by  repeated  injection  of  attenuated  rabies 


VACCINES  O 

vaccine,  rendered  dogs  and  other  animals  insusceptible  to 
the  action  of  lethal  doses  of  rabies  virus,  and  Pasteur's 
method  applied  to  persons  bitten  by  rabid  animals  continues 
to  afford  protection  against  hydrophobia  in  99  per  cent,  of 
the  cases  timeously  submitted  to  this  treatment.  Pigeons 
repeatedly  inoculated  with  small  doses  of  snake  poison  for 
periods  of  three  months  withstand  seven  times  the  ordinary 
fatal  dose  of  snake  poison.  The  modified  black-quarter  virus, 
obtained  by  drying  and  heating  the  muscle  of  an  animal 
that  has  suffered  from  this  disease,  also  exerts  a  distinct 
effect  in  protecting  even  susceptible  animals  against  attacks 
of  this  disease  ;  whilst  cultivations  of  the  swine  erysipelas 
bacillus,  when  similarly  modified  by  heat,  have  been  used 
with  great  success  as  a  protective  inoculation  agent  against 
the  ravages  of  swine  erysipelas  (Rouget  du  pore). 

The  manner  in  which  these  vaccines  effect  their  protective 
powers  has  been  variously  explained,  but  the  most  satis- 
factory view  is,  that  small  repeated  doses  of  the  cultivated 
organism  or  its  products  modify  the  functions  of  the  cells 
on  which  they  specially  act,  and  thus  confer  upon  them 
a  tolerance  against  deadly  doses  of  the  same  or  allied 
poisons  (Bacteria  and  their  Products,  by  G.  Sims  Wood- 
head,  M.D.).  Going  further  than  this,  however,  it  must 
now  be  recognised  as  a  result  of  the  observations  of  Behring, 
Roux,  Ehrlich,  and  numerous  later  workers,  that  this 
tolerance  is  due  in  great  part  to  the  production,  during  the 
reaction  between  the  cell  and  the  toxin,  of  an  antitoxin 
which  at  first  stored  in  the  cell,  soon  overflows  its  bound- 
aries and  passes  into  the  blood,  where  it  appears  to  be  stored 
up  in  the  fluid  elements,  always  ready  to  combine  with  any 
toxin  that  may  be  produced  in  or  introduced  into  the  tissues. 
It  would  appear  that  an  antitoxin  can  only  be  produced 
in  response  to  the  action  of  what  is  spoken  of  as  an  exo- 
toxin,  a  toxin  that  is  thrown  out  into  the  culture  medium, 
i.e.  is  set  free  from  the  organism  by  which  it  is  formed, 
in  somewhat  the  same  manner  as  alcohol  is  set  free  by  yeast. 
This  toxin,  separated  from  the  bodies  of  the  micro-organisms 
that  formed  it,  and  injected  into  an  animal,  induces  the 
formation  of  a  specific  antitoxin.  The  antibody  produced 
by  the  bacilli  which  produce  this  toxin  gives  rise  to  an 


6  ACTION    OF   ANTITOXINS 

anti-bacterial  substance,  a  specific  substance  that  has  far 
less  power  to  neutralise  the  toxin,  but  far  greater  power 
to  destroy  the  bacilli.  The  only  two  true  antitoxins  as 
yet  brought  into  play  in  practical  medicine  are  the  diphtheria 
antitoxin  and  the  tetanus  antitoxin,  though  similar  sub- 
stances are  now  used  in  the  treatment  of  snake-bite  and 
of  pneumonia,  and  one  or  two  similar  diseases. 

Antibacterial  substances,  however,  now  constitute  a  very 
important  class  of  therapeutic  agents,  the  whole  of  the 
vaccines,  whether  dead  or  living,  being  of  this  type.  In 
the  case  of  the  new  tuberculin,  the  bodies  of  the  bacilli 
are  broken  down  in  order  to  allow  the  whole  of  the  elements 
contained  in  the  body  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  to  come  into 
play.  Typhoid  vaccine,  cholera  vaccine,  and  others  are 
all  of  the  same  class.  The  poisons  thus  locked  up  in  the 
bacteria  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  endotoxins. 

From  the  fact  that  these  antitoxic  substances  are  stored 
up  in  the  fluid  constituents  of  the  blood,  it  has  been  found 
possible  to  produce  antitoxins  in  one  animal,  and  then  by 
drawing  off  its  blood,  and  allowing  the  clot  to  separate  from 
the  serum  to  obtain  a  fluid  containing  a  large  quantity  of 
antitoxin  which,  injected  into  a  second  patient,  acts  upon 
the  toxin,  neutralising  it  just  as  surely  and  completely  as  if 
it  were  acting  upon  the  original  patient.  This  has  gradually 
developed  into  a  definite  system  of  treatment — the  anti- 
toxin treatment.  It  has  been  worked  out  most  thoroughly 
in  diphtheria  in  the  human  subject,  and  in  tetanus  in  veteri- 
nary medicine ;  whilst  fair  results  have  also  been  obtained 
using  a  similar  method  in  the  treatment  of  snake  poisoning. 
In  Diphtheria,  the  best  results  have  been  obtained  (1) 
because  the  local  lesion,  i.e.  the  false  membrane,  etc.,  is 
usually  well  marked  before  the  constitutional  disturbances, 
i.e.  the  toxic  effects,  make  their  appearance  ;  and  (2) 
because  the  poison  is  not  only  formed  slowly,  but  takes  some 
time  to  produce  its  effects  upon  the  nervous  tissues  to  which 
it  usually  attaches  itself. 

To  produce  diphtheria  antitoxin  all  that  is  necessary  is 
to  inject  subcutaneously  the  toxic  products  of  the  diphtheria 
bacillus  grown  in  slightly  alkaline  broth,  or  still  better,  in 
broth  containing  a  certain  proportion  of  blood  plasma, 


TETANUS    ANTITOXIN  7 

into  some  animal,  preferably  a  horse.  This  should  be 
followed  by  a  rise  of  temperature,  and  by  swelling  at  the 
seat  of  injection.  Unless  this  reaction  is  obtained  no  anti- 
toxin will  be  formed.  Gradually  increasing  doses  of  the 
toxin  must  be  injected  from  time  to  time,  care  being  taken 
to  obtain  a  distinct  reaction  after  each  injection,  and  to 
make  the  fresh  injection  before  the  effects  of  the  last  one 
have  completely  passed  away.  After  a  time  it  will  be  found 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  a  local  reaction,  or  a  rise 
of  temperature,  even  when  large  quantities  of  toxin  are 
injected.  During  the  whole  of  this  period  it  will  be  found 
that  the  antitoxic  value  of  the  blood  is  rising  more  or  less 
rapidly,  and  at  last  there  is  sufficient  antitoxin  present 
to  make  it  valuable  for  the  treatment  of  diphtheria  patients. 
/The  antitoxin  in  the  serum  injected  into  a  patient  suffering 
from  the  effects  of  diphtheria  poisoning,  combines  with  the 
toxin  formed  by  the  diphtheria  bacillus,  and  so  prevents  it 
from  exerting  its  deleterious  action  upon  the  tissues  of 
the  patient.)  The  diphtheria  bacilli,  with  their  poison 
neutralised,  now  behave  like  ordinary  non-pathogenetic 
organisms,  and  are  rapidly  destroyed  by  the  tissues,  and 
the  patient  recovers.  The  power  of  this  antitoxic  substance 
may  be  realised  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  doses  of 
antitoxic  serum  containing  12,000  to  30,000  units  may  be 
injected  with  safety  into  a  diphtheria  patient.  A  single 
cubic  centimetre  of  the  serum  of  the  treated  horse  may 
contain  a  thousand  units,  each  one  of  these  units  being 
sufficient  to  neutralise  toxin  sufficient  to  kill,  within  four 
days,  one  hundred  half -grown  guinea-pigs  ;  the  amount  of 
neutralising  and  protective  power  thus  obtained  is  therefore 
enormous,  and  we  can  readily  realise  why  the  antitoxin 
treatment  of  diphtheria  has  proved  so  successful. 

In  tetanus  the  principle  of  production  of  antitoxin  is  the 
same  as  in  diphtheria,  but  the  treatment  has  not  been  so 
successful,  because  the  disease  in  this  case  does  not  manifest 
itself  locally  in  the  first  instance,  the  poison  has  already 
attacked  the  nerve  centres  before  the  necessity  for  treatment 
makes  its  appearance.  The  damage  has  already  been  done, 
and  antitoxin,  though  it  can  neutralise  the  poison,  and  so 
prevent  further  damage  being  done,  cannot  make  good  the 


8  TUBERCULIN   AND    MALLEIN 

ravages  already  carried  on.  Tetanus  antitoxin,  however, 
like  diphtheria  antitoxin,  acts  as  a  most  powerful  prophy- 
lactic, and  it  is  in  this  character  that  its  greatest  value  as  a 
therapeutic  agent  must  be  sought. 

Calmette's  antivenin  has  also  been  found  to  be  of  great 
use  in  the  treatment  of  snake  bite.  It  is  prepared  in  the 
same  way  as  are  the  other  antitoxins.  By  treating  a  horse 
with  gradually  increasing  doses  of  the  mixed  venom  taken 
from  various  snakes — cobra,  black  snake,  and  others — it  is 
found  that,  if  sufficient  care  be  taken  to  give  small  enough 
preliminary  doses,  and  to  allow  the  animal  to  regain  weight 
and  condition  after  each  injection,  large  doses  may  be  given 
later  ;  the  horse  then  becomes  not  only  immune  against 
the  action  of  these  large  doses,  but  his  blood  contains  an 
antivenin  which,  held  in  solution  in  the  serum,  may  be  in- 
jected into  other  animals,  where  it  acts  not  only  as  a  prophy- 
lactic, but  also  as  a  curative  agent  against  snake  bite,  even 
of  the  most  virulent  types. 

The  products  of  micro-organisms,  however,  have  been 
utilised  in  other  most  important  fashions.  Tuberculin 
(which  consists  essentially  of  the  products  of  the  tubercle 
bacillus  grown  in  beef  peptone  broth  containing  a  five  per 
cent,  solution  of  glycerin,  the  bacilli  destroyed  and  then 
filtered  out  by  means  of  a  Pasteur-Chamberland  filter,  the 
whole  concentrated  by  evaporation  at  a  low  temperature) 
is  now  used  for  the  diagnosis  of  tuberculosis,  as  it  is  found 
that  these  products,  when  injected  subcutaneously,  appear 
to  co-operate  with  the  poisons  already  in  the  body,  and  to 
cause  a  reaction  of  the  tissues,  and  a  rise  in  temperature 
which,  together,  give  evidence  of  the  presence  of  a  tubercular 
process.  Exactly  the  same  thing  happens  in  the  case  of 
mallein,  which  is  prepared  in  the  same  way  from  the 
glanders  bacillus  as  the  tuberculin  is  prepared  from  the 
tubercle  bacillus.  A  small  quantity  of  this  substance  in- 
jected subcutaneously  in  a  healthy  animal  with  a  normal 
temperature  gives  rise  to  little  or  no  local  swelling,  and  a 
very  slight  rise  of  temperature,  whilst  a  similar  quantity 
injected  into  a  horse  suffering  from  glanders  gives  rise  to 
a  local  swelling  of  considerable  size,  which  goes  on  increasing 
up  to  the  thirty-sixth  or  forty-eighth  hour,  or  even  longer, 


PROTOPLASM  9 

and  is  accompanied  by  a  rise  of  temperature  to  104°  F. 
In  certain  cases  where  the  temperature  is  high  to  begin 
with,  even  where  the  disease — tuberculosis  or  glanders — 
is  well  advanced,  no  characteristic  reaction  is  obtained  ; 
but  in  almost  all  these  cases  the  diagnosis  can  be  made 
without  the  aid  of  the  specific  products. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  bacteria  are  coming  to  play  a 
greater  and  greater  part  in  both  diagnosis  and  treatment  of 
disease,  just  as  they  have  come  to. play  such  an  important 
role  in  our  conception  of  its  production. 

Recent  studies  of  the  life  of  the  simplest  animal  struc- 
tures, such  as  amoeba,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
acted  upon  by  medicinal  agents,  have  thrown  much  light 
on  therapeutics  as  applied  to  the  higher  animals.  The 
complex  albuminoid  material  termed  protoplasm,  which 
is  the  ever-present  constituent  of  living  cells,  is  coagulated 
and  precipitated  by  heat,  and  dissolved  by  alkalies.  It  is 
precipitated  by  small  quantity,  and  dissolved  by  excess,  of 
most  mineral  acids.  Organic  alkaloids  resemble  acids  in 
lowering  the  temperature  at  which  heat  coagulates  albumin. 
Protoplasmic  movements,  as  illustrated  in  the  amoeba, 
are  retarded  or  arrested  by  cold.  Heat,  slight  electric 
shocks,  and  common  salt,  even  in  diluted  solution,  first 
quicken  them  ;  but  a  higher  temperature,  a  stronger  electric 
current,  or  prolonged  exposure  to  a  saline  solution,  tetanises 
them.  Protoplasm  has  the  power  of  absorbing  and  storing 
oxygen  ;  and  the  chemical  energy  developed  from  this 
oxidation  is  capable  of  conversion  into  mechanical  energy 
and  movements.  Protoplasm  has  also  the  power  of  carry- 
ing and  transferring  oxygen  to  other  substances,  and 
appears  to  contribute  largely  to  the  diffusion  of  oxygen, 
and  interchange  of  gases,  constantly  occurring  between 
the  blood,  the  intercellular  fluid,  and  the  cells,  and  consti- 
tuting what  is  termed  internal  respiration. 

Infusoria  have  both  their  rhythmical  and  ciliary  move- 
ments increased  by  heat  and  diminished  by  cold.  Weak 
saline  solutions  increase  their  movements  ;  while  strong 
saline  solutions  alter  the  amount  of  water  they  contain, 
and  cause  them  to  shrivel,  by  withdrawing  water  from 
their  substance.  (See  '  Salt  Action.') 


10  RED    CORPUSCLES 

Leucocytes  are  affected  in  much  the  same  way  as  amoebae. 
Their  movements  are  notably  arrested  by  the  cinchona 
alkaloids.  Quinine  injected  into  the  circulation  has  been 
found  to  diminish  the  migration  of  leucocytes  from  the 
blood-vessels. 

Red  Corpuscles  are  markedly  affected  by  any  change  in 
the  salt  content  of  the  blood  serum  in  which  they  are 
bathed.  These  cells  may  be  considered  to  be  masses  of 
colloid  material  surrounded  by  a  membrane,  this  membrane 
being  permeable  by  water,  but  having  a  selective  power 
with  respect  to  the  salts  it  will  allow  to  pass  through. 
Blood  serum  normally  contains  0*9  per  cent,  of  sodium 
chloride,  and  the  corpuscles  may  be  assumed  to  contain 
the  same  amount.  A  salt  solution  of  this  strength  is  called 
an  isotonic  solution,  one  of  greater  concentration  is  hyper- 
tonic,  a  more  dilute  one  being  hypotonic.  Red  corpuscles 
in  an  isotonic  salt  solution  ('  normal  saline  ')  are  unaffected, 
for  although  osmosis  takes  place,  the  rates  of  diffusion, 
in  and  out,  are  the  same.  Cells  placed  in  a  hypotonic 
solution  swell  up,  for  salt  diffuses  out  of  them  and  water 
enters  until  the  envelope,  no  longer  able  to  contain  the  extra 
fluid,  bursts,  setting  free  the  haemoglobin.  If  the  cells  are 
placed  in  a  hypertonic  salt  solution,  water  diffuses  out  to 
dilute  the  more  concentrated  fluid,  while  salt  diffuses  in, 
but  the  net  result  of  the  loss  of  fluid  from  the  cell  is  that  it 
shrinks  and  becomes  crenated.  Thus  any  excess  of  water 
in  the  blood  serum  at  once  results  in  an  increase  in  the  size 
of  the  red  cells,  which  imbibe  fluid,  swell  up,  and  burst. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  an  excess  of  salt  (sodium  chloride)  is 
put  into  the  bloodstream  so  that  the  serum  becomes  hyper- 
tonic,  water  diffuses  out  of  the  red  cells  to  dilute  the  serum, 
the  red  cells  becoming  smaller  and  shrivelled,  or  crenated. 

The  important  blood  constituent  haemoglobin,  like  proto- 
plasm, has  great  capacity  for  taking  up  oxygen,  thus 
becoming  converted  into  oxy haemoglobin,  which,  however, 
holds  its  added  oxygen  loosely,  and  parts  with  it  readily, 
as  it  slowly  circulates  through  capillary  vessels.  The  haemo- 
globin also  combines  with  other  substances  as  well  as  with 
oxygen — as  with  hydrocyanic  acid  and  carbon  monoxide, 
forming  tolerably  stable  compounds  ;  and  these  can  neither 


FERMENTS  11 

take  up  oxygen  from  the  air  in  the  lungs,  nor  give  it  off 
in  the  tissues,  which  hence  become  asphyxiated.  Addition 
to  the  blood  of  such  drugs  as  alcohol,  chloroform,  quinine, 
morphine,  nicotine,  and  strychnine,  likewise,  in  various 
degrees,  diminishes  the  amount  of  oxygen  absorbed,  and  of 
carbonic  acid  given  off  by  the  blood. 

It  is  exceedingly  interesting,  in  this  connection,  to  note 
how  easily  the  non-nucleated  blood  corpuscles  of  the 
mammalian  animal  take  up,  but  also  give  up,  oxygen. 
It  would  appear  that  these  red  blood  corpuscles,  like  the 
plasma  itself,  are  capable  of  carrying  in  loose  combination 
an  enormously  greater  quantity  of  oxygen  than  they  re- 
quire for  their  own  special  purposes.  Leucocytes,  on  the 
other  hand,  nucleated  cells,  although  circulating  in  the 
blood  have  no  oxygen  carrying  power  beyond  what  they 
require  for  their  own  use,  the  presence  of  nuclear  substance 
of  the  cell,  in  mammals  at  any  rate,  appears  to  be  associated 
with  the  using  up  of  oxygen  rather  than  with  its  transporta- 
tion, and  we  find  that  in  blood  diseases,  even  where  the 
number  of  red  cells  in  the  blood  remains  high,  the  oxygen 
transporting  power  of  the  blood  to  other  tissues  may  be 
interfered  with  by  the  presence  of  an  increased  number  of 
nucleated  cells,  the  leucocytes,  this  interference  varying 
with  the  increase. 

FERMENTS — BACTERIA — BACTERIAL   PRODUCTS — VACCINES 

FERMENTS  determine  the  healthy  nutrition  of  plants  and 
animals,  as  well  as  their  decay  and  many  of  their  diseases. 
They  are  exemplified  by  the  yeast  which  raises  bread  and 
converts  the  starch  and  sugar  of  barley  into  beer  or  spirit, 
the  rennet  which  coagulates  milk,  the  filamentous  fungus 
which  causes  ringworm,  and  the  bacillus  which  induces  the 
deadly  anthrax.  Ferments  are  divisible  into  two  classes  : — 

1.  Enzymes  or  unorganised  ferments  are  exemplified  by 
diastase,  which  causes  germination  in  barley  and  other 
seeds,  ptyalin  from  saliva,  pepsin  from  the  stomach,  trypsin 
from  the  pancreas,  with  histozyme,  a  recently  discovered 
ferment  present  in  blood,  and  believed  to  be  the  chief 
agent  in  the  reduction  of  albuminoids.  These,  like  the 


12  FERMENTS 

toxins,  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — the  endoenzymes 
and  the  exoenzymes.  The  former  appear  to  be  the  result 
of  the  functional  activity  of  the  cell,  and  to  be  so  closely 
associated  with  the  tissues  that  they  seldom  appear  in  the 
fluids  of  the  body  in  anything  but  small  quantities.  Vernon 
points  out,  however,  that  certain  of  these  endoenzymes, 
such  as  maltase,  are  elaborated  in  larger  quantities.  The 
exoenzymes,  like  the  exotoxins,  are  set  free  much  more 
freely,  and  may  be  thrown  out  into  the  fluids  in  consider- 
able amounts  whenever  they  are  required :  '  Probably 
the  endoenzymes  and  the  exoenzymes  are  formed  and  are 
bound  up  in  the  tissues  in  a  similar  manner,  only  the  linkage 
binding  the  exoenzymes  is  more  readily  snapped  under  an 
appropriate  chemical  or  nervous  stimulus  than  that  binding 
the  endoenzymes.'  Both  forms  appear  to  be  elaborated 
in  larger  quantities  during  increased  functional  activity 
of  the  tissues  by  which  they  are  formed,  the  endoenzymes, 
on  the  one  hand,  being  stored  up  in  the  cells,  the  exoenzymes, 
on  the  other,  readily  making  their  way  into  the  fluids 
surrounding  the  tissues. 

In  the  blood  there  are  diastatic  enzymes,  e.g.  amylase 
which  converts  starch  into  dextrin  and  maltose,  and  a 
glucase  or  maltase  which  converts  these  products  into  glu- 
cose : — indeed,  it  is  maintained  that  there  are  several  of 
the  amylase  group.  Corresponding  to  these,  numerous 
antibodies  of  various  types  are  also  probably  present  in 
the  blood. 

2.  Organised  or  formed  ferments,  such  as  yeast,  myco- 
derma  vini,  moulds,  and  bacteria,  are  living  vegetable 
organisms  of  parasitic  habit. 

The  reduction  of  complex  carbon  compounds  into  simpler 
forms  is  the  work  of  both  classes  of  ferments.  Their  effects 
are  produced,  it  is  believed,  in  one  of  two  ways  : — (1)  By 
abstraction  of  water,  as  in  the  conversion  of  starch  into 
sugar,  or  the  splitting  up  of  glucosides — changes  chiefly 
effected  by  enzymes,  and  analogous  to  the  effects  of  heat  in 
conjunction  with  diluted  mineral  acids  or  alkalies.  (2)  The 
breaking  up  of  the  fermentible  body  is  sometimes  effected 
by  transfer  of  oxygen  from  its  hydrogen  to  its  carbon,  as  in 
alcoholic  and  lactic  fermentations,  and  in  putrefactive 


ORGANISED    FERMENTS  13 

processes — a  mode  of  reduction  usually  effected  by  the 
organised  ferments. 

The  organised  ferments,  which  are  the  causes  of  putrefac- 
tion and  of  various  diseases,  have  been  classified  as — 

1.  Yeasts,  or  sprouting  fungi,  which  consist  of  ovoid  cells, 
multiplying  by  budding,  are  represented  by  the  torula  cere- 
visise,  mycoderma  vini,  and,  according  to  most  authorities, 
also  include  the  aphthous  patches  of  thrush  found  in  the 
mouth  of  young  animals. 

2.  Moulds,  or  filamentous  fungi,  occur  in  threads,  which 
are   agglomerated   into   masses   or   tufts,    multiplying   by 
budding  and  formation  of  spores,  and  exemplified  by  the 
common  moulds  which  appear  on  moist  objects,  and  by 
those  which  cause  such  skin  diseases  as  favus  and  ringworm. 

3.  Bacteria,  Microbes,  or  Schizomycetes,  are  the  lowest 
forms  of  vegetable  life,  but  the  most  widely  distributed,  in 
air,  earth,  and  water.     They  consist  of  round,  oval,  or 
cylindrical  cells,  so  minute  that  they  can  only  be  examined 
with  high  powers  of  the  microscope.     They  multiply  chiefly 
by  division,  occasionally  by  spore  formation.     Their  multi- 
plication is  effected  with  enormous  rapidity,  a  single  indi- 
vidual cell  sometimes  producing  a  million  in  twenty-four 
hours.     Some    are    fixed,    others    are    motile.     For    their 
formation  and  growth  they  require  organic  matter,  moisture, 
salts,  and  a  moderate  temperature  ;    some,  further,  need 
oxygen  ;    some  thrive  without  it.     They  speedily  exhaust 
the  nutriment  obtainable  from  the  substance  on  which  they 
grow,  or  form  in  it  matters  inimical  to  their  life  ;  but  where 
one  species  languishes  and  perishes,  others  frequently  spring 
up  and  flourish. 

Bacteria  are  divided  into  two  groups — (1)  Non-pathogenic 
or  saphrophytic.  Many  of  these  feed  and  live  on  dead  animal 
or  vegetable  matter,  and  their  great  function  is  the  conver- 
sion of  complex  into  simpler  forms.  They  are  exemplified 
by  the  bacillus  of  hay  infusion,  the  bacterium  termo  found 
in  all  putrid  fluids,  and  the  bacilli  developing  the  saccharine 
and  lactic  fermentations.  (2)  Pathogenic  or  parasitic 
bacteria  live  on  or  within  the  bodies  of  living  plants  or 
animals,  and  when  in  large  numbers  interfere  with  nutrition 
and  cause  disease.  Their  pathogenic  power  is  proved 


14  BACTERIA 

beyond  all  question  by  taking  cultures  from  any  of  the 
specific  disease  products,  growing  them  in  suitable  media 
for  several  generations,  and  inoculating  these  on  living 
subjects,  when  the  original  disease  is  reproduced.  But 
pathogenic  and  non-pathogenic  are  only  relative  terms. 
The  organisms,  usually  harmless,  under  certain  conditions 
become  harmful ;  while  those  that  are  pathogenic  by 
cultivation  and  otherwise  sometimes  lose  their  toxic  power, 
and  live  and  reproduce  themselves  amongst  dead  vegetable 
and  animal  matter.  The  bacilli  of  anthrax,  hog  cholera, 
and  tetanus  illustrate  these  varying  states  of  activity  and 
change  of  habit.  Microbes  which  have  had  their  activity 
reduced  or  destroyed  may,  however,  under  certain  con- 
ditions regain  it. 

Both  pathogenic  and  non-pathogenic  bacteria  are  divided 
into  three  classes,  each  distinguished  by  the  form  assumed  : 
(a)  Micrococci  or  round  cells,  such  as  the  sarcina  found  in 
the  stomach,  or  the  cocci  which  arrange  themselves  in 
clusters  or  in  chains,  and  cause  strangles  in  horses,  and  pus 
formation  in  all  animals  ;  (6)  Bacilli  or  rod-shaped  bacteria, 
as  those  of  anthrax  and  glanders,  as  well  as  the  short  ovoid 
bacillus  of  pneumonia ;  (c)  Spirilla  or  thread-like  bacteria, 
as  of  relapsing  fever  in  man  and  the  comma-like  organisms 
of  cholera. 

In  recent  years,  as  the  result,  in  great  measure,  of  the 
search  for  pathogenic  bacteria,  and  aided  by  methods  of 
precision  devised  for  the  detection  of  bacteria  in  the  tissues 
and  for  their  cultivation  outside  the  body,  a  large  number 
of  pathogenic  protozoal  and  other  animal  organisms  have 
been  described,  their  history  and  the  methods  and  channels 
by  which  these  organisms  pass  through  various  phases  of 
development  in  various  hosts.  Following  Manson  and 
Ross's  work  on  the  intermediate  phases  of  development 
of  the  malaria  organism  of  man  in  certain  anopheline  hosts 
(mosquitoes)  came  Bruce's  observations  on  the  Nagana 
or  tsetse-fly  disease  of  Southern  Central  Africa,  by  which 
he  was  able  to  prove  that  the  trypanosome  associated 
with  this  condition  found  an  intermediate  host  in  the 
tsetse- fly  (Glossina  morsitans).  He  demonstrated  that 
the  tsetse-fly  might  carry  the  trypanosome  from  an  animal, 


BACTERIAL   INVASION  15 

the  buffalo,  that  appeared  to  be  immune  to  the  disease, 
to  other  species  intensely  susceptible  to  the  action  of  this 
organism,  the  horse  and  the  dog.  The  importance  of 
these  lower  mammals  as  reservoirs  or  harbourers  of  the 
parasite,  and  of  insects  as  vectors,  or  carriers,  was  thus 
made  clear.  Long  before  this,  William  Williams  of  Edin- 
burgh had  maintained  most  stoutly  that  ticks  were  in 
some  way  or  other  associated  with  the  transmission  of  the 
infective  material  of  Redwater  fever  from  one  bovine  to 
another,  an  opinion  he  later  translated  into  partial  demon- 
stration. This  opinion  has  now  been  confirmed  beyond 
doubt  by  numerous  observers.  Bruce,  applying  his  reser- 
voir theory  to  Malta  fever,  found  that  goats,  apparently 
healthy,  provided  a  continuous  supply  of  the  Micrococcus 
melitensis,  which,  distributed  through  milk,  infects  sus- 
ceptible human  beings.  Similarly,  the  rat  forms  a  '  reser- 
voir '  for  the  plague  bacillus,  this  organism,  moreover, 
being  carried  from  rat  to  rat  by  the  rat  flea,  and  thence 
even  to  the  human  subject  by  the  same  vector.  Following 
these  observations,  there  have  been  described  during  the 
last  ten  years  a  regular  swarm  of  protozoal,  blood  and  other 
parasites,  which  are  carried  principally  by  arthropods — 
insects,  ticks,  crustaceans — from  one  animal  to  another. 
In  certain  instances  the  carrier  seems  to  act  as  an  inter- 
mediate host,  some  phase  of  alternation  of  generation, 
usually  the  sexual  phase,  being  here  passed  through.  In 
connection  with  human  diseases  we  have  mosquitoes 
(Stegomyia  fasciata)  harbouring  and  carrying  the  in- 
fective material  of  yellow  fever.  Malaria  we  have  already 
mentioned.  Sleeping  sickness  appears  to  be  the  result  of 
infection  by  an  organism  very  like  that  of  Nagana,  but 
carried  to  the  human  subject  by  another  tsetse-fly,  the 
Olossina  palpalis.  Nuttall  points  out  that  many  of  the 
hsematozooal  parasites  belonging  to  the  genus  Piroplasma 
are  transmitted  by  ticks  ;  as  are  also  certain  relapsing  fevers 
of  the  fowl  and  the  human  subject.  Amongst  these  he 
mentions  the  Redwater  in  cattle,  transmitted  by  certain 
species  of  Boophilus,  of  Ixodes,  of  Rhipicephalus  ;  Rho- 
desian  fever  in  cattle,  Redwater  in  sheep,  malignant  jaundice 
in  dogs,  biliary  fever  in  horses,  spirochaetoses  in  cattle, 


16  BACTERIAL   INVASION 

in  man,  and  in  fowls,  and  Rocky  Mountain  spotted  fever 
in  man,  all  of  which  are  carried  by  similar  organisms,  and 
species  of  Argas  and  Ornithodoros. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  these  arthropod-borne  diseases 
are  coming  more  and  more  into  prominence,  especially  in 
connection  with  tropical  diseases,  and  Manson  goes  so  far 
as  to  say  that  in  parasite-ridden  Africa  bacterial  disease 
is  a  comparatively  negligible  quantity.  Again  it  has  been 
pointed  out  that  in  the  United  States  alone  the  annual 
loss  to  cattle  breeders  through  these  tick  diseases  is  already 
known  to  amount  to  more  than  eight  million  pounds  sterling. 
Other  blood-inhabiting  parasites,  such  as  spirochaetes  and 
organisms  of  the  piroplasmal  form,  are  all  carried  by  these 
arthropod  hosts.  The  spirochaetes  found  in  rats,  fowls, 
geese,  cattle,  sheep,  horse,  the  bat,  and  man,  appear  to  be 
transmitted  in  this  way,  as  do  also  the  piroplasmata  associ- 
ated with  Redwater  fever  in  cattle  and  sheep,  Texas  fever 
in  cattle,  Heart  water  fever,  malignant  jaundice  in  the  dog, 
biliary  fever  in  horses,  mules,  and  donkeys.  Monkeys  are 
also  affected  by  piroplasmosis,  transmitted  apparently  by 
similar  carriers.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  a  careful  study 
of  the  life-history,  not  only  of  the  parasites  themselves,  but 
of  the  arthropod  carriers  of  these  organisms,  will,  in  the 
near  future,  add  considerably  to  our  stock  of  knowledge 
of  the  diseases  both  of  animals  and  man.  No  account  of 
this  aspect  of  disease  in  animals  and  man  would  be  com- 
plete which  did  not  include  some  notice,  however  short, 
of  the  parasitic  amoebae.  At  one  time  it  was  supposed  that 
these  amoeboid  organisms  were  of  little  importance,  cer- 
tainly from  the  pathogenic  point  of  view.  It  is  now  being 
realised,  however,  that  these  simple  amoeboid  parasites 
have  a  much  wider  distribution  and  a  much  more  important 
role  in  the  production  of  disease  in  man  and  animals  than 
was  at  one  time  supposed.  These  amoebae,  first  brought 
into  prominence  in  connection  with  dysentery,  appear  to 
multiply  not  only  by  fission,  but  also  by  a  process  of  internal 
division  corresponding  closely  with  spore-formation.  Under 
certain  conditions,  they  assume  what  Geddes  calls  the  rest- 
ing or  cystic  stage.  Walker  (Jour.  Med.  Res.,  Boston, 
vol.  xvii.,  1907-8,  p.  379)  describes  no  fewer  than  eleven 


BACTERIAL   PRODUCTS  17 

animals,  in  addition  to  man,  from  which  he  has  been  able 
to  isolate  these  parasitic  amoebae,  cultivating  them  from 
the  contents  of  the  intestine  in  from  twenty-five  to  one 
hundred  per  cent,  of  the  animals  he  examined.  From  this 
he  gathers  that  these  parasites  must  have  a  wide,  if  not 
universal  distribution  amongst  vertebrates.  He  states  : 
*  Amoebae  were  found  in  the  intestinal  tract  of  every  species 
from  which  cultures  were  made,  from  amphibians  to  man.' 
In  certain  cases,  these  parasitic  amoebae  may  undoubtedly 
invade  the  tissues  of  their  hosts.  This  has  been  proved 
both  in  the  human  subject  and  in  the  pig.  In  the  former 
in  cases  of  tropical  abscess,  in  the  latter  in  hog  cholera 
(Theobald  Smith). 

Both  organic  and  organised  ferments,  in  breaking  up 
complex  and  vegetable  animal  bodies,  frequently  produce 
substances  of  great  activity.  The  emulsin — the  ferment 
of  bitter  almonds — gives  rise  to  a  hydrocyanated  oil.  The 
my  rosin  of  mustard  seed  develops  the  acrid  mustard  oil. 
The  protoplasm  of  particular  plants  produces  their  respective 
alkaloids,  some  of  which  are  active  poisons.  Certain  mush- 
rooms produce  the  poisonous  alkaloid  muscarine  ;  putrefy- 
ing yeast  yields  sepsin  ;  from  putrefied  maize  is  obtained 
an  extract  which  contains  one  substance  which  tetanises, 
and  another  which  narcotises.  Animal  bodies  invaded  by 
bacteria  undergo  decomposition,  and  the  bacterial  cells, 
according  to  their  kind,  elaborate  their  respective  alkaloids, 
some  of  which  are  poisonous.  Under  healthy  conditions 
they  are  excreted,  but  if  retained  they  are  injurious.  In  the 
healthy  muscles  of  living  animals,  after  active  exertion, 
there  are  found  alkaloids  allied  to  xanthin  and  creatin. 
During  digestion  of  fibrin  by  pepsin  an  alkaloid  is  formed. 
Bouchard  has  stated  that  the  alkaloids  formed  in  the 
intestines  of  a  healthy  man  in  twenty-four  hours  would 
suffice  to  kill  him  if  they  were  all  absorbed  and  excretion 
stopped. 

The  pathogenic,  like  the  putrefactive  bacteria,  when  they 
invade  the  bodies  of  higher  organisms,  act  as  ferments, 
cause  disintegration  of  living  tissues,  and  formation  of  alka- 
loidal  toxins,  and,  besides,  produce  globulins  or  albumoses, 
often  as  deadly  as  the  alkaloids.  Special  local  effects  are 

B 


18  BACTERIAL   PRODUCTS 

produced  by  the  action  of  these  poisons,  notably  congestion, 
inflammation,  and  necrosis  ;  but  the  soluble  poisons  carried 
in  the  blood-stream  further  develop  general  effects.  Thus, 
the  anthrax  bacilli  cause  local  oedema  and  pustule,  and 
further  lead  to  nervous  collapse.  The  diphtheria  bacillus 
causes  special  throat  lesions,  while  the  toxin  it  develops, 
circulating  widely,  impairs  the  functions  of  the  great  nerve- 
centres. 

In  all  these  reactions  between  toxins  and  the  tissues  or 
enzymes  and  the  tissues  or  the  complex  proteid  bodies  of 
the  tissues  we  appear  to  have  a  similar  uniformity  of  type 
of  action.  Whenever  an  animal  is  immunised  against  a 
bacterium,  against  blood  corpuscles,  against  a  serum  or 
against  enzymes  and  the  like,  an  c  antibody  '  is  formed 
which  possesses  the  peculiar  property  of  linking  itself  on 
to  the  substance  that  has  been  injected,  and  against  which 
the  organism  is  now  '  immunised.'  This  '  antibody  '  sub- 
stance, which  has  a  variety  of  names  but  which  we  will 
speak  of  as  the  immune  body,  may  be  produced  in  very 
large  quantities.  It  may,  however,  be  present  in  minute 
quantities  in  the  blood  of  animals  which  have  apparently 
not  been  subjected  to  any  special  treatment.  Such  an 
immune  body  is  spoken  of  as  being  '  stable,'  as  it  has  the 
power  of  resisting  a  comparatively  high  temperature  over 
a  prolonged  period.  This  stability,  however,  is  not  the  same 
in  all  cases.  In  the  blood  of  the  treated  or  infected  animal 
it  is  usually  associated  with  a  second  substance,  also  variously 
named,  to  which  we  will  apply  the  term  '  complement,' 
the  name  by  which  it  is  now  most  generally  known.  This 
complement  is  present  in  the  blood  of  all  animals,  though 
it  varies  in  character  in  different  species,  and,  so  far  as  we 
know,  is  not  dependent  upon  the  action  of  any  specific 
substance.  Without  the  presence  of  this  complement  the 
immune  body  appears  incapable  of  combining  with  the 
material  by  which  it  is  produced.  With  the  complement, 
however,  the  combination  readily  takes  place.  This  can 
be  proved  very  easily,  for  it  has  been  found  that  the  comple- 
ment is  what  is  called  a  '  labile  '  substance,  i.e.  it  is  easily 
and  rapidly  destroyed  at  a  temperature  of  60°  C.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  the  amount  of  this  complement  is  not 


BACTERIAL   PRODUCTS  19 

increased  during  the  process  of  immunisation.  Advantage 
has  been  taken  of  the  fact  of  this  difference  of  stability 
between  these  two  substances  to  analyse  the  action  of  both 
bodies.  For  example,  if  the  blood  serum  of  an  animal 
immunised  against  the  red  blood  corpuscles  of  another 
animal  be  mixed  with  a  suspension  of  these  same  red 
blood  corpuscles  in  normal  saline  solution,  it  will  be  found 
that,  owing  to  the  combination  of  this  serum  with  the  red 
blood  corpuscles,  they  are  broken  down,  and  the  haemo- 
globin is  set  free  into  the  serum. 

If,  now,  the  serum  of  the  immune  animal  be  heated  to 
55°  C.  for  half  an  hour,  and  then  be  added  to  the  red  blood 
corpuscles,  they  are  not  dissolved,  and  no  haemoglobin  is 
liberated.  If,  however,  a  few  drops  of  fresh  serum  be  added, 
the  breaking  down  takes  place  immediately.  The  heated 
serum  contains  the  immune  body,  but  the  complement  has 
been  destroyed.  Along  with  the  fresh  serum,  however, 
complement  is  added,  and  the  immune  body,  linking  the 
complement  on  to  the  substance  of  the  red  corpuscle,  brings 
about  the  breaking  down  of  the  corpuscle.  Without  the 
complement,  which  is  the  real  attacking  body,  the  corpuscle 
remains  intact,  just  as  it  does  when  there  is  no  immune 
body  by  wrhich  the  attacking  complement  may  be  linked 
on  or  brought  into  direct  relation  with  the  corpuscle. 

In  relation  to  the  prevention  and  cure  of  the  diseases 
depending  upon  bacteria,  it  must  be  noted  that  these  patho- 
genic organisms  have  their  activity  retarded  or  destroyed  by 
exposure  to  high  temperatures,  by  the  action  of  chemical 
solutions,  by  being  reproduced  for  several  generations  in  the 
bodies  of  certain  animals,  and  in  other  ways.  Antkrax  virus 
is  thus  attenuated  by  heat ;  rabies  virus  by  being  grown  in 
the  bodies  of  rabbits.  These  attenuated  viruses  are  used  as 
protective  vaccines.  The  vaccines  of  anthrax  and  rabies,  as 
well  as  those  of  black- quarter,  swine  erysipelas,  and  fowl 
cholera,  when  injected  into  the  bodies  of  animals  liable  to 
these  disorders,  render  the  vaccinated  subjects  immune. 
This  is  demonstrated  by  the  animals  operated  upon  suffering 
no  harm  when  subsequently  inoculated  with  doses  of  the 
unattenuated  bacterium  or  its  products,  which  would 
destroy  unprotected  animals. 


20  ANAPHYLAXIS 

Vaccines  exerting  a  curative  as  well  as  preventive  effect 
may  also  be  obtainable.  This  is  a  justifiable  expectation, 
for  human  patients  who  have  been  exposed  to  the  contagium 
of  smallpox,  if  promptly  vaccinated  with  cow-pox  lymph, 
have  the  smallpox  attack  favourably  modified.  Perhaps 
still  more  to  the  point  are  Pasteur's  experiments  with  rabies. 
He  inoculated  dogs  and  rabbits  with  lethal  doses  of  rabies 
virus,  and  thereafter  with  repeated  doses  of  vaccine.  No 
serious  results  followed,  although  control  animals  inoculated 
with  rabies  virus,  but  not  with  the  vaccine,  died. 

The  general  method  of  fighting  these  pathogenic  bacteria 
at  present  at  our  command  consists  in  strict  isolation  of 
animals  affected  by  such  specific  diseases,  and  fully  recognis- 
ing and  acting  on  the  fact  that  infected  subjects  and  their 
discharges  are  apt  to  distribute  the  virus.  Remedial 
measures  must  be  adopted  early — if  possible,  before  tha 
bacteria  have  multiplied,  and  before  the  toxins  are  pro- 
duced. In  such  cases  as  rabies,  which  have  a  long  incuba- 
tion stage,  there  will  be  time  for  the  protective  operation 
of  vaccines,  which  appear  to  confer  on  the  tissues  a  tolerance 
of  the  bacteria,  and  enable  them  successfully  to  cope  with 
the  intruders  and  their  products.  Every  endeavour  must 
be  made  to  maintain  in  its  fullest  vigour  both  the  part 
primarily  attacked  and  the  system  generally,  with  the  view 
that  the  healthy  tissues  may,  if  practicable,  destroy  the 
parasites  and  their  products.  The  excreting  channels, 
moreover,  will  be  maintained  in  healthy  action,  in  order 
that  waste  and  diseased  materials,  as  well  as  the  organisms 
themselves,  may  be  removed.  Disinfectants  will  continue 
to  be  used  so  that  the  bacteria  and  their  spores  shall  be 
destroyed,  and  the  spread  of  the  disease  prevented. 

Anaphylaxis.  When  the  serum  of  a  horse  is  injected 
into  a  rabbit,  a  specific  antiserum  body  similar  to  a  specific 
antitoxin  is  produced  by  the  tissues  of  the  rabbit,  and  we 
may  say  that  an  antibody  has  been  formed.  During  the 
period  that  this  process  is  going  on,  however,  the  rabbit 
appears  to  become,  during  one  phase  (the  negative  phase 
of  Wright  and  others),  very  much  more  susceptible  to  the 
action  of  the  horse  serum.  Indeed,  the  horse  serum  appears 
to  become  intensely  toxic.  There  has  been  no  change  in 


CLASSIFICATIONS    OF   MEDICINES  21 

this  horse  serum  itself,  but  there  has  been  a  change  in  the 
infected  animal ;  it  has  become  hypersensitive  to  some 
substance  or  substances  (probably  enzymes)  contained  in 
that  serum. 

Attention  was  first  drawn  to  this  by  Behring,  who  found 
that  during  the  process  of  the  production  of  antitoxin  cer- 
tain animals,  instead  of  becoming  more  resistant  to  its 
action,  became  much  less  resistant.  This  anaphylaxis  or 
hypersusceptibility  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  connection 
with  the  treatment  of  diphtheria  or  tetanus,  and  as  large 
a  dose  as  possible  of  the  antitoxin  should  be  given  at  once, 
so  that  a  second  dose  may  not  be  necessary,  as  it  is  quite 
possible  that  this  phase  of  anaphylaxis  may  come  to  play 
an  important  part  in  the  condition  of  the  patient  where 
antitoxic  serum  is  given  by  repeated  injections. 

CLASSIFICATIONS   OF  MEDICINES 

Medicines  are  drawn  from  the  three  great  natural  king- 
doms, and  are  characterised  by  various  physical  and  chemi- 
cal properties  :  but  these  characters  do  not  afford  suffi- 
ciently accurate  or  definite  indications  of  the  actions  of 
drugs  on  living  bodies,  and  hence  are  not  of  much  service 
in  practical  classifications.  The  atomic  weights  of  inorganic 
elements  are  of  little  or  no  value  in  determining  on  what 
organs  or  in  what  way  inorganic  elements  and  their  com- 
pounds act  as  medicines.  The  soluble  salts  of  the  heavy 
metals  are  certainly  generally  active  poisons,  though  neither 
similar  chemical  composition  nor  similar  chemical  reaction 
necessarily  confers  similar  physiological  effects.  Sub- 
stances which  crystallise  in  the  same  form  have,  however, 
somewhat  similar  actions,  and  on  this  isomorphous  basis  the 
elements  have  been  arranged  into  nine  groups,  in  each  of 
which  it  is  noted  that  the  intensity  of  action  increases  with 
the  atomic  weight  (Sir  Lauder  Brunton).  The  same  base, 
united  with  different  acids,  produces  salts  which  exhibit 
very  different  actions,  as  illustrated  in  the  several  com- 
pounds of  sodium  and  potassium.  Equally  diverse  physio- 
logical effects  are  produced  by  compounds  resulting  from 
conjoining  the  same  acid  with  different  bases.  Such  irritant 


22  CLASSIFICATIONS    OF  MEDICINES 

corrosive  substances  as  caustic  soda  and  sulphuric  acid, 
entering  into  chemical  combination,  produce  a  neutral,  com- 
paratively mild  saline.  Organic,  like  inorganic  bases,  are 
notably  modified  by  the  acid  radicles  with  which  they 
unite.  Thus,  amyl-hydride  is  an  anaesthetic  ;  when  oxygen 
is  introduced,  as  in  amyl-alcohol,  or  amyl-acetate,  spasm  is 
added  to  the  anaesthesia  ;  amyl-iodide  notably  increases 
secretion,  while  amyl-nitrite  lessens  arterial  pressure.  It 
is  hence  evident  that  the  action  of  a  compound  medicine 
cannot  be  inferred  from  a  knowledge  of  the  action  of  the 
substances  that  combine  to  form  it.  On  the  contrary,  a 
compound  substance  exerts  special  actions  of  its  own,  these 
depending  on  the  proportion  of  its  components,  and  upon 
its  own  physical  qualities. 

Very  important  investigations  have  been  made  by 
Crum  Brown,  Fraser,  Schroff  and  Jolyet,  in  artificially 
modifying  the  chemical  constitution,  and  thus  changing  the 
physiological  actions  of  drugs.  When  strychnine,  brucine 
and  thebaine,  which  act  upon  the  spinal  cord  as  powerful 
convulsants,  are  converted  by  addition  of  methyl  into 
methyl-strychnine,  methyl-brucine  and  methyl-thebaine, 
they  act  upon  the  ends  of  motor  nerves  as  paralysants. 
Indeed,  methyl,  when  combined  with  other  alkaloids,  as 
quinine,  morphine,  atropine  and  codeine,  renders  these  also 
powerful  paralysers  of  motor  nerves. 

The  study  of  the  natural  orders  of  plants  affords  some 
general  information  as  to  their  physiological  actions.  Thus, 
the  Ranunculaceee  furnish  many  acrid  irritants,  such  as 
aconite,  podophyllum  and  stavesacre.  The  Solanaceae  yield 
narcotics,  such  as  tobacco  and  dulcamara  ;  while  the  sub- 
order, Atropacese,  are  paralysers  of  nerve  terminals.  The 
seeds  of  many  Umbelliferse  yield  carminative  volatile  oils. 
These  general  botanical  characters  do  not,  however,  afford 
sufficient  data  for  the  accurate  classification  of  drugs. 
Edible  as  well  as  poisonous  plants  occur  in  many  natural 
orders.  Plants  of  different  orders  and  genera  sometimes 
closely  resemble  each  other,  while  plants  of  the  same  genus 
may  have  very  different  properties.  Thus,  one  species  of 
Strychnos  yields  strychnine,  which  stimulates  the  motor 
centres  of  the  spinal  cord,  inducing  tetanic  convulsions, 


ACTIONS    OF   MEDICINES  23 

while  another  yields  curare,  which  paralyses  the  peripheral 
endings  of  motor  nerves.  But  even  the  same  drug  some- 
times yields  antagonistic  active  principles.  From  opium 
are  obtained  the  soothing  anodyne  morphine,  the  convulsant 
thebaine,  and  the  emetic  apomorphine.  Calabar  bean 
yields  eserine  which  depresses,  and  calabarine  which  stimu- 
lates the  spinal  cord.  Jaborandi  yields  pilocarpine  and  its 
antagonist  jaborine,  the  former  stimulating,  and  the  latter 
paralysing  the  ends  of  secretory  nerves. 

The  grouping  of  medicines  according  to  their  actions  has 
not  hitherto  been  of  much  more  practical  value  than  their 
chemical  or  botanical  classification.  The  precise  actions  of 
many  medicines  are  only  now  becoming  definitely  known. 
Many,  moreover,  have  a  variety  of  actions,  and  hence  have 
to  be  included  in  several  groups.  Alcohol,  for  example,  is 
stimulant,  irritant,  narcotic,  and  sedative,  as  well  as  nutrient, 
antiseptic,  and  antipyretic.  Opium  is  narcotic,  anodyne, 
and  hypnotic  ;  but  it  also  stimulates  certain  patients,  and 
tetanises  others. 

Disregarding  the  classifications  hitherto  adopted,  students 
and  practitioners  will  find  it  advantageous  to  study  the 
actions  of  medicines  upon  the  chief  organs  and  functions  of 
the  body  :— 

Actions  of  Medicinal  Agents. 

I.  Local  and  general  actions  :   absorption  and  distribu- 
tion. 
II.  Elective  affinity  between  drugs  and  particular  tissues 

or  cells  :   elimination. 

III.  Effects  on  different  classes  of  patients. 
IV.  Modifying  influences  of  Climate  and  Temperature, 
Habit,  Idiosyncrasy,  Disease,  and  Surroundings, 
etc. 

Curative  Systems  :  Allopathy,  Homoeopathy. 

On  Protoplasm,  Blood,  and  Bacteria. 

Antiseptics  :    Disinfectants  :    Germicides  :    Deodorisers  : 
Antiperiodics. 


24  ACTIONS    OF   MEDICINES 

On  the  Surface  of  the  Body. 

Counter-irritants  :  Rubefacients  :  Vesicants  :  Pustulants  : 

Caustics. 

Setons  :  The  Actual  Cautery  : 
Astringents  :   Styptics  : 
Demulcents  :   Emollients  :   Diluents. 

On  Muscles. 

Muscular  Stimulants  :  Muscular  Poisons. 

On  the  Nervous  System. 

The  Brain.     Cerebral  Stimulants  :  Exhilarants. 
Cerebral  Depressants  :  Soporifics  :  Narcotics  :  Anodynes  : 

Antispasmodics  :   Anaesthetics. 

The  Spinal  Cord.     Spinal  Stimulants  and  Depressants. 
Motor  Nerves.     Stimulants  :  Paralysers. 
Sensory  Nerves.     Stimulants :    Local  Sedatives :    Local 

Anaesthetics. 

On  the  Eye  and  other  Special  Senses. 

Mydriatics  dilate  the  Pupil. 
Myotics  contract  the  Pupil. 

On  the  Respiratory  Organs. 

Errhines  or  Sternutatories  :   Respiratory  Sedatives  :   Ex- 
pectorants :  Disinfectants. 

On  the  Circulatory  Organs. 

Cardiac  Stimulants  :  Vaso  Dilators  : 

„       Tonics  :  „     Constrictors. 

„       Sedatives : 

On  the  Digestive  System. 
The  Salivary  Glands  and  Fauces.    Sialagogues  :    Anti- 

sialics  :   Refrigerants. 

The  Stomach.     Gastric  Tonics  :   Stomachics  :   Antacids  : 
Emetics  :  Anti-emetics  :  Gastric  Sedatives. 

The  Intestines.     Purgatives  :     Carminatives :     Intestinal 

Astringents  :    Antiseptics. 

The  Liver.     Direct  Cholagogues  :   Indirect  Cholagogues. 
Worms.     Athelmintics  :   Vermicides  :   Vermifuges. 


ACTIONS    OF   MEDICINES  25 

On  the  Skin. 

Diaphoretics  :   Sudorifics  :   Anhydrotics  :   Parasiticides. 

On  the  Urinary  Organs. 
The  Kidneys  :  Diuretics. 

The  Bladder  :  Lithontriptics  :  Astringents  :  Disinfectants  : 
Sedatives  :  Tonics. 

On  the  Organs  of  Generation. 

Aphrodisiacs  :  Anaphrodisiacs  . 

Ecbolics  : 

Agents  acting  on  the  Mammary  Glands. 

On  Tissue  Change  and  Temperature. 

Restoratives  :  Tonics  :  Haematinics  :  Alteratives  : 

Febrifuges  :  Antipyretics. 

Blood-letting. 

Poisons  and  Antidotes. 


THE  ACTIONS  OP  MEDICINES 

LOCAL  AND  GENERAL  ACTIONS — ABSORPTION — ELECTIVE 
AFFINITY  BETWEEN  DRUGS  AND  PARTICULAR  TISSUES 
OR  CELLS — EFFECTS  ON  DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  PATIENTS 
— MODIFYING  INFLUENCES  OF  CLIMATE  AND  TEMPERA- 
TURE, HABIT,  IDIOSYNCRASY,  DISEASE,  SURROUNDINGS, 
ETC. 

I.  Every  medicine  is  possessed  of  certain  effects  or  actions 
on  living  animals,  as  distinctive  as  its  colour,  taste,  or 
chemical  properties.  Such  actions,  when  exerted  in  health, 
are  termed  physiological  actions ;  when  exerted  in  the 
treatment  of  disease  they  are  termed  therapeutic  or  curative 
actions.  These  actions  cannot,  however,  be  regarded  as 
twofold  or  distinct,  for  the  physiological  action  determines 
and  is  merged  in  the  curative  results.  A  horse  eats  some 
indigestible  food,  and  in  consequence  suffers  from  spasm  of 
the  bowels,  for  which  a  dose  of  purgative  medicine  may  be 
prescribed.  The  purgative  exerts  its  physiological  action  by 


26      PHYSIOLOGICAL   AND    THERAPEUTIC    ACTIONS 

increasing  intestinal  secretion  and  peristalsis  ;  the  irritant  is 
thus  swept  away,  and  spasm  and  pain  are  removed.  A  dose 
of  physic  prescribed  for  a  horse  with  itching  and  swollen 
legs  produces  the  physiological  effects  of  emptying  the 
bowels,  and  clearing  the  body  of  irritant  waste  matters  with 
the  curative  result  of  relieving  or  removing  the  itching  and 
swelling  of  the  limbs.  Hunting  horses  frequently,  after  a 
hard  day,  have  stiff  limbs,  with  puffy  joints  and  tendons  ; 
diligent  hand-rubbing  and  subsequent  bandaging  mechani- 
cally and  physiologically  stimulate  the  activity  of  the  local 
circulation,  with  the  therapeutic  effect  of  restoring  the  parts 
to  their  normal  state.  All  the  physiological  actions  pro- 
duced by  medicines  may  not  be  favourable  to  the  curative 
result  desired,  but  subsidiary,  useless,  or  harmful  effects  may 
be  diminished  or  neutralised  by  judicious  selection  and 
combination  of  remedies.  Some  medicines  are  chiefly  local 
and  direct  in  their  action.  A  strong  acid  applied  to  the 
skin  irritates  and,  it  may  be,  destroys  it.  A  hot  fomentation 
or  poultice  in  contact  with  a  painful  surface  soothes  it,  and 
relieves  local  congestion  and  pain.  The  primary  action  of 
local  irritants  is  frequently  followed  by  secondary  and 
remote  effects.  In  sore  throat  the  application  of  a  blister 
directly  irritates  and  inflames  the  skin,  and  reflexly,  or 
through  the  nervous  system,  it  relieves  congestion  and  pain 
of  the  respiratory  membrane.  In  horses  a  large  cantharides 
blister,  used  for  its  local  effect,  may,  owing  to  absorption 
of  the  active  principle  of  the  fly,  occasionally  produce 
febrile  symptoms,  and  congestion  of  the  urinary  passages 
by  which  the  irritant  is  excreted. 

The  general  effects  of  most  medicines  are  only  produced 
when  they  enter  the  blood,  and  the  more  rapidly  a  medicine 
enters  the  circulation  the  more  immediate  and  powerful  are 
its  effects.  The  short  time  required  for  absorption,  distribu- 
tion, action  and  elimination  is  well  illustrated  in  the  rapidly 
fatal  effects  of  such  poisons  as  prussic  acid  and  strychnine. 
Yellow  prussiate  of  potash  injected  into  the  trachea  was 
detected  two  minutes  later  in  the  jugular  vein  (Colin)  ; 
injected  into  one  of  the  jugular  veins  of  a  horse  it  appeared 
in  the  other  in  twenty-five  seconds,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
was  exhaled  from  the  mucous  and  serous  membranes 


ABSORPTION   AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF   MEDICINES     27 

(Hering).  Barium  chloride  traversed  the  circulation  of  a 
horse  in  twenty  seconds,  and  injected  into  the  jugular  vein  of 
a  dog  it  reached  the  carotid  artery  in  seven  seconds.  When 
the  foot  of  an  Albino  rat  was  immersed  for  a  few  seconds  in 
chloroform  containing  one  per  cent,  of  atropine,  absorption 
occurred,  and  dilatation  of  the  pupils  followed  in  from  two 
to  five  minutes  (Waller). 

Medicines  may  be  administered  by  injection  into  the  sub- 
cutaneous areolar  tissue,  the  trachea,  veins,  glands,  muscles, 
rectum,  uterus,  udder,  and  large  serous  cavities  ;  but  the 
most  frequent  and  generally  the  most  convenient  mode  of 
administration  is  by  the  mouth,  whence,  speedily  reaching 
the  stomach  and  small  intestine,  medicines  are  absorbed  and 
enter  the  circulation.  Administered  in  a  tolerably  con- 
centrated but  soluble  form  medicines  do  not  generally 
require  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  ferment-containing  secre- 
tions of  the  digestive  canal ;  but  the  digestion  of  mashes 
and  many  restorative  foods  is  promoted  by  the  alkaline 
saliva,  which  also  favours  the  hydration  and  solution  ot 
some  drugs.  The  acid,  pepsin-containing,  gastric  juice 
dissolves  proteids,  as  well  as  iron,  mercurial  and  other  salts. 
The  alkaline  bile  emulsifies  fats  and  resins,  and  activates 
some  agents,  such  as  aloes  ;  the  pancreatic  fluid  furthers 
digestion  of  starch,  albumin  and  fats  ;  and  specially  refrac- 
tory substances  are  more  thoroughly  reduced  by  the  alkaline 
intestinal  juices.  Medicines  taken  up  by  the  vessels  of  the 
gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane  are  conveyed  to  the 
liver  where  they  may  be  stored  up,  detained  for  a  time, 
neutralised  or  modified,  eliminated  in  the  bile,  or  passed 
unchanged  into  the  general  circulation. 

Absorption  by  the  healthy  buccal  membrane  is  possible, 
but,  excepting  the  most  volatile  agents,  such  as  prussic  acid, 
medicines  introduced  into  the  mouth  are  either  quickly 
swallowed  or  rejected,  and  consequently  contact  with  its 
thick  epithelium  is  too  brief  to  permit  of  penetration. 
Gastric  absorption  varies  with  the  species,  the  age  of  the 
animal,  and  the  state  of  the  stomach  as  regards  contents, 
digestive  phenomena,  and  freedom  from  disease.  Very 
active  in  dogs  and  pigs,  gastric  absorption  in  cattle  and  sheep 
occurs  only  in  the  abomasum.  In  horses,  absorption  by 


28  ABSORPTION   BY   THE    DIGESTIVE   TRACT 

the  stomach  has  been  doubted  or  denied  since  Bouley  and 
Colin  published  the  results  of  their  experiments  with  strych- 
nine. Bouley,  after  dividing  the  pneumogastric  nerves, 
administered  lethal  doses  of  strychnine  without  injurious 
effect.  Colin  found  that  after  tying  the  pylorus,  large  doses 
of  strychnine  introduced  into  the  stomach  did  not  poison  ; 
but  later  experiments  seem  to  prove  that  poisoning  does 
not  occur  when  after  an  interval  the  ligature  is  removed, 
and  the  contents  of  the  stomach  are  allowed  to  pass  into 
the  bowel.  Schiff  considers  that  absorption  of  the  strych- 
nine is  sufficiently  gradual  to  allow  of  its  being  proportion- 
ately eliminated  in  the  urine,  and  that  the  drug  does  not 
accumulate  in  the  blood  in  sufficient  quantity  to  cause 
poisoning. 

In  certain  animals  (dog,  pig,  ox,  sheep)  the  empty 
stomach  is  supposed  to  absorb  more  rapidly  than  the 
stomach  filled  with  food  :  but  the  empty  stomach  is  less 
vascular,  and  its  corrugated  lining  is  protected  by  a  thick 
mucus,  which  probably  retards  absorption.  Medicines 
given  on  a  full  stomach  or  mixed  with  the  food  are  exposed 
to  attenuation  and  the  action  of  the  secretions  formed  in 
the  digesting  stomach,  and,  if  unstable,  they  may  undergo 
rapid  alteration,  and  fail  to  produce  general  effects.  Medi- 
cines intended  to  act  directly  on  the  stomach  should  be 
given  to  the  animal  fasting,  and  nutrients  should  be  given 
with  the  food  or  soon  after  feeding.  In  gastric  impaction 
medicine  given  by  the  mouth  seldom  acts  with  the  desired 
rapidity.  It  mixes  with  the  ingesta,  but  owing  to  the 
movements  of  the  stomach  being  either  diminished  or  sus- 
pended, the  food  does  not  pass  into  the  intestine,  or  the 
drug  does  not  reach  the  absorbent  surface  in  sufficient 
quantity,  and  in  consequence  its  action  is  delayed. 

Absorption  by  the  small  intestine  in  all  the  domestic 
animals  is  very  active.  A  strychnine  salt  injected  into  the 
duodenum  produces  its  effects  in  three  or  four  minutes,  and 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium  similarly  used  may  be  found  in 
the  blood  in  five  to  six  minutes  (Kaufmann).  The  caecum 
and  large  colon  absorb  rapidly,  and  in  cases  of  tympany 
treated  by  puncture  advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  canula 
to  introduce  medicines  directly  into  the  intestine.  The 


ABSORPTION    BY   THE   RESPIRATORY   TRACT        29 

rectum  and  floating  colon  rapidly  absorb  soluble  medicines 
and  nutrients  introduced  by  the  anus  ;  and  in  gastric  disease 
rectal  injection  is  often  preferable  to  administration  by  the 
mouth.  Anaesthesia  may  be  induced  by  chloral  or  ether 
thrown  into  the  rectum,  but  this  method  is  unsatisfactory. 
To  ensure  speedy  absorption,  and  to  prevent  ejection  of 
medicines  introduced  through  the  anus,  the  solution  should 
be  warm  and  concentrated  to  a  few  ounces.  Larger  quan- 
tities will  be  retained  and  absorbed,  but  the  injection  should 
not  be  bulky  if  immediate  effects  are  desired. 

The  respiratory  tract  furnishes  probably  the  most  actively 
absorbent  mucous  surface  in  the  body.  Long  used  for 
anaesthetic  inhalations,  it  is  occasionally  employed  for  the 
administration  of  remedies  in  cases  of  purpura  hsemorrhagica 
and  parasitic  bronchitis.  Soluble  drugs,  introduced  by  in- 
sufflation, are  absorbed  by  the  nasal  lining,  and  medicines 
in  aqueous  or  alcoholic  solution,  not  too  concentrated,  are 
well  borne  and  very  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  tracheal, 
bronchial,  and  pulmonary  mucous  membranes.  Drugs 
dissolved  or  suspended  in  oil  are  less  tolerated,  although 
Levi,  the  chief  authority  on  intratracheal  administration, 
maintains  that  small  injections  of  oil  are  absorbed.  Emul- 
sions, however,  are  safer,  so  long  as  the  quantity  is  small 
and  injection  is  made  slowly.  Intratracheal  injections  are 
especially  risky  in  bronchitis  and  pneumonia.  Beyond  a 
slight  gain  in  time,  intratracheal  injection  has  no  advan- 
tage over  hypodermic  administration,  except  in  cases  where 
direct  or  local  action  is  required  (Guinard). 

Although  seldom  employed  in  practice  for  the  administra- 
tion of  medicines,  the  female  generative  tract — the  uterus, 
especially  after  parturition,  absorbs  very  rapidly.  Potassium 
iodide  has  been  found  in  the  urine  in  from  two  to  four 
minutes  after  injection  into  the  womb.  The  healthy  vagina 
absorbs  very  slowly,  but  when  congested  its  absorbent  power 
is  much  increased.  Absorption  from  the  lining  of  the  galac- 
tophorous  sinus  of  the  cow's  udder  is  fairly  active.  The 
absorbent  power  of  the  conjunctiva  is  well  known.  Cocaine 
appears  to  promote  conjunctival  absorption  of  solutions  of 
atropine,  eserine,  and  strychnine,  and  of  other  drugs. 

The  peritoneum,  pleura,  and  the  synovial  membranes  of 


30  ABSORPTION    BY   THE    SKIN 

joints  and  tendons  absorb  very  rapidly.  Potassium  prussiate 
injected  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  was  found  six  minutes 
later  in  the  urine  ;  and  strychnine  similarly  used  caused 
death  in  less  than  four  minutes.  Anaesthesia  can  be  readily 
induced  in  dogs  by  intra-peritoneal  injection  of  chloral  and 
morphine. 

Drugs,  even  when  volatile,  pass  very  slowly  and  im- 
perfectly through  the  unbroken  skin,  except  when  applied 
with  the  assistance  of  an  electric  current  (cataphoresis  and 
dielectrolysis),  but  absorption  readily  occurs  from  open 
wounds  and  abraded  skin  surfaces.  Clean-cut  fresh  wounds, 
free  from  bleeding,  absorb  more  rapidly  than  wounds  which 
are  irregular,  bruised,  or  bleeding.  Absorption  by  granula- 
tion tissue  is  less  active,  though  occasionally  undesirable 
effects  follow  the  careless  application  of  toxic  antiseptics  to 
wounds  in  process  of  healing.  Drugs  incorporated  with  oil, 
lard,  or  lanoline,  penetrate  the  skin  more  readily  than  do 
ointments  made  with  vaseline.  Absorption  of  aqueous 
solutions  is  hindered  or  prevented  by  the  sebaceous  matter, 
but  salts  which  are  dissolved  by  the  secretion  of  the  skin 
may  produce  general  effects.  Experiments  prove  that 
agents  which  are  soluble  in  sebaceous  matter,  or  which 
emit  during  their  application  vapour  or  gas,  as  guaiacol, 
alcohol,  benzine,  potassium  iodide,  mercurials,  carbolic  acid, 
etc.,  pass  more  or  less  rapidly  through  the  skin.  But  the 
intact  epidermis  of  the  horse,  ox,  and  dog,  offers  considerable 
resistance  to  penetration  ;  and  in  practice,  lotions,  liniments, 
or  ointments  carefully  used  seldom  endanger  life.  Slow 
absorption  may  occur,  but  owing  to  more  rapid  elimination 
the  drug  does  not  accumulate  in  sufficient  quantity  to  excite 
toxic  symptoms.  The  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue  absorbs 
nearly  as  rapidly  as  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane. 
Hypodermic  injections,  properly  prepared,  are  promptly 
taken  up  unchanged  by  the  blood-vessels  and  lymphatics. 

II.  Between  certain  organs,  tissues,  or  groups  of  cells,  and 
certain  medicines,  there  appears  to  be  a  special  elective 
affinity.  A  medicine  absorbed  and  in  circulation,  owing  to 
its  chemical  affinity,  becomes  arrested  in  contact  with  cer- 
tain cell  groups,  where  it  fixes  itself  and  tends  to  replace 
some  of  the  normal  nutritive  elements.  From  the  common 


SPECIAL   AFFINITY   FOR   PARTICULAR   ORGANS      31 

stream  of  blood  each  tissue  takes  up  its  appropriate  nutrient 
materials,  and,  in  like  manner,  it  appears  to  select  its  own 
medicines.  The  characteristic  effects  are  not  developed 
until  medicines  come  into  actual  contact  with  the  special 
organs,  or,  it  may  be,  the  particular  cells,  on  which  alone 
they  operate.  Curare  does  not  exert  its  paralysing  power 
until  it  reaches  the  intramuscular  endings  of  the  motor 
nerves.  Magendie  found  that  strychnine  does  not  excite  its 
notable  tetanic  convulsions  until  it  is  in  contact  with  the 
spinal  cord.  Indeed,  when  a  frog  or  other  small  animal, 
immediately  after  receiving  a  full  dose  of  strychnine,  has 
the  spinal  cord  removed  or  destroyed  from  above  downwards, 
tetanic  symptoms  are  prevented  in  the  same  order. 

On  the  particular  part  on  which  they  act — as,  for  example, 
on  the  nerve-centres  or  nerve-endings  that  control  blood- 
vessels or  glandular  secretions — some  medicines  exert 
stimulant,  others  depressant  or  paralysing  effects.  These 
effects,  as  already  indicated  in  the  case  of  drugs  acting 
locally,  frequently  produce  reflexly  indirect  or  remote 
effects.  The  same  medicine  sometimes  acts  differently 
when  given  in  different  doses.  Thus,  alcohol  and  ether 
in  small  doses  are  stimulants,  but  in  large  doses  are 
depressants. 

Within  the  living  body  most  medicines  not  only  effect 
changes,  but  themselves  coincidently  undergo  changes, 
notably  of  oxidation  or  deoxidation.  Thus,  many  salts  of 
tartaric,  acetic,  and  other  organic  acids  are  converted  into 
carbonates.  Morphine  has  its  chemical  constitution  altered, 
and  in  an  animal  habituated  to  its  use,  it  is  all  broken  down 
by  the  tissues  so  that  none  is  excreted,  and  none  can  be 
found  by  analysis  on  post-mortem.  It  has,  in  fact,  been 
destroyed.  The  activity  of  medicines  depends  materially 
on  their  solubility,  the  rapidity  of  their  absorption,  and  the 
period  during  which  they  remain  within  the  body — in  other 
words,  on  the  speed  of  their  excretion.  Some  drugs,  as  lead, 
mercury,  silver,  and  digitalis,  are  apt  to  be  retained  for  a 
considerable  period,  and  hence  have  more  or  less  continuous 
or  cumulative  effect.  Unusual  activity  of  such  excreting 
channels  as  the  bowels  or  kidneys  hurries  most  medicines 
out  of  the  body,  and  hence  diminishes  their  action. 


32      ACTION   DIFFERENT    ON   DIFFERENT   ANIMALS 

In  a  variable  but  usually  short  period,  medicines,  generally 
in  a  modified  form,  are  eliminated  by  the  bowels,  kidneys, 
skin,  salivary  and  mammary  glands,  or  pulmonary  mucous 
membrane.  Digitalis,  for  example,  after  exerting  its  action 
mainly  on  the  heart  and  arterioles,  is  removed  by  the  kid- 
neys. Alcohol  and  its  analogues  are  got  rid  of  by  the  skin 
and  kidneys,  and  also  pass  away  through  the  respiratory 
mucous  membrane.  During  their  excretion  medicines  exert 
their  in-contact  effects  on  the  excretory  organ  and  passages. 
Thus,  aloes  and  neutral  salts,  after  stimulating  the  secretion 
and  movements  of  the  bowels,  are  in  part  absorbed  into 
the  blood,  and  thence  are  returned  into  the  bowels,  causing 
further  purgation.  Nitre,  and  small  doses  of  salines  and 
ethers,  chiefly  removed  through  the  kidneys,  produce 
diuresis.  Terebene  and  various  balsams  during  their  ex- 
cretion by  the  pulmonary  membrane  or  urinary  passages 
exert  their  antiseptic  properties. 

III.  The  several  species  of  veterinary  patients  are  differ- 
ently affected  by  many  medicines.  These  differences,  how- 
ever, are  in  degree  rather  than  in  kind,  and  depend  upon 
differences  in  organisation  and  function.  On  the  circu- 
latory, respiratory,  and  urinary  systems,  which  nearly 
resemble  each  other  in  man  and  the  domestic  animals, 
medicines  act  tolerably  uniformly.  Thus,  aconite,  digitalis, 
and  nitre,  produce  very  similar  effects  in  men,  horses,  dogs, 
and  cattle.  Greater  diversity,  however,  occurs  in  regard  to 
medicines  acting  on  the  nervous,  digestive,  and  cutaneous 
systems,  which  differ  considerably  in  the  several  species  of 
animals.  Rabbits  and  monkeys  seem  to  possess  a  special 
resistance  to  the  action  of  atropine.  Apomorphine,  which 
promptly  causes  vomiting  in  dogs,  has  no  emetic  action  on 
the  pig  (Feser).  Morphine  is  an  excellent  hypnotic  for  the 
dog  ;  but  in  the  cat  and  pig  it  causes  excitement  and  con- 
vulsions. 

The  more  highly  any  organ  or  system  of  organs  is  developed 
the  more  susceptible  does  it  become  to  the  action  of  medi- 
cines, and,  it  may  be  added,  to  diseases  also.  This  general 
law  explains  why  the  highly-developed  human  brain  is 
specially  susceptible  to  the  effects  of  such  cerebral  medi- 
cines as  opium  and  chloral,  and  why  frogs,  whose  spinal 


SPECIAL   ACTIONS   ON   HORSES  33 

system  is  better  developed  than  their  brain,  are  so  sus- 
ceptible to  strychnine,  which  acts  specially  on  the  cord. 
The  human  cerebrum,  the  seat  of  intelligence,  is  more  than 
seven  times  the  weight  of  the  mesencephalon  and  cerebellum. 
In  the  domestic  animals  the  cerebrum  is  only  five  times  the 
weight  of  the  posterior  parts  of  the  brain,  whilst  the  cord 
is  relatively  larger  than  in  man.  These  differences  of  de- 
velopment explain  how  such  medicines  as  opium,  chloro- 
form, and  chloral  cause  in  man  blunted  intellectual  function 
and  deep  stupor,  while  in  the  lower  animals,  with  less  marked 
depression  of  brain  function,  they  conjoin  more  marked 
deranged  motor  function  and  convulsions. 

The  Horse  has  a  small  stomach,  and  capacious,  highly- 
vascular  intestines,  adapted  for  absorption  of  nutriment 
from  bulky  vegetable  food.  Nearly  two- thirds  of  the  water 
in  the  ingesta  pass  off  by  the  bowels,  while  in  man  only  five 
per  cent,  is  removed  by  this  channel,  and  the  amount  is 
still  less  in  dogs  and  cats.  Vegetable  purgatives,  notably 
aloes,  appear  more  suitable  than  mineral  purgatives. 
Except  in  very  rare  diseased  states,  attempts  at  vomition 
are  not  easily  excited  in  horses.  Tartar  emetic,  of  which 
a  few  grains  cause  immediate  emesis  in  dogs,  has  no  such 
physiological  effect  on  either  horses  or  cattle.  According 
to  some  authorities,  this  insusceptibility  of  the  horse  to  the 
action  of  emetics  is  ascribable  to  an  inaptitude  of  the  vagus 
nerve  to  receive  and  convey  the  special  irritation,  but  more 
probably  it  is  due  to  imperfect  development  of  the  vomit- 
ing centre.  Actual  vomition  in  horses  is  hindered  by  the 
small  stomach  not  being  readily  compressed  between  the 
diaphragm  and  abdominal  muscles,  and  by  the  stout  band 
of  muscular  fibres  which  surrounds  its  cesophageal  opening. 
The  many  sedatives  available  in  human  and  canine  practice 
operate  uncertainly  and  imperfectly  on  horses.  The  kidneys 
of  horses  are  easily  stimulated  ;  in  ordinary  circumstances 
they  remove  about  one-seventh  of  the  fluid  ingesta,  while 
the  same  organs  in  man  drain  away  54  per  cent.,  and  in 
dogs  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  fluid  discharges.  Sudorifics 
are  less  prompt  than  in  man,  and  are  apt  to  act  on  the  kid- 
neys, unless  the  animal  be  well  clothed. 

In  Cattle  the  peculiarities  of  the  action  of  medicines  are 

c 


34         SPECIAL   ACTIONS    ON    CATTLE    AND    SHEEP 

chiefly  referable  to  the  construction  of  their  alimentary 
canal,  and  to  their  phlegmatic  temperament.  The  stomach 
of  these  ruminants  is  quadrisected,  is  extensively  lined  with 
cuticular  mucous  membrane,  and,  as  regards  its  first  three 
divisions,  is  less  vascular,  and  in  function  is  less  chemical 
and  more  mechanical  than  the  corresponding  portion  of  the 
alimentary  canal  of  men,  dogs,  or  horses.  The  first  and 
third  compartments  always  contain  food,  often  in  large 
quantity.  These  facts  explain  why  cattle  require  large  doses 
of  all  medicines,  why  considerable  quantities  of  irritant  and 
corrosive  poisons  can  be  given  them  with  comparative  im- 
punity, and  why  purgatives,  even  in  large  doses  and  in 
solution,  are  so  tardy  and  uncertain  in  their  effects.  Several 
times  a  day,  for  about  an  hour  at  a  time,  in  animals  of  this 
class,  the  solid  food  is  returned  from  the  first  and  second 
stomachs  for  more  thorough  mastication  and  insalivation. 
Imperfect  or  suspended  rumination  is  a  cause,  as  well  as 
a  common  effect  of  stomach  disorders  in  cattle.  Their 
kidneys  and  skin  are  less  easily  affected  than  the  corre- 
sponding organs  in  horses  ;  and  their  dull,  phlegmatic  dis- 
position resists  the  action  of  both  stimulants  and  tonics. 
It  is  a  prevalent  notion  that  medicines,  when  poured  slowly 
down  a  cow's  throat,  pass,  like  the  ruminated  food,  direct 
to  the  fourth  stomach.  But  experiments  made  at  slaughter- 
houses on  both  cattle  and  sheep,  prove,  however,  that 
neither  animal  can  be  induced  to  exert  this  voluntary 
effort  in  behalf  of  medicines,  which  in  all  cases,  no  matter 
how  slowly  they  are  administered,  fall  partly  into  the  first 
and  second  stomachs,  whence  they  shortly  pass  onwards 
through  the  third  and  fourth  stomachs,  especially  if  given, 
as  they  always  ought  to  be,  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
fluid. 

Sheep  closely  resemble  cattle  in  the  way  in  which  they 
are  affected  by  most  medicines  ;  they  usually  require  about 
one-fourth  of  the  dose  suitable  for  cattle.  This  animal  is 
best  drenched  by  being  backed  into  a  corner,  its  head  being 
steadied  between  the  operator's  knees,  while  the  medicine  is 
cautiously  poured  into  its  mouth. 

On  Dogs  medicines  generally  operate  much  in  the  same 
way  as  on  man  ;  but  to  this  rule  there  are  some  remarkable 


ACTIONS    OF   MEDICINES    ON    DOGS    AND    PIGS      35 

exceptions.  Dogs,  for  instance,  take  six  or  eight  times  the 
dose  of  aloes  usually  given  to  human  patients,  but  are 
seriously  injured  by  half  as  much  calomel  or  oil  of  turpentine 
as  is  prescribed  for  a  man.  The  opinion  generally  held, 
that  medicines  may  be  given  to  dogs  in  the  same  doses  as 
to  man,  cannot  therefore  be  safely  entertained  without  many 
reservations.  In  dogs,  while  the  stomach  is  relatively  large, 
the  alimentary  canal  is  short  and  straight,  and  purgatives 
consequently  act  with  greater  rapidity  than  in  other  veterin- 
ary patients.  Another  peculiarity  is  the  facility  with  which 
they  can  be  made  to  vomit.  Indeed,  vomition  in  dogs  is 
often  produced  by  their  eating  various  grasses,  by  their 
swallowing  nauseous  or  unpalatable  matters,  or  by  their 
overloading  the  stomach.  The  kidneys  are  excited  with 
more  difficulty  than  in  horses  or  cattle.  On  Pigs  the  actions 
of  medicines  are  similar  to  their  actions  on  men  and  dogs. 

Sir  Lauder  Brunton  points  out  several  curious  differences 
in  the  actions  of  drugs  on  several  of  the  lower  animals. 
Morphine  convulses  frogs,  but,  even  in  large  doses,  has  no 
effect  on  pigeons,  except  in  reducing  their  temperature. 
Belladonna  quickens  cardiac  action  in  man,  dogs,  and 
horses,  by  paralysing  the  vagus,  which  controls  or  restrains 
heart  action.  But  in  rabbits  the  vagus  has  hardly  any 
appreciable  effect  in  regulating  the  heart-beats,  and  these 
animals  accordingly  take  large  doses  without  having  the 
rapidity  of  the  circulation  increased.  The  rabbit's  heart 
not  being  controlled  by  the  vagus,  a  marked  difference  also 
occurs  in  the  action  of  amyl-nitrite  on  rabbits  as  compared 
with  dogs.  Such  observations  are  not  only  most  interesting 
in  themselves,  but  greatly  further  the  understanding  of 
the  actions  of  drugs. 

The  action  of  medicines  is  influenced  by  the  age  of  the 
patient,  and  as  a  rule  very  young  animals  are  more  sus- 
ceptible than  adult  animals.  Young  dogs  are  much  more 
easily  affected  by  morphine  than  adult  dogs.  Kittens, 
however,  seem  to  be  able  to  withstand  larger  doses  of 
morphine  than  fully  grown  cats  (Guinard).  The  young 
tolerate  chloroform  anaesthesia  better  than  the  old,  and 
poisons  such  as  strychnine  and  digitalis  may  be  given  in 
larger  doses  to  young  animals  than  to  adults, 


36      CONDITIONS   MODIFYING   MEDICINAL   ACTIONS 

IV.  Climate  and  Temperature  modify  considerably  the 
actions  of  medicines.  Heat  increases  the  power  of  anti- 
septic solutions.  Narcotics  are  generally  believed  to  act 
more  powerfully  in  warm  than  in  cold  climates.  This  fact, 
as  well  as  other  differences  in  medicines  observed  in  hot  as 
compared  with  cold  climates,  may  depend  upon  slight  differ- 
ences in  animal  temperature,  and  in  the  varying  amount  of 
excretion  effected  by  the  skin  and  kidneys. 

Moderate  warmth  favours  chemical  reactions  and  proto- 
plasmic movements — two  conditions  intimately  connected 
with  the  actions  of  medicines.  '  Alexander  von  Humboldt 
first  observed  that  warmth  not  only  acted  as  a  stimulant  to 
the  heart,  increasing  the  power  and  rapidity  of  its  contrac- 
tions, but  noticed  that  warmth  increased  the  rapidity  with 
which  alcohol  destroyed  the  irritability  of  a  nerve,  and 
potassium  sulphide  that  of  a  muscle.  .  .  .  Many,  if  not  all, 
muscular  poisons  act  more  quickly  with  increased  tempera- 
ture. .  .  .  Rabbits  poisoned  with  copper  or  potassium  salts 
also  die  more  quickly  when  placed  in  a  warm  chamber  than 
when  left  at  the  ordinary  temperature  '  (Brunton).  On  the 
other  hand,  however,  narcotic  poisoning  by  alcohol  or  chloral 
is  retarded  when  the  animals  are  in  a  warm  atmosphere. 

Habit. — The  continued  use  of  a  medicine  sometimes  alters 
the  degree  of  its  action.  Caustics  and  irritants,  which  exer- 
cise only  topical  action,  exhibit,  on  their  repeated  applica- 
tion, gradually  increasing  activity.  But  many  medicines, 
when  continuously  administered,  have  their  ordinary  power 
considerably  diminished.  Thus,  arsenic-eaters  sometimes 
use  with  perfect  impunity  twelve  or  fifteen  grains  of 
arsenic  daily — a  quantity  sufficient  to  poison  three  or  four 
unhabituated  persons.  A  like  tolerance  is  observable  among 
horses  which  have  been  accustomed  to  receive  arsenic. 
Opium,  and  most  general  stimulants,  when  administered 
for  some  time,  gradually  lose  their  effects.  Virginian  deer, 
from  habit,  are  said  to  thrive  on  tobacco  ;  some  monkeys, 
feeding  on  strychnine-containing  nuts,  are  stated  to  become 
insusceptible  to  strychnine  (Wood).  The  tolerance  thus 
induced  by  the  habitual  use  of  a  medicine  occasionally 
depends  on  retarded  absorption  or  quickened  excretion  ; 
sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  many  alkaloids,  on  the  liver 


HABITS   AND   IDIOSYNCRASIES  37 

acquiring  greater  power  for  the  detention,  modification, 
destruction  or  excretion  of  the  drug,  while  frequently  the 
tissues,  by  repeated  contact,  become  progressively  accus- 
tomed to  its  influence,  and  more  or  less  resistant. 

Individual  Idiosyncrasies,  which  in  the  human  subject 
render  some  poisons  almost  innocuous,  and  some  simple 
medicines  deadly  poisons,  are  less  frequent  and  notable 
among  the  lower  animals.  Those  of  most  frequent  occur- 
rence among  veterinary  patients  are  either  an  increased  or 
a  diminished  susceptibility  to  the  action  of  purgatives  and 
diuretics.  Most  medicines  act  with  greater  certainty  and 
effect  upon  weU-bred  animals,  whether  horses  or  dogs, 
than  upon  coarsely-bred  mongrels.  The  prescription  even 
of  a  blister  or  a  colic  draught  demands  consideration  of  the 
temperament,  breeding,  and  condition  of  the  patient. 

Diseases  modify  the  action  of  many  medicines.  Altered 
structure  and  functions,  and  increased  temperature  occur- 
ring in  most  serious  disorders  are  important  modifying 
factors.  A  congested  or  inflammatory  condition  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  or  even  an  overloaded  stomach,  retards 
absorption,  and  the  consequent  activity  of  medicines  given 
by  the  mouth.  Acute  fever,  on  account  of  increased  arterial 
pressure,  is  also  unfavourable  to  absorption.  When  ex- 
cretion is  hindered,  medicines,  however,  are  usually  retained 
longer  in  the  system,  and  some  accordingly  act  more  power- 
fully. Conversely,  when  excretion  is  active,  as  in  diuresis, 
diabetes,  or  diarrhoea,  such  medicines  as  opium,  belladonna, 
and  alcohol,  being  rapidly  got  rid  of,  do  not  manifest  their 
full  activity.  Influenza,  low  fevers,  and  any  considerable 
inflammation  of  mucous  or  cutaneous  surfaces,  withstand 
reducing  remedies  badly,  and  require  for  their  successful 
treatment  the  early  exhibition  of  restoratives,  tonics,  and 
stimulants.  Even  the  comparatively  slight  and  temporary 
requirements  for  the  changing  of  the  coat  render  horses  in 
spring  and  autumn  notably  less  enduring  and  less  able  to 
stand  lowering  treatment.  Full  doses  of  sedative  medicines 
induce  less  depression  in  acute  inflammation  than  in  health  ; 
large  quantities  of  opium  and  chloral  hydrate  have  compara- 
tively slight  effect  in  tetanus,  enteritis,  or  other  painful 
disease  ;  while  excessive  doses  of  purgatives  and  stimulants 


38  CURATIVE    SYSTEMS 

are  well  borne  in  parturient  toxaemia  of  cattle,  and  in  other 
cases  in  which  there  is  depression  of  nervous  force. 

The  surroundings  of  the  patient  materially  alter  the 
action  of  remedies.  Diseases,  whether  in  horses,  cattle,  or 
dogs,  occurring  in  large  towns,  and  in  filthy,  overcrowded, 
and  badly- ventilated  premises,  are  notoriously  liable  to 
assume  chronic  and  untoward  forms,  and  are  less  responsive 
to  curative  measures.  Medicines  can  only  act  effectually 
when  seconded  by  proper  sanitary  arrangements.  Over- 
heated, imperfectly  ventilated  stables  lower  the  vitality 
of  their  inmates,  by  retarding  excretion,  and  favouring 
absorption  of  noxious  exhalations.  Such  facts  demand 
consideration  alike  in  the  treatment  and  prevention  of 
disease.  Frequently  a  horse  with  influenza,  bronchitis,  or 
pneumonia,  is  thrown  back  for  days  by  being  stripped  and 
taken  out  of  his  box  in  cold  weather.  One  meal  of  coarse, 
indigestible  food,  even  of  moderate  amount,  sometimes 
retards  recovery  from  gastric  derangements,  and,  indeed, 
from  most  debilitating  diseases.  Constipation  or  torpidity 
of  the  bowels  interferes  .with  the  absorption,  and  hence  with 
the  satisfactory  operation  of  all  medicines.  Exposure  to 
cold  seriously  injures  patients  which  have  received  full 
aperient  doses  of  salts  or  of  turpentine,  or  which  have  been 
freely  dressed  with  mercurial  ointment.  Foul  air  and 
disordered  digestion  retard  the  healing  even  of  simple 
wounds.  On  the  other  hand,  gentle  exercise  encourages 
the  action  of  most  eliminatives  ;  quiet  favours  the  effects 
of  soothing  remedies  ;  generous  diet  considerably  aids  in 
the  benefits  of  restoratives,  tonics,  and  stimulants.  Actively 
depleting  treatment,  as  by  purgatives,  is  more  easily  borne 
in  winter  than  in  summer,  in  the  country  than  in  the  town, 
in  well-bred  animals  in  good  condition  than  in  coarser 
subjects  which  have  been  indifferently  nourished. 

CURATIVE  SYSTEMS :  ALLOPATHY,  HOMOEOPATHY 

The  difficult  question  is  frequently  asked — How  do 
medicines  cure  disease?  Endeavour  is  made,  guided  by 
biological  laws,  to  adjust  or  restore  to  harmony  any  irregu- 
larity or  deviation  from  health  which  may  have  affected 


DOES    LIKE    CURE    LIKE  ?  39 

the  organism  or  any  of  its  parts.  The  complex  composition 
and  diverse  functions  of  the  bodies  of  the  higher  animals 
are  liable,  however,  to  be  altered  and  disturbed  in  many 
different  ways,  and  such  alterations  or  aberrations  cannot 
be  restored  by  any  one  curative  system  or  formula.  As 
already  indicated,  medicines  have  special  actions  on  different 
organs  or  groups  of  cells,  and  affect  them  in  very  different 
ways,  and  hence  would  seem  to  produce  their  curative 
effects,  not  in  one,  but  in  many  ways.  There  have  been 
from  the  very  earliest  times,  before  the  causes  of  disease 
were  known  or  the  actions  of  drugs  understood,  innumerable 
systems  of  treatment.  A  very  ancient  one  was  '  the  doc- 
trine of  signatures,'  which  taught  among  other  things  that 
the  external  shape  or  contour,  of  a  plant  was  suggestive  of 
its  use  in  medicine,  and  so  we  still  have  such  plant  names 
as  liverwort  and  lungwort.  Galen  came  later  and  enun- 
ciated his  celebrated  hypothesis,  but  it  was  as  fantastic 
and  unreasonable  as  the  last.  Then  the  doctrine  '  Contraria 
contraribus  curantur '  came  into  vogue,  and  of  course  still 
obtains  to  a  considerable  extent,  e.g.  constipation  is  cured 
by  a  purgative,  diarrhoea  by  an  astringent.  Two  such 
systems  of  counteraction  have  been  propounded — (1)  the 
antipathic,  whereby  medicines  were  believed  to  overcome 
morbid  conditions  or  symptoms  by  a  superior  and  antago- 
nistic force  ;  (2)  the  allopathic,  whereby  effects  are  produced 
which,  although  they  may  sometimes  be  unnatural,  over- 
come the  disease.  But  diseases,  it  has  been  affirmed,  may 
not  only  be  cured  by  counteractions,  but  by  similars.  Upon 
the  old  saying  that  '  like  cures  like,'  Homoeopathy l  is  based, 

1  Homoeopathy  (S/uoios,  homoios,  like  or  similar  ;  and  7rd0os,  pathox)  was 
propounded  by  the  German  physician  Hahnemann  in  his  Organon  der 
rationelleni  Heilkunde,  published  in  1810.  This  system  teaches  that  the 
cure  of  a  disease  is  effected  by  infinitesimal  doses  of  such  medicines,  as  would 
induce,  if  given  to  a  healthy  subject  in  large  quantity,  symptoms  similar  to 
the  disease.  Cinchona  is  declared  to  cure  such  fevers  as  ague  and  inter  - 
mittents,  because  it  produces  some  such  febrile  symptoms  when  given  to 
healthy  individuals  in  considerable  doses  ;  aconite  is  regarded  as  the  appro- 
priate remedy  for  reducing  inflammatory  fevers,  because  in  large  doses  it 
produces  symptoms  which  are  thought,  by  homosopathists,  to  resemble  those 
of  inflammation ;  while  strychnine  is  selected  as  a  remedy  for  paralysis, 
because  in  large  doses  it  appears  to  produce  paralytic  symptoms.  This 
doctrine,  if  sound,  would  stamp  most  disorders  as  hopelessly  incurable  ;  for 


40  HOMOEOPATHY 

and  its  votaries  declare  that  diseases  are  to  be  treated  by 
small  doses  of  such  medicines  as  in  large  doses  produce 
symptoms  similar  to  the  disease  to  be  cured.  The  patho- 
logical conditions  which  underlie  and  produce  the  symptoms, 
and  which  a  rational  cure  generally  aims  if  possible  at  re- 
moving, are  ignored.  The  homoeopathic  dictum  of  similia 
similibus  curantur  does  not  bear  investigation  ;  at  best  it 
is  only  capable  of  narrow  and  occasional  acceptance.  The 
symptoms  of  ague  and  intermittent  fever  are  certainly 
similar  to  those  produced  by  cinchona  bark,  which  is  an 
accepted  cure  for  ague,  and  the  illustration  on  which 

it  is  only  in  a  few  exceptional  cases  that  any  similarity  can  be  detected 
between  the  symptoms  produced  by  large  doses  of  the  remedy  and  those  of 
the  disease  for  which  it  is  given.  No  known  medicines,  for  example,  are 
capable  of  developing  symptoms  such  as  those  of  thick-wind,  roaring, 
pleurisy,  strangles,  distemper,  or  rabies,  yet  fifteen  or  twenty  remedies  are 
prescribed  homoeopathically  for  each  of  these  diseases. 

Mr.  Dudgeon's  translation  of  the  Organon  of  Medicine  states  that,  '  the 
symptoms  of  each  individual  case  of  disease  must  be  the  sole  indication,  the 
sole  guide  to  direct  us  in  the  choice  of  a  curative  remedy.'  Now,  symptoms, 
although  sometimes  requiring  special  treatment,  are  but  the  visible  signs 
and  results  of  derangement  and  disease  ;  whilst  their  removal,  which  is  all 
that  is  aimed  at  in  homoeopathic  treatment,  does  not  always  ensure  the 
removal  of  the  conditions  on  which  they  depend.  Thus,  rheumatism,  pleurisy, 
enteritis,  worms,  and  many  other  disorders,  frequently  remain  unchecked 
after  the  symptoms  have  been  relieved.  Instead  of  thus  vainly  attempting 
the  removal  of  symptoms,  it  were  therefore  more  rational  to  remove  at  once 
the  morbid  condition — the  source  of  the  evil.  No  curative  system  directing 
its  efforts,  as  homoeopathy  does,  merely  against  the  symptoms  of  disease, 
can  ever  rest  upon  a  safe  or  scientific  basis  ;  for  it  is  notorious  that,  under 
varying  modifying  influences,  the  same  diseases  sometimes  induce  very 
dissimilar  symptoms,  and  would  consequently,  according  to  this  system, 
require  dissimilar  treatment.  On  the  other  hand,  diseases  essentially 
different  sometimes  manifest  similar  symptoms.  Thus,  stupor  and  vertigo 
result  sometimes  from  an  excessive  and  sometimes  from  a  deficient  quantity 
of  blood  sent  to  the  brain  ;  difficulty  of  breathing  from  too  much  as  well  as 
from  too  little  blood  circulating  through  the  lungs  ;  vomiting  from  irritation 
of  the  stomach,  or  from  irritation  of  the  vomiting  centre  ;  diarrhoea  from 
crudities  in  the  alimentary  canal,  or  irritant  matters  in  the  blood. 

Not  only  are  the  principles  on  which  homoeopathy  is  said  to  be  based 
untenable,  but  the  details  of  the  system  are  inconsistent  and  ridiculous. 
The  homoeopathic  doses  are  so  small  that  they  are  often  incapable  of  detection 
either  by  the  microscope  or  by  chemical  analysis,  and  are  sometimes  so 
inconceivably  minute  that  the  mind  can  form  no  idea  of  them.  It  is 
admitted  even  by  homceopathists,  that  millions  of  such  doses  may  be 
swallowed  by  a  healthy  individual  without  inconvenience  :  but  in  disease 
the  body  is  stated  to  become  so  susceptible  to  their  action  that  much  risk 


HOMCEOPATHY  41 

Hahnemann  founded  his  system.  But  many  diseases 
exhibit  no  symptoms  accurately  similar,  as  the  homceo- 
pathists  insist  they  should  be,  to  those  produced  by  the 
medicine  prescribed  for  their  cure.  Numerous  drugs, 
moreover,  cause  symptoms  wholly  unlike  those  of  the 
diseases  in  the  treatment  of  which  homceopathists  use  them. 
The  homoeopathic  selection  of  so-called  appropriate 
remedies,  on  the  presumption  that  '  like  cures  like,'  is  based 
upon  a  fallacy,  while  the  minute,  finely  triturated,  and  sub- 
divided doses  are  too  attenuated  to  affect  veterinary 
patients.  The  practice  of  homoeopathy  has,  however, 
developed  wholesome  discussion,  has  suggested  some  useful 

is  incurred  by  their  insufficient  dilution  !     Medicines  such  as  charcoal,  sand, 
and  calcium  carbonate,  which,  in  doses  of  several  drachms,  have  only  slight 
mechanical  effects,  when  given  in  fractional  parts  of  a  grain  are  thought  to 
produce  very  powerful  effects,  and  cause  many  hundred  symptoms.     The 
extraordinary  powers  supposed  to  be  conferred  on  these  and  other  medicines, 
even  when  given  in  doses  of  inconceivable  minuteness,  are  chiefly  ascribed  to 
the  magic  influence  of  careful  and  continued  triturations  and  often-repeated 
shakings,  performed  according  to  most  precise  directions.     Some  homoeo- 
pathic authorities  declare  that  there  is  little  difference  of  activity  between 
different  dilutions  of  the  same  medicine  ;  and  it  is  said  that,  if  the  medicine 
be  well  selected,  it  matters  little  whether  the  tenth,  hundredth  or  thou- 
sandth of  a  grain  be  used  (Gunther  and  Haycock).     There  is  probably  some 
truth  in  this  observation,  for,  with  most   medicines,  especially  when  ad- 
ministered to  the  lower  animals,  all  the  dilutions  mentioned  would  be  equally 
harmless.     But  homceopathists  assert  that,  in  spite  of  the  errors  which  their 
opponents  discover  in  the  system,  it  is  nevertheless  very  successful  in  the 
cure  of  disease.     In  judging,  however,  of  homoeopathy  as  a  system  of  prac- 
tical medicine,  it  must  be  regarded  as  made  up  of  two  distinct  parts  : — 1st, 
The  original  and  peculiar  part  of  the  system,  consisting  in  the  use  of  medi- 
cines selected  in   accordance  with   a   law  embodied  in  the  axiom  similia 
Nimilibus  curantur,  and  administered  in  infinitesimal  doses,  usually  varying 
from  one  grain  to  one-millionth  of  a  grain,  and  carefully  prepared  according  to 
certain  precise  directions  ;  and  2nd,  Attention  to  diet  and  regimen — the  only 
effectual  and  rational  part  of  homoeopathy,  the  true  source  of  all  its  boasted 
cures,  and  that  department  of  medical  treatment  which  has  always  been 
insisted   upon    by   rational   and   successful   practitioners,    of    human   and 
veterinary  medicine.     The  value  of   medicines  given  homosopathically  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  shown,  and  never  can  be  until  two  series  of  cases, 
as  nearly  as  possible  alike,  be  treated — the  one  in  the  usual  homoeopathic 
fashion,  the  other  with  the  same  attention  to  diet  and  regimen,  but  without 
the  globules.     In  comparative  experiments,  made  at  the  Edinburgh  Veter- 
inary College,  in  the  treatment  of  pleuro-pneumonia  and  other  diseases,  it 
appeared  that  those  cases  treated  by  diet  and  regimen  alone  were  as  speedily 
and  effectually  cured  as  those  treated  with  the  globules  in  addition,  so  long 
as  the  globules  were  given  only  in  homoeopathic  doses. 


42  ACTION    OF  MEDICINAL   AGENTS 

experiments  on  the  actions  of  medicines,  has  helped  to 
show  the  evils  of  heroic  and  indiscriminate  drugging,  has 
taught  the  advantage  of  simple  prescriptions,  exemplified 
the  power  of  nature  to  cure,  when  not  too  much  interfered 
with,  and  demonstrated  the  powerful  influence  of  diet  and 
regimen  in  the  successful  treatment  of  disease. 


ACTION  OF   MEDICINAL  AGENTS  ON   FERMENTS, 
BACTERIA,  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 

ANTIZYMOTICS — ANTISEPTICS — DISINFECTANTS — GERMICIDES 
— DEODORANTS — PARASITICIDES 

Many  agents  inhibit  or  retard  the  action  of  ferments,  and 
some  effectually  destroy  them.  These  agents  have  been 
designated : — 

ANTIZYMOTICS. — Substances  which  arrest  fermentation. 
They  act  chiefly  in  two  ways  : — (1)  Chemically,  by  direct 
or  indirect  oxidation.  Chlorine,  iodine,  bromine,  and 
potassium  permanganate  act  in  this  way.  (2)  Arresting 
proliferation  or  catalysis  of  ferments  ;  such  is  the  mode  of 
action  of  corrosive  sublimate  and  many  other  metallic 
solutions,  of  carbolic,  boric,  salicylic,  and  benzoic  acids, 
and  of  temperatures  above  200°  Fahr.  Antizymotics 
include  antiseptics  and  disinfectants,  and  nearly  allied  to 
these  are  deodorants. 

ANTISEPTICS  are  remedies  which  arrest  putrefaction.  They 
kill  or  prevent  the  development  of  those  bacteria  which  pro- 
duce septic  decomposition.  The  action  of  antiseptics  seems 
to  prove  that  living  tissues  differ  in  degree  only  from  dead 
tissues  and  their  disintegration  products.  Antiseptics  such 
as  ether,  chloroform,  carbolic  acid,  and  toluol,  differ  from 
mercury,  silver,  and  similar  metallic  antiseptic  substances 
in  that  whilst  they  kill  bacteria  readily,  the  enzymes 
formed  by  these  bacteria  can  carry  on  their  work  almost 
to  the  full  in  the  presence  of  saturated  aqueous  solutions 
of  these  germicidal  substances.  As  a  whole,  however, 
Vernon  maintains  '  that  there  is  no  sharply  defined  demar- 
cation between  the  reaction  of  living  organisms  and  that 
of  enzymes.' 


RELATIVE   ACTIVITY   OF   VARIOUS   ANTISEPTICS      43 

DISINFECTANTS  or  germicides  destroy  the  specific  poisons 
of  communicable  diseases.  Their  special  function  is  to 
kill,  or  arrest  the  development  of,  those  germs  or  bacteria 
which  produce  disease. 

DEODORISERS  or  deodorants  destroy  smells.  Some  of  the 
most  disagreeable  smells,  and  those  most  injurious  to  the 
higher  animals,  result  from  putrefaction,  hence  their  cause 
is  removed  by  effectual  antiseptics.  Smells  consisting 
mainly  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  are  neutralised  by 
chlorine  ;  those  from  ammoniacal  gases  by  hydrochloric 
and  nitric  acids.  Offensive  odours  may  also  be  attracted 
and  absorbed  by  freshly-burnt  charcoal  or  dried  earth. 

Enzymes  or  separable  ferments  generally  have  their  action 
arrested  or  are  destroyed  more  readily  than  the  organised 
ferments,  amongst  which  there  is  much  difference  in  via- 
bility. Microzymes  may  be  as  sensitive,  but  usually  are  not 
so  sensitive,  to  the  action  of  antiseptics  as  bacilli.  The 
bacillus  anthracis  is  more  easily  killed  than  some  others. 
The  spores  of  all  species  are  specially  resistant,  and  for  their 
effectual  destruction  require  prolonged  exposure  to  tolerably 
strong  solutions  of  potent  antiseptics. 

The  action  of  watery  solutions  of  various  drugs  on 
several  enzymes  has  been  carefully  examined  by  Wernitz, 
and  his  experiments  are  corroborated  and  quoted  by  Sir 
Lauder  Brunton.  Corrosive  sublimate  stands  pre-eminent 
in  the  certainty  of  its  effects,  even  in  very  diluted  solution. 
The  action  of  emulsin  was  arrested  by  1- 65,000th  part,  of 
diastase  by  l-50,000th  part,  of  ptyalin  by  l-52,000th  part,  of 
pancreatin  by  1-2 1,600th  part ;  but  it  took  1-1 766th  part  to 
arrest  the  action  of  pepsin,  and  1-7 20th  part  to  arrest  that 
of  rennet.  Minute  quantities  of  copper  sulphate,  chlorine, 
iodine,  and  bromine,  and  also  bleaching  powder  and  sul- 
phurous acid,  readily  destroy  these  organic  ferments. 
Salicylic  and  benzoic  acids  and  chlorinated  lime  are  also 
effectual,  usually  in  proportions  of  about  1-1 000th  part. 
Borax  is  effective  generally  with  1  to  100,  although  l-3580th 
part  arrests  the  action  of  the  intestinal  ferment  invertin. 
Aluminium  acetate,  carbolic  acid,  and  glycerin  in  the  order 
mentioned  are  weaker  still.  Chloroform,  thymol,  euca- 
lyptol,  and  mustard  oil  have  little,  if  any,  action,  even  in 


44      RELATIVE    ACTIVITY    OF   VARIOUS    ANTISEPTICS 

saturated  solution.     A  temperature  over  125°  Fahr.  weakens 
or  destroys  the  enzymes. 

Drugs  act  differently  on  different  ferments.  While 
l-52,000th  part  of  corrosive  sublimate,  as  already  indicated, 
arrests  the  action  of  ptyalin,  1  part  in  720  is  needful  to 
arrest  the  action  of  rennet,  which  is,  however,  destroyed  by 
1- 1000th  part  of  borax,  1  part  of  which  in  100  is  required  to 
destroy  ptyalin.  For  destruction  of  rennet,  bromine  and 
chlorinated  lime  are  specially  effective.  Creosote,  although 
it  has  small  effect  on  the  enzymes,  in  solution  of  1  part  to  500 
destroys  yeast  cells,  and,  in  solution  of  half  that  strength, 
kills  bacteria.  The  mould  fungi  are  destroyed  by  the  same 
agents  which  kill  yeast  and  bacteria. 

Bacteria  of  different  sorts  exhibit  some  differences  in 
their  susceptibility  to  different  antiseptics  ;  indeed,  the 
susceptibility  somewhat  varies  in  the  same  bacteria  when 
raised  in  different  media.  It  is  more  easy  to  prevent  than 
to  arrest  development  of  bacteria.  As  already  pointed  out, 
the  spores  have  much  greater  resisting  powers  than  the 
fully-developed  bacteria.  The  fully-developed  bacteria  are 
destroyed  by  exposure  for  an  hour  to  a  temperature  of  150° 
to  168°  Fahr.,  but  the  spores  require  more  prolonged  ex- 
posure at  212°  Fahr.  Moist  heat,  having  a  greater  power  of 
softening  and  penetrating  the  spore  envelope,  is  more 
effectual  than  dry  heat.  Milk  containing  the  bacillus  of 
tubercle  or  other  specific  disorder  may  be  rendered  inno- 
cuous by  five  minutes'  boiling. 

Experiments  bearing  on  the  power  of  different  substances 
to  prevent  the  development  of  bacteria  in  various  stages 
and  solutions,  to  kill  them,  or  to  arrest  development  and 
reproduction  of  their  spores,  have  been  carried  out  by  many 
good  observers.  The  plan  of  procedure  has  generally  been 
to  add  to  carefully  prepared  sterilised  fluids  in  test  tubes, 
known  quantities  of  the  disinfectant  to  be  tested,  and  then 
introduce  a  drop  of  liquid  containing  bacteria  or  their  spores, 
Such  experiments  show  that  the  agents  which  most  promptly 
and  effectually  arrest  the  action  of  enzymes  also  prove  the 
most  destructive  to  bacteria.  Of  corrosive  sublimate, 
l-5805th  part  kills  the  developed  parasite  ;  1-25, 258th 
part  prevents  the  development  of  bacteria  taken  from 


KOCH'S    EXPERIMENTS  45 

meat  infusions  ;  but  it  requires  a  strength  of  1  in  2525 
to  prevent  reproduction  of  spores  in  unboiled  meat  infusion, 
and  still,  stronger  solutions  to  penetrate  and  kill  the  spores. 
Chlorine,  chlorinated  lime,  bromine,  iodine,  and  quinine 
stand  next  in  activity.  Sodium  sulphite  is  about  l-10th  the 
strength  of  quinine.  Compared  with  corrosive  sublimate, 
it  requires  twenty  times  the  amount  of  thymol,  salicylic 
acid,  or  potassium  permanganate  to  prevent  development 
of  bacteria,  and  sixty  times  the  amount  to  prevent  repro- 
duction of  spores.  Sodium  hyposulphite  has  very  little 
action.  Carbolic  acid  did  not  stand  so  high  as  expected. 
The  fresh  blood  of  an  animal  just  dead  from  anthrax 
must  be  mixed  with  its  own  bulk  of  a  1  per  cent,  solution 
in  order  to  destroy  the  bacilli,  and  enable  it,  without  harm, 
to  be  injected  into  another  animal.  A  half  per  cent,  solution 
fails  to  destroy  the  bacilli. 

Koch's  experiments  with  anthrax  spores  constitute  re- 
liable tests  of  the  value  of  disinfectants.  Solutions  of  the 
several  substances,  of  specified  strength,  were  placed  in 
tubes,  their  mouths  stopped,  as  is  generally  done,  by  cotton 
wool ;  and  threads  steeped  in  fluids  containing  bacilli  and 
their  spores  were  carefuUy  introduced.  Some  of  these 
threads  were  removed  from  day  to  day,  and  subjected  to 
microscopic  examination.  Even  after  one  hundred  days' 
exposure  to  the  antiseptic,  some  threads  still  exhibited 
bacilli.  Chlorine  water,  freshly  made,  bromine  2  per  cent, 
solution,  iodine  1  part  in  7000,  corrosive  sublimate  1  per 
cent,  in  water,  were  found  effectually  to  destroy  these 
anthrax  spores  with  which  they  had  been  in  contact  one 
day.  Formic  acid,  specific  gravity  1120,  destroyed  all 
spores  after  four  days'  exposure.  In  five  days  all  spores 
were  killed  by  5  per  cent,  watery  solutions  of  chlorinated 
lime  and  ferric  chloride.  One  per  cent,  of  arsenic  in  water, 
and  the  same  proportion  of  quinine  in  acidulated  watery 
solution,  were  effective  in  ten  days.  Oil  of  turpentine  took 
five  days,  ether  thirty  days.  The  results  with  carbolic  acid 
were  disappointing  ;  a  1  per  cent,  solution  had  not  much 
effect  on  the  spores,  even  when  exposure  was  prolonged  for 
fifteen  days  ;  and  a  five  per  cent,  solution  was  required  to 
secure  their  destruction  in  one  day.  Like  salicylic,  boric, 


46    LISTER'S  PRINCIPLES  OF  ANTISEPTIC  SURGERY 

and  benzole  acids,  sodium  chloride,  and  many  metallic 
solutions,  carbolic  acid  was  thoroughly  effectual  in  destroy- 
ing microzymes  which  had  not  formed  spores,  and  from  its 
volatility  it  is  frequently  more  serviceable  than  fixed  anti- 
septics. The  infected  threads,  subjected  to  the  influence  of 
even  the  least  active  of  those  antiseptics,  produced  only 
scanty  and  retarded  crops  of  bacilli.  Such  reliable  anti- 
septics as  corrosive  sublimate,  bromine,  and  iodine,  when 
dissolved  in  alcohol,  ether,  or  oil,  were  not  nearly  so  effectual 
as  when  dissolved  in  water. 

The  following  table  by  Miguel  indicates  the  minimum 
quantity  of  each  antiseptic  required  to  prevent  putrefaction 
of  a  litre  of  neutralised  beef  bouillon  : — 

Hydrogen  peroxide  gm.  0:05  Tannin  ....  gm.  4-80 

Mercuric  chloride  gm.  0*07  Arsenious  acid  .  gm.  6*00 

Silver  nitrate  .  .  gm.  0*08  Boric  acid  .  .  .  gm.  7*50 

Iodine  ....  gm.  0*25  Sodium  salicylate  gm.  10*00 

Copper  sulphate  .  gm.  0*90  Sodium  borate  .  gm.  70*00 

Salicylic  acid  .  .  gm.  1*00  Barium  chloride  .  gm.  95 '80 

Potassium  bichro-  Alcohol ....  gm.  95*00 

mate  ....  gm.  1'20  Potassium  iodide  gm.  150*00 

Zinc  chloride  .  .  gm.  1'90  Sodium  chloride  .  gm.  165 '00 

Carbolic  acid  .  .  gm.  3'20  Glycerin  .  .  .  gm.  225*00 

Potassium  perman-  Sodium  hyposul- 

ganate  ....  gm.  3*50     j         phite  ....  gm.  275*00 

According  to  Christmas  and  Respaut,  the  best  mixture, 
as  regards  solubility  and  antiseptic  power,  consists  of  car- 
bolic acid,  grammes  9  ;  salicylic  acid,  gramme  1  ;  lactic 
acid,  grammes  2  ;  and  menthol,  gramme  0*10  ;  employed 
in  solution  of  one  to  four  per  cent. 

The  uses  of  antiseptics. — In  surgery,  zinc  and  iron 
chlorides,  pitch  and  tar,  tinctures  of  myrrh,  benzoin,  and 
other  balsams  have  long  been  used  empirically  both  in 
human  and  veterinary  practice.  But  Lord  Lister  has 
explained  and  systematised  the  antiseptic  treatment,  and 
rendered  it  both  certain  and  successful.  He  studied  fer- 
mentative processes,  and  the  analogous  actions  of  micro- 
organisms on  living  tissues  ;  and  in  1867  inaugurated  the 
aseptic  treatment  of  wounds.  Two  conditions,  he  insists, 


PRINCIPLES    OF   ANTISEPTIC    SURGERY  47 

are  essential  in  dealing  with  wounds,  whether  accidental  or 
made  by  the  surgeon  :  (1)  Nothing  septic  must  be  left  in 
them  ;  and  (2)  Nothing  septic  must  be  allowed  to  get  into 
them.  Acting  on  these  principles,  wounds  which  for  an 
hour  or  two  have  remained  exposed,  and  into  which  the 
ubiquitous  dust-particles  and  organisms  have  been  intro- 
duced, should  first  be  thoroughly  cleansed  of  mechanical 
irritants,  and  then  washed,  and,  if  need  be,  syringed  with 
hydrogen  peroxide  or  a  watery  solution  of  corrosive  sublim- 
ate, zinc  chloride,  or  carbolic  acid.  The  wound  thus 
rendered  aseptic,  and  the  removal  of  discharges,  if  need  be, 
provided  for,  it  is  to  be  protected  from  access  of  organisms 
by  antiseptic  dressings.  Wounds  become  septic  not  so 
much  from  the  germs  found  in  the  atmosphere  as  from  those 
found  on  the  hands  of  the  operator. 

Any  wound  from  a  clean  knife,  or  howsoever  produced,  if 
it  is  perfectly  aseptic,  is  as  quickly  as  possible  covered  with 
the  dressing.  This  consists  of  lint,  tow,  oakum,  or  other  such 
absorbent  substance,  saturated  with  an  effectual  germicide 
solution  of  carbolic  acid,  which  has  the  advantage  of  being 
volatile,  of  perchloride  or  biniodide  of  mercury,  or  of  boric 
or  salicylic  acid.  These  dressings  are  removed  daily,  or  as 
required,  and  are  continued  till  healthy  granulations  cover 
and  protect  the  wound.  Further,  to  prevent  wounds  from 
being  inoculated  by  septic  germs,  the  knives,  probes, 
ligatures,  sponges,  drainage  tubes,  and  other  appliances 
used  in  connection  with  them,  should  lie  in  an  antiseptic 
solution  until  required,  while  the  operator,  whose  hands 
should  be  most  scrupulously  clean,  must  repeatedly  moisten 
his  hands  with  a  similar  solution. 

Wounds  kept  strictly  aseptic  heal  quickly  ;  if  otherwise 
properly  treated  inflammation  rarely  appears,  inasmuch  as 
the  conditions  determining  irritation  are  avoided  ;  pain  con- 
sequently is  slight  and  of  brief  duration  ;  suppuration  does 
not  occur,  its  organismal  causes  being  excluded  ;  blood-clots 
are  preserved  from  harmful  decomposition,  and  are  gradually 
replaced  by  new  tissue  ;  portions  of  damaged  structure 
without  hurt  are  removed  ;  septicaemia  cannot  occur  when 
micro-organisms  and  their  products  have  been  destroyed 
or  prevented  from  entering  the  protected  wound.  Serious, 


48  ANTISEPTICS    FOR   INTERNAL   USE 

operations,  such  as  opening  the  chest  or  abdomen,  expos- 
ing joints  and  tendon  sheaths,  can  be  undertaken  with 
greatly  diminished  risk  when  proper  antiseptic  precautions 
are  adopted. 

Carbolic  acid  is  the  antiseptic  most  frequently  used  in 
veterinary  surgery.  Its  volatility  carries  it  into  the  recesses 
of  wounds,  and  thus  in  many  cases  increases  its  efficacy.  It 
is  applied,  according  to  circumstances,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  part  dissolved  in  twenty  to  forty  of  water  ;  but  besides 
watery  solutions,  liniments  and  antiseptic  lints  are  used.  It 
is  employed  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  corrosive  sublimate. 
As  an  effectual  non-poisonous  antiseptic  and  parasiticide, 
Frohner  and  other  German  authorities  strongly  recommend 
creolin,  which  is  a  derivative  of  coal-tar.  Salicylic  acid 
destroys  some  ferments,  but  is  not  volatile  ;  it  is  used 
especially  for  the  dressing  of  ulcers  and  eczema.  Boric 
acid  is  non- volatile,  non-irritant,  and  is  often  serviceable 
for  superficial  wounds,  where  frequent  dressings  are  un- 
necessary, where  the  more  active  carbolic  acid  has  for 
some  time  been  persevered  with,  and  where  granula- 
tions and  growth  of  skin  require  encouragement.  The 
watery  solution  of  sulphurous  acid  is  cheap  and  effectual. 
Chlorinated  soda  solution  is  sometimes  used.  Sanitas, 
which  consists  of  camphoraceous  bodies  and  peroxide  of 
hydrogen,  is  a  non-poisonous  and  valuable  antiseptic.  lodo- 
form  readily  parts  with  its  90  per  cent,  of  iodine,  conjoins 
antiseptic  and  local  anaesthetic  actions,  and  stimulates 
granulation.  It  is  applied  to  ulcers  and  chronic  foul  wounds. 
Such  poisonous  dressings  require,  however,  to  be  used  with 
some  care  for  dogs,  as  they  are  liable  to  lick  them.  Iodine 
tincture  undiluted  or  diluted  according  to  requirements, 
proves  a  useful  stimulant  and  antiseptic  ;  zinc  chloride, 
chinosol,  lysol,  izal,  formalin,  naphthol,  and  thymol  are 
also  employed. 

Antiseptics  used  internally  are  neither  so  certain  nor  so 
effective  as  when  used  externally.  Bacteria  within  the  living 
body  are  not  easily  reached  or  destroyed  ;  and,  moreover, 
medicines  such  as  corrosive  sublimate  and  carbolic  acid, 
which  readily  destroy  the  micro-organisms,  are  also  liable  to 
poison  the  patient.  Cash,  however,  has  found  that  the 


METHODS    OF   DISINFECTION  49 

continued  administration  of  minute  doses  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate render  animals  capable  of  resisting  the  deadly  effects 
of  the  subsequent  inoculation  of  anthrax.  Polli  of  Milan 
found  that  dogs,  which  for  five  days  previously  had  received 
daily  doses  of  sodium  sulphite,  suffered  comparatively  little 
inconvenience  from  the  inoculation  of  foetid  pus,  which 
destroyed,  with  gangrene  and  typhoid  symptoms,  dogs  not 
previously  protected  by  the  antiseptic. 

To  prevent  decomposition  of  the  contents  of  the  digestive 
canal,  allay  irritation  and  vomiting,  and  relieve  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery,  such  antiseptics  as  salol,  dermatol,  naph- 
thol,  tannoform,  tannalbin,  lysol,  creolin,  creosote,  formalin, 
carbolic,  salicylic,  and  sulphurous  acids  are  administered. 
Alcohol,  ether-oils,  and  other  members  of  the  fatty  series  of 
carbon  compounds,  are  prescribed.  Most  of  the  bodies  of 
the  aromatic  series  are  also  antiseptics  ;  but  carbolic  and 
salicylic  acids  are  more  active  than  salol,  exalgin,  thallin, 
and  resorcin.  Creolin  and  lysol  are  the  antiseptics  most 
frequently  prescribed  in  Germany.  The  notable  efficacy  of 
mercurials  in  many  gastro-intestinal  disorders  depends  upon 
their  antiseptic  properties.  In  the  treatment  of  phthisis  in 
human  patients,  inhalation  of  spray,  containing  very  minute 
quantities  of  corrosive  sublimate,  has  been  used  with  some 
success. 

The  uses  of  disinfectants. — Perfect  cleanliness  of  the 
animals  and  their  surroundings,  with  sunlight  and  abundance 
of  pure  air  and  water,  are  the  chief  purifying  agents  re- 
quisite, so  long  as  animals  are  in  perfect  health.  When, 
however,  contagious  disease  occurs,  it  is  necessary  to  destroy 
the  specific  micro-organisms  produced,  and  prevent  their 
diffusing  and  attacking  healthy  subjects.  Pure  air  dilutes, 
but  it  also  diffuses,  and  does  not  destroy  these  contagious 
organisms. 

Water,  like  air,  mechanically  dilutes  noxious  matters,  and 
hastens  their  oxidation.  Sewage  freely  mixed  with  running 
water  is  hence  rapidly  decomposed  and  robbed  of  injurious 
properties.  Decomposing  organic  and  contagious  matters, 
insufficiently  diluted  with  water,  instead,  however,  of  being 
deprived  of  their  activity,  are  apt  to  get  distributed,  and  are 
liable  to  assume  more  dangerous  forms.  Hence,  in  purifying 

D 


50  t       EFFICACY    OF    DISINFECTANTS 

foul  or  infected  places,  solid  accumulations  should  be  mixed 
with  some  fitting  antiseptic,  and  removed  without  the  addi- 
tion of  water.  Infected  stables,  sheds,  market-stances, 
trucks,  and  ships  should  be  swept  out,  and,  if  need  be, 
scraped  ;  and  dry  or  semi-solid  filth,  which  proves  so  ready 
an  absorbent  of  contagious  virus,  should  be  mixed  with 
disinfectants,  and  cleared  away.  The  partially  cleansed 
surfaces  should  then  be  well  washed  with  carbolic  soap  and 
water,  or  corrosive  sublimate  solution  ;  brickwork  subse- 
quently lime- washed,  and  woodwork  sprinkled  with  crude 
carbolic  acid  in  the  proportion  of  six  ounces  to  the  gallon  of 
water. 

It  is  of  paramount  importance  to  attack  the  infecting 
micro-organisms  as  soon  as  they  are  produced,  and  before 
they  have  opportunity  for  distribution.  Animals  affected 
with  contagious  diseases  should  accordingly  be  immediately 
isolated,  provided  with  attendants  who  shall  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  healthy  stock,  their  droppings  at  once  disin- 
fected, their  skin  and  feet  washed  with  some  disinfect- 
ant, whilst  antiseptic  medicine  should  be  given  internally. 

Sheds  or  stables  occupied  by  infected  animals  should  be 
fumigated  with  chlorine,  sulphurous  acid,  or  formaldehyde. 
The  former  is  the  more  effectual,  and  is  evolved  gradually 
by  treating  bleaching  powder  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid, 
or  more  freely  by  mixing  common  salt  and  black  oxide  of 
manganese  with  sulphuric  acid.  A  pound  of  sulphur,  mixed 
with  about  one-fourth  part  of  charcoal,  and  placed  in  a 
chauffer  or  on  a  shovel  of  hot  cinders,  fumigates  a  shed 
about  100  feet  long  and  20  feet  in  breadth  and  height. 
Neither  chlorine  nor  sulphurous  gas,  properly  managed, 
should  cause  pulmonary  irritation,  either  to  the  animals  or 
their  attendants.  Carbolic  acid  in  its  impure  liquid  form  is 
conveniently  applied  with  a  brush  over  the  doors,  walls,  and 
mangers  ;  and  carbolic  powder  should  be  scattered  daily 
over  the  floors  and  manure  heaps. 

Carbolic  acid  sprinkled  about  the  boxes,  sheds,  and  en- 
closures of  the  Jardin  d'Acclimatation,  in  Paris,  proved 
successful  in  preventing  the  spread  of  cattle  plague  in  1865. 
Similar  treatment  has  secured  the  like  immunity  from 
attacks  of  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  and  foot-and- 


EFFICACY    OF   DISINFECTANTS  51 

mouth  disease.  Repeated  instances  have  been  reported 
where  foot-and-mouth  disease  has  been  arrested,  after  a 
portion  of  the  herd  has  been  attacked,  by  washing  twice  a 
week  the  walls,  floors,  doors,  and  other  woodwork  of  the 
infected  premises  with  carbolic  acid,  confining  the  animals 
for  several  weeks  to  their  sheds  or  boxes,  and  keeping  them 
surrounded  by  an  atmosphere  abounding  in  the  tar^acids. 
By  similar  disinfection,  the  progress  of  influenza  and  of 
strangles  in  large  studs  has  frequently  been  arrested. 
Nocard  has  shown  that  when  a  cow  aborts,  whether  from 
accidental  cause,  or  from  virus  introduced  from  subjects 
which  have  previously  aborted,  further  cases  of  the  mishap 
may  be  prevented  by  corrosive  sublimate  injections  into  the 
vagina,  washing  the  external  organs  with  a,  similar  solution, 
and  disinfecting  and  burying  or  burning  the  aborted  calf 
and  membranes.  Incalvers  standing  with  those  aborting 
should  have  the  external  organs  and  tail  washed  daily  with 
an  antiseptic  solution. 

Burning  is  the  only  absolutely  safe  method  of  destroying 
the  bodies  of  anthrax  subjects,  from  which  removal  of  the 
hides  is  dangerous  to  persons  employed  or,  it  may  be,  to 
other  animals.  Cattle  plague  subjects  should  be  either 
burned  or  deeply  buried  ;  while  for  the  diseased  organs  of 
tuberculous  patients  the  furnace  is  the  only  safe  tomb. 

A  high  temperature,  as  already  indicated,  destroys  infec- 
tive particles.  Koch,  as  above  stated,  found  that  the  bacilli 
of  anthrax  and  swine  fever,  even  when  bearing  spores,  were 
deprived  of  pathogenic  power  when  exposed  for  four  hours 
to  a  temperature  of  216°  to  220°  Fahr.  ;  while  exposure  for 
five  minutes  to  boiling  water,  or,  better  still,  to  steam  heat, 
is  equally  effective.  The  power  of  steam  depends — (1)  on 
its  latent  heat  ;  (2)  on  its  moistening  ;  (3)  on  its  condensing  ; 
(4)  on  its  penetrating.  It  is  most  effective  when  employed 
under  pressure,  and  when  its  entrance  into  the  chamber  is 
occasionally  interrupted,  so  that  cold  air  in  the  interstices 
of  bulky  and  non-conducting  bodies  may  be  displaced. 
Russell,  Glasgow,  exposed  all  infected  washable  articles,  for 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  in  a  chamber,  to  steam  heat,  along 
with  soap  and  soda,  and  found  that  this  treatment  destroyed 
bacilli  of  anthrax  and  swine  fever,  tuberculous  pus,  and  also 


52  SPREAD    OF   CONTAGION 

the  ova  of  lice.  This  method  should,  where  practicable,  be 
adopted  in  the  case  of  rugs  and  other  articles  used  by 
infected  animals. 

Conveyance  of  contagium  by  attendants  is  prevented  by 
sprinkling  their  clothes  and  boots  with  weak  carbolic  solu- 
tions. After  handling  animals  affected  by  contagious 
disease,  or  making  post-mortem  examinations  of  such 
subjects,  the  hands  should  be  cleansed  first  with  soap  and 
water,  and  then  washed  with  a  4  per  cent,  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid,  or  with  a  solution  of  12-15  grains  corrosive  sub- 
limate to  a  quart  of  water,  which  very  effectually  destroys 
any  adhering  bacilli. 

So  soon  as  the  premises  in  which  animals  affected  with 
contagious  disease  have  lived  can  be  emptied,  more  thorough 
disinfection  should  be  carried  out.  To  this  end,  doors  and 
windows  having  been  closed,  formic  aldehyde,  chlorine,  or 
sulphurous  acid  should  be  freely  evolved,  and  the  place  kept 
shut  for  several  hours.  Walls,  floors,  and  woodwork  should 
subsequently  be  scraped,  and  washed  with  corrosive  sublim- 
ate solution  or  other  disinfectant. 

Different  disinfectants  are  suitable  for  different  purposes. 
For  putrefying  or  contagious  matters  mixed  with  water, 
the  best  are  mineral  salts,  of  which  the  most  effective  and 
cheapest  are  corrosive  sublimate  ;  zinc  chloride,  in  the 
familiar  form  of  Burnet's  fluid ;  and  iron  chloride,  or 
formalin.  For  sewage  disinfection,  or  where  there  is  much 
water,  aluminium  sulphate,  followed  by  lime,  can  be  recom- 
mended. Sulphites  promptly  remove  smells,  and  are  most 
effectual  when  conjoined  with  the  tar  acids.  The  mixture 
of  sodium  sulphite  and  carbolic  or  cresylic  acid,  although 
effectual  for  deodorising,  has  a  feeble  power  in  preventing 
the  putrefaction  of  night  soil,  for  which  potassium  perman- 
ganate is  most  useful.  Common  salt,  although  ineffectual 
in  checking  decay  when  once  established,  or  in  neutralising 
bad  smells,  is  a  cheap  preserver  of  many  animal  substances. 
It  preserves  and  disinfects  skins.  Iodine  is  volatile  and 
penetrating.  It  is  used  in  many  sick-rooms  and  hospitals, 
conveniently  dissolved  in  the  light  diffusible  pentane.  The 
solution  contains  20  grains  to  the  ounce  ;  an  ounce  suffices 
for  four  cubic  feet  of  space  ;  distributed  by  a  spray  pro- 


DEODORISERS  53 

ducer,  it  volatilises  rapidly  ;  it  leaves,  when  freely  used,  a 
film  of  iodine,  and  effectually  destroys  smells  and  noxious 
organic  matter.  Its  expense,  however,  precludes  its  general 
use  in  veterinary  practice. 

The  uses  of  deodorisers. — Objectionable  smells  are  largely 
made  up  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  phosphuretted  hydrogen, 
and  nitrogen  gases,  with  sulphurous  and  ammoniacal  com- 
pounds. Some  popular  deodorisers  only  cloak  and  over- 
power, instead  of  neutralising  or  destroying  offensive  smells. 
Of  this  description  are  fumigations  with  aromatic  and  bal- 
samic substances,  such  as  camphor,  cascarilla,  and  lavender, 
the  burning  of  brown  paper,  the  sprinkling  of  scents  and 
essences.  Odours  depending  upon  gases  are  readily  re- 
moved by  effectual  chemical  neutralisers  :  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  by  chlorine  ;  ammoniacal  emanations,  by  hydro- 
chloric and  nitric  acids.  Smells  from  decomposing  organic 
matters  are  usually  most  effectually  got  rid  of  by  arresting 
decomposition  by  suitable  antiseptics.  For  destroying  the 
intolerable  smell  from  cochineal  dye-works,  no  deodoriser 
has  been  found  so  satisfactory  as  sulphurous  acid.  For 
deodorising  the  contents  of  privies,  without  detracting 
from  the  manurial  value,  a  mixture  of  common  salt  and 
carbolic  acid,  or  eight  parts  of  calcined  dolomite  mixed  with 
two  of  peat  or  of  wood  charcoal,  can  be  recommended. 

Powerful  mineral  antiseptics,  such  as  the  zinc  and  iron 
chlorides,  especiaUy  when  used  in  concentrated  solution,  are 
not  good  deodorisers.  Not  being  volatile,  they  can  only 
destroy  the  odorous  particles  brought  into  immediate  con- 
tact with  them.  Iodine,  dissolved  in  spirit,  although  an 
expensive,  is  an  elegant  and  effective  deodoriser.  Cresylic 
and  carbolic  acids  are  good  deodorisers,  and  are  volatile, 
but  have  the  disadvantage,  that  when  used  in  concen- 
trated form,  they  may  cause  the  evolution  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  A  mixture  of  dry  sodium  sulphite  with  carbolic 
acid  is  effectual,  and  moderate  in  cost,  and  should  be  placed 
in  vessels  about  the  premises.  Creolin — one  part  in  50 
to  100  of  water — is  largely  used  as  a  deodorant  for  cattle- 
sheds,  stables,  piggeries,  and  kennels.  Chlorinated  lime,  in 
the  familiar  form  of  bleaching  powder,  although  possessed 
of  small  antiseptic  power,  is  a  prompt  and  effectual  deodor- 


54  PARASITICIDES    AND    ANTIPERIODICS 

iser,  can  be  employed  either  for  solid  or  liquid  impurities, 
gives  off  chlorine,  and  never  causes  any  disagreeable  com- 
binations ;  but  breaking  up  instead  of  preserving  organic 
matters,  it  diminishes  the  value  of  manure  with  which  it  is 
mixed.  It  is  applied  as  powder,  or  in  solution  containing 
from  2  to  5  per  cent.,  to  the  walls,  wood- work,  and  floors  of 
the  places  requiring  purification,  or  sheets  soaked  in  the 
solution  are  suspended  about  the  premises. 

PARASITICIDES  are  killers  of  parasites,  whether  animal  or 
vegetable.  The  group  includes  germicides,  or  killers  of 
micro-organisms,  and  vermicides,  which  will  be  subse- 
quently noticed.  They  are  referred  to  here  as  they  mainly 
consist  of  antiseptics.  The  many  varieties  of  ringworm  pro- 
duced by  fungi  are  destroyed  by  antiseptic  solutions,  by 
phenol  oils,  and  tincture  of  iodine.  Scab  and  mange  caused 
by  various  acari  are  treated  by  sulphur  ointments,  solutions 
of  carbolic  acid,  creolin,  or  arsenic,  or  by  tobacco  infusion. 
The  strongyli  invading  the  bronchial  tubes  of  young  cattle 
and  sheep,  and  causing  hoose  or  husk,  are  destroyed  by 
inhalation  of  diluted  sulphurous  acid,  or  chlorine,  or  by 
turpentine,  chloroform,  or  terebene,  given  hit  rat  radically. 

ANTIPERIODICS  are  medicines  which  mitigate  or  prevent 
intermittent  intensity  of  the  symptoms  of  certain  diseases. 
Such  periodical  recrudescence  is  less  marked  in  the  lower 
animals  than  in  man,  but  is  sometimes  observable  in  the 
pyrexia  of  influenza  in  horses  and  distemper  in  dogs.  These 
exacerbations  usually  occur  in  specific  disorders,  and  are 
believed  to  result  from  the  recurring  development  of  fresh 
crops  of  micro-organisms  or  their  products.  Cinchona, 
quinine,  iodine,  arsenic,  alkalies,  and  salicin,  are  the  most 
effective  antiperiodics. 

REMEDIES  ACTING  ON  THE  SURFACE  OF 
THE  BODY 

RUBEFACIENTS  —  VESICANTS  —  PUSTULANTS  —  CAUSTICS  — 
SETONS — THE  ACTUAL  CAUTEBY — ASTRINGENTS — DE- 
MULCENTS— EMOLLIENTS — DILUENTS 

Irritants,  or  Counter-irritants,  applied  to  the  skin,  produce 
nervous  and  vascular  reaction,  and  reflexly  induce  certain 


COUNTER-IRRITANTS  55 

remote  effects.  They  relieve  or  remove  congestion  and  pain, 
and,  by  stimulating  functional  activity,  promote  repair.  It 
is  not  always  easy,  however,  to  explain  how  these  curative 
results  are  produced. 

Heat  and  cold  both  relieve  tension,  and  hence  pain  ;  but 
they  produce  their  effects  in  different  ways.  Cold  reflexly 
contracts  arteries,  constringes  the  tissues,  and  hence  lessens 
the  quantity  of  blood  flowing  to  an  inflamed  part.  Warmth 
dilates  capillaries  adjacent  to  the  seat  of  inflammation,  and 
hence  relieves  stasis  of  blood  and  venous  congestion.  Cold 
lessens  the  amoeboid  movements  of  the  white  corpuscles, 
but  to  be  effective  it  must  be  used  in  the  earlier  stages  of  in- 
flammation, and  continuously  for  a  considerable  time. 

A  mild  blister  acts  in  the  same  way  as  a  warm  poultice, 
viz.,  it  dilates  the  congested  or  inflamed  capillary  network, 
and  thus  relieves  congestion,  inflammation,  and  pain.  It 
certainly  increases  circulation  through  the  part,  promoting 
cell  growth  and  hastening  absorption.  It  thus  restores 
healthy  action  in  most  inflamed  organs,  in  swollen  glands 
and  joints. 

Irritation  or  inflammation  of  the  skin  surface,  as  indicated, 
frequently  relieves  or  removes  congestion  or  inflammation, 
and  pain,  but  it  also  has  an  effect  on  adjacent  or  deeper- 
seated  parts.  For  such  purposes  blisters  are  applied  in  most 
animals,  in  sore  throat,  bronchitis,  pleurisy,  inflamed  joints, 
etc.  In  fact,  the  action  of  irritants  applied  to  the  skin 
may  be  described  as  general  or  systemic,  local  on  the  part 
to  which  they  are  applied,  and  reflex  in  subjacent  or  distal 
parts. 

The  general  effects  produced  by  moderate  stimulation  of 
sensory  nerves  are  (1)  vaso-constriction,  with  a  rise  of  blood- 
pressure  ;  (2)  quickening  of  the  heart  ;  and  (3)  quickening 
of  respiration  with  a  slight  rise  of  temperature.  Excessive 
stimulation  causes  great  vaso-dilatation,  fall  of  blood 
pressure,  and  inhibition  of  the  heart,  in  other  words,  a 
condition  similar  to  '  surgical  shock.'  The  local  effects  have 
been  described. 

The  special  reflex  action  (counter-irritation)  in  subjacent 
organs  is  probably  due  to  a  relation  between  the  sensory 
nerves  supplying  the  stimulated  skin  area,  and  the  trophic 


56  COUNTER-IRRITANTS 

nerves  supplying  the  subjacent  viscera.  This  theory  is  sup- 
ported by  the  fact  that  optimum  effects  are  obtained  when 
the  skin  area  stimulated  is  supplied  from  the  same  segment 
of  the  spinal  cord  as  that  which  supplies  the  viscus  to  be 
acted  upon  reflexly.  Thus,  when  the  chest  walls  are 
blistered  in  a  case  of  pleurisy,  so  soon  as  the  skin  becomes 
hot  and  tender,  a  stimulus  is  conveyed  by  the  afferent  nerves 
to  the  vaso-motor  medullary  centres,  and  thence  is  reflected 
by  the  vaso-motor  nerves,  causing  the  pleural  capillaries  to 
dilate,  thus  diminishing  tension  and  pain. 

The  several  classes  of  irritants  used  externally  differ 
materially  in  the  intensity  and  duration  of  their  effects. 

RUBEFACIENTS  produce  slight  redness  and  vascular  dilata- 
tion or  congestion,  and  are  represented  by  ammonia  solu- 
tion, iodine,  and  mild  preparations  of  cantharides  ;  by 
alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform,  if  evaporation  be  prevented 
by  oiled  silk  or  other  means  ;  by  turpentine  and  other 
volatile  oils,  as  well  as  by  smart  friction  and  moderate  heat. 
Owing  to  the  colour  of  the  skin  and  abundance  of  hair, 
reddening  in  veterinary  patients  is,  however,  less  obvious 
than  in  man. 

MASSAGE  or  friction  with  graduated  pressure,  as  in  knead- 
ing or  shampooing,  exerts  many  of  the  effects  of  counter- 
irritants.  It  promotes  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and 
lymph,  hastens  absorption  of  exudates,  stimulates  the  cutan- 
eous nerves  and  reflexly  the  central  nervous  system,  and 
eases  pain.  Massage  is  indicated  at  the  beginning  of  the 
treatment  of  recent  strain  of  ligament  or  tendon,  wrenched 
joints,  oedema,  contusion,  paralysis,  myositis,  and  muscular 
atrophy.  After  removing  the  hair,  the  surface  of  the  part  is 
anointed  with  lard,  lanoline,  or  oil,  then  rubbed  and  kneaded 
for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  and  always  in  the  direction  of 
venous  return.  Massage  is  contra-indicated  on  septic 
swellings,  abscesses,  etc. 

VESICANTS  are  more  active ;  cause  exudation  of  plasma, 
which,  collecting  under  the  epidermis,  raises  vesicles  or 
blisters.  Vesicles  contain  a  fluid  consisting  of  about  78 
parts  of  water,  18  of  albumin,  with  a  little  fibrin,  and  4  of 
salts.  Steam  and  boiling  water  rapidly  produce  a  large 
amount  of  effusion.  Blisters,  by  whatsoever  agent  raised, 


PUSTTJLANTS   AND    CAUSTICS  57 

after  some  days  generally  dry  up,  protecting  the  parts  until 
the  new  epidermis  forms.  Biniodide  of  mercury,  canthar- 
ides,  mustard,  acetic  acid,  turpentine,  and  ammonia,  are  the 
vesicants  commonly  used  in  veterinary  practice. 

PUSTULANTS  inflame  the  deep-seated  cutaneous  tissues, 
especially  the  orifices  of  the  sweat  glands,  cause  exudation 
of  leucocytes  and  raise  pustules.  These  are  the  effects  of 
croton  oil,  tartar  emetic,  mercury  biniodide  ;  and  also  of 
cantharides,  mustard,  and  other  active  vesicants,  when 
applied  with  sufficient  friction. 

CAUSTICS  combine  with  the  water  and  albumin  of  the 
tissues,  with  which  they  are  brought  into  contact,  kill  the 
cells,  and  cause  the  separation  of  a  slough.  Those  producing 
extensive  sloughing  receive  the  title  of  escharotics.  Caustics 
are  exemplified  by  the  concentrated  mineral  acids,  glacial 
acetic,  carbolic,  and  chromic  acids,  concentrated  alkalies, 
antimony  chloride,  arsenic,  bromine,  and  the  soluble  salts 
of  the  heavy  metals. 

Caustics  are  used  to  destroy  parasites  or  virus  in  infected 
wounds,  and  for  this  purpose  penetrating  fluid  caustics  are 
sometimes  preferable  to  solid.  They  are  employed  for 
opening  abscesses,  and  for  removing  warts  and  other 
growths,  especially  when  so  deep-seated  and  vascular  that 
they  cannot  be  safely  extirpated  by  the  knife.  (See  also 
Astringents  and  Styptics.) 

But  besides  these  more  direct  actions,  they  develop  more 
complex  and  vital  reparative  effects.  Applied,  for  example, 
to  indolent  or  callous  ulcers,  they  stimulate  the  trophic 
nerves  and  blood-vessels  in  the  zone  adjacent  to  the  dead 
or  dying  cells,  promote  healthy  nutrition,  and  thus  hasten 
healing.  Lightly  used,  they  condense  soft,  spongy,  exuber- 
ant granulations,  and  hasten  the  cicatrisation  of  sinuses. 
These  beneficial  effects  on  morbid  processes  thus  result,  not 
only  from  direct  action  on  the  diseased  tissues,  but  also 
from  indirect  reflex  action  on  surrounding  parts  ;  in  other 
words,  from  counter-irritation. 

SETONS  are  sometimes  substituted  for  blisters  or  firing,  and 
are  frequently  preferred  to  firing  on  account  of  their  being 
less  apt  to  blemish.  The  seton  consists  of  a  piece  of  tape 
or  cord,  and  is  usually  inserted  by  means  of  a  seton  needle. 


58  THE    ACTUAL   CAUTERY 

To  prevent  slipping  out,  its  ends  are  tied  together,  or 
knotted.  It  is  usually  moved  daily  ;  and  if  severe  effects  are 
desired,  it  is  smeared  with  blistering  ointment.  Setons  act 
chiefly  on  the  comparatively  insensitive  subcutaneous 
cellular  tissues. 

A  rowel  acts  in  much  the  same  manner  as  a  seton.  A 
wound  is  made  in  the  skin  with  a  bistoury  or  rowel  scissors, 
and  is  kept  open  by  the  insertion  of  a  disc  of  leather,  or  a 
pledget  of  tow,  which,  to  increase  counter-irritation,  is 
smeared  with  blistering  ointment. 

Acupuncture  is  effected  by  needles  three  to  six  inches  in 
length,  introduced  into  fleshy  parts,  with  a  rotary  movement. 
Occasionally  anodynes  are  deeply  injected  into  muscles  for 
the  relief  of  rheumatic  pain. 

THE  ACTUAL  CAUTERY,  or  thermo-cautery  is  still  much 
used  in  veterinary  practice  as  a  counter-irritant.  It  is 
generally  applied  at  a  red  heat,  and  the  higher  the  tempera- 
ture, the  less  the  pain  attending  its  application.  It  is  em- 
ployed for  some  of  the  purposes  of  active  vesicants,  and  also 
of  caustics.  In  the  treatment  of  chronic  inflammation  of 
bones,  joints,  ligaments,  and  tendons,  for  which  it  is  chiefly 
used,  it  modifies  the  nutrition  of  the  diseased  part  (counter- 
irritation).  Deep  cauterisation  with  penetration,  as  in 
pyropuncturing  bony  outgrowths,  increases  the  activity  of 
the  inflammatory  process  and  hastens  consolidation. 
Moderate  cauterisation,  as  in  linear  or  transcurrent  firing, 
promotes  absorption  of  exudate  and  resolution.  The  fired 
skin  does  not,  as  was  once  believed,  form  a  permanent 
bandage  around  the  parts  ;  for  a  short  time  indeed  after 
the  operation  the  skin  is  corrugated  and  tightened,  but  it 
soon  resumes  its  natural  elasticity,  and  does  not  embrace  the 
subjacent  parts  more  firmly  than  in  health.  The  firing  of 
healthy  limbs,  with  the  popular  idea  of  strengthening  and 
bracing  them  up,  is  now  deservedly  discountenanced,  and 
any  benefits  apparently  accruing  really  result  from  the  rest 
which  the  operation  necessitates.  In  nervous,  excitable 
horses,  firing  occasionally  produces  irritative  fever,  especially 
if  several  parts  are  fired  at  the  same  time. 

The  uses  of  counter-irritants. — In  influenza,  bronchitis, 
and  other  depressing  disorders  of  horses,  in  order  to  rouse 


USES    OF   COUNTER-IRRITANTS  59 

the  action  of  the  heart  and  avert  lung  congestion,  rube- 
facients,  such  as  soap  liniment  or  mustard  paste,  are  some- 
times rubbed  into  the  chest,  abdomen,  or  legs,  and  when  the 
surface  is  warmed,  as  it  generally  will  be  in  ten  to  fifteen 
minutes,  the  dressing  is  washed  off.  Counter-irritants  are  in 
common  use  in  certain  stages  of  inflammation  of  the  joints, 
air  passages,  intestines,  and  their  investing  membranes. 
They  are  more  beneficial  in  laryngitis  and  bronchitis  affect- 
ing the  larger  tubes,  and  in  pleurisy,  than  in  pneumonia.  In 
the  outset  of  inflammatory  attacks,  by  reflex  action,  they 
lessen  hyperemia,  chiefly  by  stimulating  the  dilated  para- 
lysed capillaries,  thus  favouring  resolution.  In  more  acute 
stages,  when  blood-plasma  and  red  and  white  corpuscles 
are  escaping  through  the  walls  of  the  distended  vessels, 
fomentations  and  poultices  are  generally  more  suitable  than 
irritants.  When  the  urgency  of  the  febrile'  symptoms  has 
somewhat  abated,  counter-irritants  are,  however,  again 
useful  in  promoting  absorption  of  inflammatory  products, 
and  they  frequently  invigorate  enfeebled,  over-distended 
capillaries,  and  substitute  higher  formative  for  lower  debased 
action. 

Blisters  act  more  powerfully  on  horses  than  on  cattle,  act 
uncertainly,  and  yet  require  to  be  used  with  special  caution 
on  dogs,  which  are  apt  to  bite  and  rub  the  blistered  parts, 
and  thus  induce  sloughing.  For  general  purposes  in  canine 
practice,  iodine  is  a  most  useful  counter-irritant.  The  action 
of  turpentine  on  the  skin  of  horses  is  peculiar.  Applied  over 
a  considerable  surface,  it  produces  such  intense  irritation 
that  some  animals  for  a  short  time  become  unmanageable, 
a  result  the  more  remarkable  as  turpentine  acts  but  slightly 
on  the  more  delicate  human  skin. 

The  choice  of  a  counter-irritant  and  the  mode  of  using 
it  are  determined  by  various  conditions.  For  prompt  but 
temporary  effects,  as  in  combating  chill,  rousing  nervous 
depression,  or  overcoming  such  functional  disturbance  as 
occasions  colic,  mustard  and  other  rubefacients  are  specially 
indicated.  To  act  more  permanently  on  parts  in  which 
nutrition  has  been  more  seriously  impaired,  cantharides  is 
the  appropriate  counter-irritant.  Where  bone,  cartilage,  or 
ligament  has  been  chronically  affected,  still  more  profound 


60  CHOICE    OF    COUNTER-IRRITANTS 

and  permanent  effects  result  from  the  use  of  mercuric 
biniodide  ointment,  the  hot  needle-iron,  or  setons. 

In  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  chest  in  horses  mustard 
is  preferable  to  cantharides.  In  well-bred  sensitive  animals 
a  pound  of  mustard  flour  made  into  a  paste  with  cold  water 
is  rubbed  into  the  sides  and  washed  off  in  half  an  hour.  In 
the  heavier  less  sensitive  breeds  paper  is  laid  over  the 
mustard  dressing,  and  the  horse-rug  loosely  applied.  Some 
horses  show  considerable  restiveness,  and  even  pain.  So 
soon,  however,  as  tenderness  and  swelling  are  notable 
externally,  as  they  usually  are  in  a  few  hours,  the  chest 
symptoms  abate.  No  other  remedy  affords  such  prompt 
and  effectual  relief  in  these  cases. 

Before  a  blister  is  applied,  the  skin  should  be  well  washed 
with  soap  and  water,  and  the  hair,  when  long  or  thick, 
removed.  The  effect  of  the  blister  may  be  hastened  and 
increased  by  subjecting  the  part  to  smart  friction,  or  the 
action  of  hot  water,  and  by  rubbing  the  agent  well  in,  taking 
care  to  spread  it  over  the  surface  of  the  part  diseased. 
Violent,  deep-seated  action  is  seldom  desirable.  Better 
curative  results  ace  usually  attained  by  moderate  and 
continuous  effects  kept  up  by  repeated  applications. 

Counter-irritants  may  generally  be  applied  directly  over 
the  inflamed  area,  when  removal  of  fluid  or  inflammatory 
products  is  desired  ;  but  should  seldom  be  applied  to  ex- 
tensive acutely  inflamed  parts,  or  to  tissues  immediately 
continuous  with  them. 

When  vitality  is  low,  or  the  skin  irritable,  blisters  are  apt 
to  cause  sloughing.  When  inordinate  local  irritation  has 
been  produced,  it  may  be  abated  by  fomentations,  while 
undue  constitutional  excitement  is  removed  by  opiates, 
diluents,  a  mash  diet,  and  salines.  On  the  next  or  second 
day  after  a  blister  has  been  applied,  the  part  should  be 
dressed  with  zinc  ointment,  lard,  vaseline,  oil,  glycerin,  or 
acetate  of  lead  lotion. 

ASTRINGENTS  condense  the  living  tissues.  Many  produce 
their  effects  by  coagulating  or  precipitating  albumin.  These 
comprise  alum,  chalk,  salts  of  the  heavier  metals,  acids,  and 
alcohol,  with  tannic  acid,  and  such  tannin-containing  sub- 
stances as  oak-bark  and  catechu.  All  caustics  used  in 


STYPTICS  61 

small  quantity,  or  diluted  solution,  are  astringent.  Agents, 
such  as  ergot,  digitalis,  and  adrenalin,  have  no  coagulant 
power  on  albumin,  but  eonstringe  the  tissues,  in  virtue  of 
their  action  on  the  walls  of  the  nutrient  arterioles.  Experi- 
ments made  by  Stockman  with  gallic  acid  show  that  it  has 
no  claim  to  any  special  coagulant  action  nor  any  effect  in 
lessening,  like  ergot,  the  calibre  of  blood-vessels,  either  by 
peripheral  or  central  action.  The  remote  effects  of  vegetable 
and  other  astringents  have  been  overestimated.  So  soon 
as  their  chemical  affinities  have  been  satisfied  by  union  with 
a  base  or  with  albumin,  they  must  evidently  lose  their 
power  of  coagulating  or  precipitating  albumin  ;  and  it  is 
therefore  difficult  to  comprehend  how  they  can  exert 
astringent  effects  upon  either  the  respiratory  or  the  urinary 
mucous  membrane. 

Astringents  are  used  to  diminish  excessive,  and  modify 
faulty,  secretion,  to  combat  congestion  of  cutaneous  and 
mucous  surfaces,  and  to  arrest  limited  recent  superficial 
inflammation.  These  results  appear  to  be  obtained  in 
several  ways.  Usually  some  change  is  effected  in  the  vas- 
cular walls,  or  in  the  perivascular  connective  tissues,  not 
always,  however,  by  narrowing  the  vessels,  for  such  notable 
astringents  as  alum  and  tannic  acid  dilate  vessels  ;  while 
silver  nitrate  acts  on  the  cement  substance  of  the  endo- 
thelium.  Their  efficacy  is  often  well  seen  in  circumscribed 
inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva  or  fauces.  Solutions  of 
tannin,  eucalyptus  gum,  or  alum,  in  spray  or  gargle,  or 
inhalations  of  turpentine  vapour,  mixed  with  air,  arrest  the 
inordinate  secretion,  and  relieve  the  congestion  of  sore 
throat  and  bronchitis.  Their  application  in  disorders  of  the 
digestive  organs  will  receive  special  notice  under  that  head- 
ing. As  injections  and  suppositories,  they  are  used  in 
irritable  and  inflamed  conditions  of  the  vagina  and  uterus. 
The  uterus  and  rectum,  when  prolapsed,  are  washed  with 
astringent  antiseptics,  in  order  to  diminish  their  irritability 
and  swelling,  and  to  facilitate  their  safe  return.  They  con- 
dense exuberant  granulations,  lessen  discharges  from  wounds 
and  ulcers,  which  they  usually  coat  with  a  protective  film 
of  albumin. 

STYPTICS  are  astringents  specially  used  to  arrest  bleeding. 


62  DEMULCENTS   AND    EMOLLIENTS 

Some,  like  matico,  tow,  lint,  or  pressure,  mechanically  check 
blood-flow  from  superficial  vessels  ;  others,  like  most  astrin- 
gents and  caustics,  coagulate  albumin,  and  thus  plug  the 
leaking  vessels.  When  thus  used,  the  blood  is  removed  by 
a  piece  of  lint  or  a  sponge,  and  the  part  lightly  pressed,  so 
that  the  blood-vessels  may  be  more  readily  seen,  and  the 
caustic  applied  to  them  with  precision,  and  with  as  little 
destruction  as  possible  of  surrounding  textures.  The  effect 
of  the  styptic  may  be  seconded  by  equable  pressure  and 
application  of  cold.  Others  again,  like  adrenalin,  ergot, 
digitalis,  ether-spray,  and  antipyrine  in  tannic  acid  solution, 
contract  capillary  vessels,  while  lead  acetate  and  calcium 
chloride  act  by  increasing  the  coagulability  of  the  blood,  the 
former  also  contracting  arterioles.  Astringent  and  caustic 
agents  are  also  used  as  coagulants  to  prevent  the  flow  of 
synovia  from  open  joint  capsules  and  bursse. 

DEMULCENTS  soothe  and  protect  parts  with  which  they 
come  into  contact,  act  chiefly  mechanically,  and  closely 
resemble  emollients.  They  include  gums,  mucilage,  linseed, 
cotton-wool  and  collodion,  fuller's  earth,  starch,  treacle, 
gelatin,  albumin,  fats,  oils,  glycerin,  and  milk.  They  take 
the  place  of  mucus  and  other  natural  demulcents,  where 
these  are  deficient  or  wanting.  They  lubricate  or  defend 
abraded  or  irritable  parts  from  external  injury,  acrid  dis- 
charges, and  poisonous  matters.  They  are  employed  in 
solution,  spray,  draught,  or  enema,  to  relieve  dry,  irritable 
conditions  of  the  skin,  respiratory,  digestive,  and  urino- 
genital  membranes  by  local  application. 

EMOLLIENTS  soften,  soothe,  and  relax  the  parts  to  which 
they  are  applied.  They  resemble  demulcents,  and  include 
many  of  the  articles  specified  in  that  class,  as  well  as  those 
substances  which  absorb  and  retain  heat  and  moisture. 
They  are  represented  by  fomentations,  poultices,  and 
spongio-piline,  and  by  folds  of  lint,  flannel,  or  woollen 
cloth,  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  covered  with  water- 
proofing. (See  Poultices  and  Fomentations.)  Pats,  oils, 
lanoline,  vaseline,  paraffin,  with  soap  and  other  liniments, 
are  also  emollients.  Fatty  emollients  rubbed  into  the 
skin  soften  and  supple  it  ;  and  when  applied  with  smart 
and  continued  friction,  they  also  increase  tissue  changes, 


DILUENTS  63 

and  hasten  removal  of  deposits.  In  the  form  of  watery 
vapour,  simple  or  medicated  emollients  relieve  irritability 
and  congestion  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane.  Not 
only  do  they  reduce  tension  and  relax  tissues  to  which  they 
are  immediately  applied,  but,  acting  on  adjacent  vaso- 
motor  centres,  they  dilate  collateral  blood-vessels  ;  and 
mainly  in  this  way  fomentations  and  poultices  relieve 
irritation  and  inflammation  of  the  throat,  lungs,  and  other 
deep-seated  organs.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  inflammation 
they  promote  resolution  ;  and  in  all  stages  they  relieve 
heat,  tension,  pain,  and  spasm.  Although  serviceable  for 
softening  and  cleansing  septic  wounds,  they  should  not  be 
used  for  wounds  in  process  of  healing  by  first  intention  or 
adhesion. 

DILUENTS  are  allied  to  demulcents  and  emollients,  are 
liquid  or  solid  substances  used  along  with  more  active 
agents  in  order  to  diminish  their  activity.  They  include 
most  demulcent  drugs. 


MEDICINES  ACTING  ON  MUSCLE 
ACTION   OF  MEDICINES   ON  MUSCLE 

The  three  varieties  of  muscle,  striped  or  voluntary,  un- 
striped  or  involuntary,  and  cardiac  muscle,  are  affected  quite 
differently  by  drugs,  and  must  be  considered  separately. 
The  chief  characteristic  of  muscle  is  the  power  of  contraction 
when  stimulated.  The  striped  muscles  are  all  connected 
with  the  central  nervous  system  by  means  of  nerve  fibres  of 
two  kinds,  the  one  sensory  or  afferent,  conveying  impres- 
sions from  the  muscle  to  the  nerve  centre,  the  other  motor 
or  efferent,  transmitting  impulses  from  the  centre  to  the 
muscle.  These  motor  impulses  result  in  contraction  of  the 
muscle,  and  these  contractions  and  the  succeeding  relaxa- 
tions (passive)  are  accompanied  by  chemical  changes  in  the 
muscle  which  set  free  the  necessary  energy.  Oxygen  is  used 
up  whilst  sarcolactic  acid  and  carbon  dioxide  are  formed. 
These  waste  products,  and  the  accompanying  fatigue  conse- 
quent on  repeated  violent  contractions,  can  be  removed 


64  MEDICINES    ACTING    ON   MUSCLE 

experimentally  by  washing  out  the  muscle  with  a  current 
of  blood  or  serum,  either  of  which  supplies  it  with  food  at 
the  same  time,  or  with  normal  saline  solution  containing  a 
trace  of  alkali.  In  practice,  removal  of  these  waste  pro- 
ducts is  hastened  by  shampooing  the  muscles,  or  massage, 
the  effects  of  which,  in  overcoming  fatigue,  are  fully  recog- 
nised. In  like  manner  thorough  grooming  and  diligent 
hand-rubbing  of  the  limbs  of  horses  after  hard  work  lessen 
fatigue,  and  prevent  subsequent  stiffness  and  swelling  of 
joints. 

But  muscle  fibres  are  susceptible  to  other  stimuli  than 
impulses  along  the  motor  nerves,  for  thermal  or  electrical 
stimulation  will  cause  contraction  even  when  all  the  nerve 
fibres  in  the  muscle  have  been  destroyed.  Similarly,  drugs 
can  affect  the  muscle  fibres  themselves,  some  stimulating  to 
stronger  and  quicker  contraction,  others  depressing,  lessen- 
ing the  power  of  contraction,  and  making  the  reaction 
slower. 

Muscular  spasms  consist  of  irregular  purposeless  con- 
tractions of  either  voluntary  or  involuntary  muscles, 
usually  depending  on  faulty  action  of  the  higher  co-ordin- 
ating centres.  They  may,  however,  be  due  to  some  change 
in  the  muscle  itself,  or  to  the  direct  action  of  some  poison. 
Spasms  may  be  either  tonic,  as  in  tetanus  of  muscle,  or 
clonic,  as  in  tremor  or  rigors.  Spasm  of  involuntary 
muscles,  as  illustrated  by  that  of  the  blood-vessels,  bronchi, 
or  intestines,  is  antagonised  by  nitrites,  such  as  amyl-ni trite 
and  nitrous  ether  (see  Antispasmodics).  When  a  muscle,  or 
its  motor  nerve,  receives  an  abnormal  number  of  stimuli, 
so  that  it  has  no  time  to  relax  between  them,  instead  of 
contraction  being  followed  by  relaxation,  prolonged  tonic 
contraction  or  tetanus  ensues.  This  occurs  with  poisons 
like  strychnine  and  with  tetano-toxin. 

'  Rapid  alternation  of  contraction  and  relaxation,  or 
tremor,  may  affect  either — (a)  a  few  bundles  of  muscular 
fibres  ;  (6)  a  single  muscle  ;  or  (c)  groups  of  muscles  ' 
(Brunton).  Such  tremor  may  occur  when  the  muscle  is  at 
rest,  or  when  it  is  in  motion.  This  form  of  insubordination 
may  probably  result  from  the  number  of  stimuli  from  the 
nerve-centre  being  either  too  few  or  too  many. 


ACTION   OF   MEDICINES    ON   MUSCLE  65 

The  agents  which  act  on  striped  muscle  tissue  may  be 
arranged  in  the  following  groups  : — 

1.  Diminishes  the  excitability  of  the  muscle,  as  well  as 

its  capacity  for  work.  This  group  contains  salts  of 
potassium,  lithium,  and  ammonium,  the  cinchona 
alkaloids,  chloroform,  chloral,  and  alcohol,  in  large 
doses.  This  action  is  of  little  practical  importance, 
for  it  is  either  insignificant  in  the  living  animal  or  is 
overshadowed  by  some  other  more  marked  action 
of  the  drug. 

2.  Diminishes  the  total  amount  of  work,  whilst  leaving 

the  irritability  unaffected,  until,  with  large  doses  of 
the  drug,  the  depression  ends  in  death  of  the  muscle. 
This  effect  is  produced  when  the  drug  is  brought  in 
contact  with  the  muscle,  but  not  when  medicinal 
doses  are  given  by  the  mouth.  The  group  contains 
apomorphine,  saponins,  salts  of  copper,  zinc  and 
lead,  emetine  and  cocaine. 

3.  Alters  the  form  of  the  muscle  curve,  as  exhibited  by 

veratrine  and  barium,  and  to  a  similar,  although  less 
extent,  by  strontium  and  calcium  salts,  digitalis, 
oxycolchicine,  and  glycerin.  This  effect  is  produced 
only  by  large  or  even  poisonous  doses  of  most  of 
these  agents. 

4.  Increases  the  irritability,  as  is  notably  done  by  physo- 

stigmine. 

5.  Increases  the  capacity  for  work.     The  agents  belonging 

to  this  group  cause  rapid  restoration  of  the  muscle 
after  fatigue,  and  are  represented  by  creatin,  hypo- 
xanthin,  caffeine,  and  glycogen.  These  substances 
must  hence  be  regarded,  not  only  as  nerve  stimulants, 
but  as  direct  muscle  restoratives. 

Voluntary  muscles  differ  from  involuntary,  not  only  in 
structure,  but  in  other  particulars.  Their  contraction  and 
relaxation  are  more  rapid.  The  nerves  in  voluntary  muscles 
terminate  in  end-plates,  while  the  terminal  twigs  in  involun- 
tary muscles  form  a  plexus  round  the  fibres. 

Involuntary  muscle  fibres  are  directly  stimulated  to  con- 
tract and  their  tonus  increased  by  barium,  and  to  a  less 
extent  by  veratrine  and  lead.  That  this  action  is  direct 

E 


66      MEDICINES    ACTING    ON   THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM 

is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  arterioles  in  the  lungs,  which 
are  practically  without  vaso-motor  nerves,  are  constricted 
when  a  solution  of  barium  chloride  is  perfused  through  them. 
The  opposite  effect,  namely,  direct  relaxation  of  unstriped 
muscle  fibres,  is  brought  about  by  nitrites,  such  as  amyl- 
nitrite,  and  with  these  the  lung  vessels  become  widely  dilated. 

MEDICINES  ACTING  ON  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

ON   THE   BRAIN. — CEREBRAL   STIMULANTS — EXHILARANTS— 
CEREBRAL   DEPRESSANTS  —  SOPORIFICS  —  NARCOTICS  - 
ANODYNES — ANTISPASMODICS — ANAESTHETICS. 

ON  THE  SPINAL  CORD. — SPINAL  STIMULANTS  AND  DEPRESSANTS. 

ON  MOTOR  NERVES. — STIMULANTS — PARALYSERS. 

ON    SENSORY    NERVES. — STIMULANTS — LOCAL    SEDATIVES- 
LOCAL  ANAESTHETICS. 

ELECTRICITY. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  higher  animals  comprises  :— 
I.  The  brain,  which  takes  cognisance  of  external  im- 
pressions, co-ordinates  movements,  and  originates 
mental  or  psychical  ideas.  Relatively  to  other 
parts  of  the  nervous  system,  the  brain  of  man 
is  more  highly  developed  than  that  of  animals, 
and  most  drugs,  accordingly,  act  upon  it  more 
powerfully  than  upon  the  less  developed  brain  of 
the  horse,  ox,  or  dog.  The  brain  consists  of  (1)  the 
medulla,  pons,  iter,  corpora  quadrigemina  and 
third  ventricle,  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  con- 
tinuing the  spinal  cord  forward  and  giving  off 
cranial  in  place  of  spinal  nerves  ;  (2)  the  cere- 
bellum, which  is  chiefly  concerned  in  the  mainten- 
ance of  equilibrium  ;  and  (3)  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres. The  cerebral  hemispheres  are  concerned 
with  the  highest  functions  of  judgment  and  will 
power,  and  are  the  seat  of  the  intelligence.  This 
is  especially  the  part  of  the  brain  which  is  most 
highly  developed  in  man.  The  cerebrum  controls 
and  co-ordinates  movement,  and  in  the  grey 
matter  of  the  cerebral  cortex  are  the  motor  cells 
from  which  these  impulses  spring. 


MEDICINES    ACTING    ON   THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM      67 

II.  The  Spinal  Cord  and  Medulla  have  for  their  functions 

(1)  the  control  of  reflex  actions  ;  and  (2)  the  con- 
ducting of  impulses  to  and  fro  between  the  brain 
and  the  various  organs  and  tissues  of  the  body. 
The  cells  of  the  grey  matter  are  chiefly  concerned 
with  the  former,  whilst  the  white  nerve  fibres 
outside  them  are  the  conducting  media. 

In  the  medulla,  in  the  floor  of  the  fourth 
ventricle,  are  situated  the  vital  reflex  centres — 
those  concerned  with  respiration,  cardiac  inhibi- 
tion and  vaso-motor  control — also  the  vomiting1 
centre.  In  the  cord  itself  are  centres  for  micturi- 
tion, defsecation,  parturition,  muscular  tone,  and 
vaso-motor  control. 

»  These  reflex  centres  of  the  cord,  whilst  able  of 
themselves  to  carry  out  reflex  movements,  are 
more  or  less  under  the  control  of  the  higher  centres 
of  the  brain. 

III.  Sensory  nerves,  or  afferent  nerves,  distributed  to  all 

parts  of  the  body,  convey  impressions  to  the  brain 
or  cord. 

IV.  Motor  and  secretory  or  efferent  nerves.    From  the 

cerebro-spinal  axis  arise  nerves  which  give  motion 
to  muscles,  and  convey  other  efferent  impulses  to 
glands. 

V.  Lastly,  there  are  the  sympathetic  ganglia  and  nerve 
fibres,  supervising  functions  such  as  vaso-motor 
control,  peristalsis,  and  many  others  performed  by 
involuntary  muscle,  and  the  secretion  of  some 
glands. 

Concerning  the  functions  and  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system  much  has  still  to  be  discovered,  while  the  effects 
of  medicines  acting  upon  the  brain  and  cord  still  require 
much  investigation. 

ACTION   OP  MEDICINES  ON  THE  BRAIN 

Medicines  affecting  the  brain  directly  act  in  one  of  two 
ways,  either  to  stimulate  or  to  depress.  They  pick  out,  as 
a  rule,  some  part  of  the  brain  as  the  special  seat  of  action, 


68  ACTION    OF   MEDICINES    ON   THE    BRAIN 

but  gradually  the  effect  tends  to  spread  to  all  parts  of  the 
central  nervous  system.  How  the  effects  are  produced  is 
not  easy  to  decide,  but  there  are  various  modes  of  action 
which  are  of  importance.  Some  drugs  are  absorbed  easily, 
and  without  any  chemical  change  are  readily  soluble  in  the 
fatty  material  of  the  brain,  whilst  being  relatively  insoluble 
in  water.  All  these  act  as  narcotics.  Others,  again,  chemi- 
cally combine  with  the  nerve  cells,  for  example  the  toxin 
of  tetanus,  which  unites  with  the  cells  of  the  spinal  cord  to 
form  a  non-toxic  inert  substance.  Still  others  act  on  nerve 
•cells  by  their  osmotic  effects,  such  as  salines  circulating  in 
the  blood. 

Thus,  by  various  slight  physical  and  chemical  changes 
the  cells  of  the  nervous  system  are  affected,  and,  on  the  one 
hand,  may  become  quicker  to  respond  to  excitation  (stimu- 
lated), or  less  quick  to  respond  (depression),  and  so  less  able 
to  perform  their  functions. 

The  motor  areas  of  the  cerebral  cortex  have  their  excita- 
bility lowered  by  alcohol,  chloral,  and  cold.  The  depression 
caused  by  cold,  unless  extreme,  or  applied  for  a  long  period, 
is  followed,  however,  by  reaction.  Bromides  of  potassium 
and  ammonium,  without  disturbing  the  relations  of  one 
centre  to  another,  appear  to  have  a  marked  effect  in  lower- 
ing general  brain  activity.  Still  more  prompt  and  powerful 
are  anaesthetics  which  abolish  all  motor  action.  Atropine 
in  moderate  doses  at  first  increases,  but  in  large  doses 
diminishes,  motor  excitability. 

The  motor  centres  have  their  excitability  increased  by 
mechanical  irritation,  as  by  the  point  of  a  needle,  which  pro- 
duces epileptic  convulsions.  Similar  convulsions  also  ensue 
when  the  vessels  of  the  brain  are  surcharged  with  venous 
blood,  as  in  asphyxia,  but  these  are  medullary  in  origin, 
from  the  convulsive  centre  related  to  the  respiratory  centre. 
Camphor  and  other  volatile  oils  cause  excitement  and  con- 
stant movements,  succeeded,  after  large  doses,  by  clonic 
convulsions  and  death.  The  active  principles  of  cocculus 
indicus,  cicuta  virosa,  and  oenantha  crocata,  as  well  as 
cinchonidine  and  quinine,  have  similar  convulsant  effects. 
The  action  of  these  agents  is  not  confined  to  the  brain  motor 
centres,  but  also  extends  to  those  in  the  medulla. 


CEREBRAL  STIMULANTS  bU 

CEREBRAL  STIMULANTS. — The  functions  of  the  brain  gener- 
ally are  stimulated  by  a  large  group  of  agents,  sometimes 
termed  brain  stimulants  or  exhilarants,  and  exemplified 
by  caffeine,  theobromine,  cocaine,  atropine,  and  oil  of 
turpentine.  Of  these,  the  first  two  especially  affect  the 
psychical  side,  whilst  the  others  are  motor  stimulants 
primarily.  Ammonia  vapour,  liquor,  or  carbonate,  applied 
to  the  nostrils,  reflexly  stimulates  the  heart,  and  then  acting 
upon  the  vaso-motor  centres,  also  increases  general  blood 
pressure,  and  the  circulatory  improvement  stimulates  the 
brain.  Other  circulatory  stimulants  act  similarly.  Brisk 
exercise  has  much  the  same  stimulating  effect  on  the 
cerebral  as  on  other  arteries  and  capillaries.  Mastication 
and  sucking  in  young  animals  have  been  shown  by  experi- 
ment to  increase  circulation  in  the  carotids  and  cerebral 
arteries.  Chewing  tobacco,  betel-nut,  or,  indeed,  anything 
else,  smoking,  sipping  alcoholic  stimulants,  or  even  tea, 
coffee,  or  cold  water,  have  similar  effects  in  dilating  the 
human  cerebral  arteries.  Placing  the  head  on  a  lower  level 
than  the  rest  of  the  body  favours  brain  circulation,  and 
hence  wards  off  syncope. 

The  functional  activity  of  the  brain  is  lowered  by  large 
or  repeated  doses  of  alcohol,  which,  after  apparent  exhilara- 
tion, and,  it  may  be,  delirium,  produce  narcosis,  sleep,  and 
sometimes  death.  Other  agents  causing  depression,  after 
more  or  less  preliminary  excitement,  are  chloroform  and 
chloral,  opium  and  cannabis  indica.  Bromides  of  potassium 
and  ammonium,  without  preliminary  excitement  or  dis- 
turbed function,  diminish  brain  activity.  Accumulation  of 
lactic  acid,  and  probably  other  elements  of  tissue  waste, 
appears  to  have  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  the  bromides  in 
lowering  the  activity  of  the  nerve-cells. 

SOPORIFICS  or  HYPNOTICS  are  agents  which  induce  sleep. 
Many  hypnotics  lessen  functional  activity  of  the  nerve-cells 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  while  others  impede  the  im- 
pressions transmitted  through  the  nerves  and  special  sense 
organs  to  the  cerebrum.  Full  doses  further  depress  the 
functions  of  the  respiratory  and  vaso-motor  centres  in  the 
medulla,  as  evidenced  by  slower  respiration,  dilatation  of 
surf  ace- vessels,  and  lowering  of  arterial  tension.  During 


70  HYPNOTICS 

sleep,  certain  parts  remaining  in  a  state  of  partial  unregu- 
lated activity,  induce  the  phenomena  of  dreams,  which  occur 
in  the  domesticated  animals  as  well  as  in  man. 

A  perfect  hypnotic  has  not  yet  been  found  even  for 
human  patients.  Those  prescribed  are  liable  to  be  un- 
certain, and  injuriously  disturb  motor,  organic  and  trophic 
functions.  Hypnotics  act  still  less  satisfactorily  on  the 
lower  animals,  on  account  of  the  want  of  development  of  the 
cerebrum.  Dogs  and  pigs  are,  however,  brought  under 
their  influence  more  readily  than  horses  or  ruminants. 
The  agents  most  trusted  are  opium  and  morphine,  chloral 
hydrate,  croton  chloral,  hyoscine,  cannabis  indica,  and 
bromides.  Opium  and  morphine  prove  of  special  value,  not 
only  in  depressing  cerebral  functional  activity,  but  also  in 
antagonising  pain  and  irritation  which  interfere  with  sleep  ; 
but  not  to  an  equal  extent  in  all  animals,  for  in  the  cat, 
and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  horse,  excitement  and  restlessness 
are  caused.  Bromides  diminish  conduction  of  impressions, 
and  hence  notably  quiet  cerebral  excitement.  Chloral  is  a 
powerful  hypnotic,  but  in  large  doses  it  is  a  local  irritant, 
and  sometimes  also  produces  dangerous  delirium  and  con- 
vulsions. It  induces  sleep  mainly  by  its  depressant  action 
on  the  brain,  and  by  dilating  vessels  generally.  Chloral- 
amide  is  prescribed  for  human  patients  as  a  safe  and  effectual 
hypnotic.  Paraldehyde,  even  in  full  doses,  has  none  of  the 
disadvantageous  secondary  effects  of  opium  or  chloral, 
causes  quiet  sleep  in  dogs,  but  is  rather  nauseous,  and  not 
one- third  of  the  strength  of  chloral.  Sulphonal  is  more 
active,  but  being  insoluble,  hypnosis  is  slowly  established. 
It  has  been  used  especially  in  cases  of  motor  unrest.  Large 
doses  diminish  excitability  of  the  reflex  functions  of  the 
spinal  cord,  and  also  of  peripheral  sensations.  Trional  is 
allied  to  sulphonal,  but  is  more  soluble  and  active  ;  and  in 
experiments  on  dogs  it  produced  sleep  more  rapidly.  Hyp- 
none,  urethane,  and  amylene  hydrate,  though  ineffective  in 
the  horse,  are  useful  hypnotics  for  the  dog.  Warmth  to  the 
body  and  legs,  and  comforting  warm  drinks  withdraw  blood 
from  the  brain,  and  hence  favour  the  anaemia  which  occurs 
in  sleep. 

NARCOTICS  are  drugs  which   disturb  the  relation  of  the 


NARCOTICS    AND    ANODYNES  71 

mental  faculties  with  the  external  world  by  bringing  about 
cerebral  depression.  This  disturbing  effect  is  produced  by 
full  doses  of  such  agents  as  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform, 
as  well  as  by  most  of  the  agents  described  as  hypnotics. 
After  a  variable  amount  of  excitement,  locomotor  inco- 
ordination  ensues,  and  the  animal  staggers  in  its  gait.  Then 
there  is  drowsiness,  stupor,  and,  with  the  full  action  of  the 
drug,  coma.  Where  the  effect  is  still  further  developed, 
fatal  paralysis  of  the  respiratory  centre  occurs.  The 
action  of  these  agents  is  best  explained,  although  not 
completely,  by  the  theory  suggested  by  Meyer  and 
Overton.  These  observers  have  pointed  out  that  the 
narcotic  agents  such  as  chloral,  chloroform,  ether,  and  those 
of  the  fatty  carbon  series  are  alike  in  being  readily  soluble 
in  fats  and  oils,  and  not  so  easily  soluble,  or  even  insoluble 
in  water.  Nervous  tissue  is  largely  made  up  of  the  fatty 
compounds  cholesterin  and  lecithin,  and  as  a  consequence 
these  narcotic  substances  circulating  in  the  blood  tend  to 
leave  this  watery  fluid  and  become  concentrated  in  the  fatty 
substances  of  the  nervous  tissues.  This  alters,  and  in  fact 
lessens,  the  activity  of  the  nerve-cells,  and  so  accounts  for 
the  narcotic  or  even  anaesthetic  effect.  This  theory  does 
not  fully  explain  the  action  of  these  drugs,  nor  is  it  true  of 
every  agent,  but,  generally  speaking,  the  more  soluble  in 
fat  and  insoluble  in  water  a  drug  of  this  series  is,  the  more 
powerful  is  its  narcotic  or  anaesthetic  action. 

ANODYNES  or  analgesics  are  agents  which  relieve  pain  by 
diminishing  excitability  of  nerves  or  nerve-centres.  Pain 
may  originate  in  the  hippocampal  region,  which  Terrier 
regards  as  the  central  seat  of  sensation,  and  some  abnormal 
excitement  of  these  nerve  ganglia  is  believed  to  occur  in 
hysteria.  It  may  depend  upon  stimulation  of  the  grey 
matter  of  the  cord,  through  which  painful  impressions  are 
conveyed.  It  may  begin  in  the  trunk  of  a  nerve,  but  fre- 
quently its  origin  is  in  the  peripheral  endings  of  the  sensory 
nerves. 

Pain,  thus  produced  in  various  ways,  requires  diverse 
treatment.  Its  cause  should,  if  possible,  be  discovered  and 
removed.  When  merely  local,  it  is  combated  by  local 
anodynes,  such  as  belladonna,  with  its  alkaloid  ;  by  cocaine, 


72  ANTISPASMODICS 

veratrine,  carbolic  acid  and  other  phenols  ;  by  menthol  and 
thymol,  local  blood-letting,  heat  and  moisture  as  by  poul- 
tices and  fomentations,  and  by  cold,  in  the  form  of  ice  or 
cold  water.  Counter-irritants  also  act  reflexly  as  analgesics. 

When  pain  is  not  localised,  general  anodynes  are  adminis- 
tered, either  by  the  mouth  or  hypodermically.  Many  act 
mainly  as  sedatives  or  paralysants  of  the  brain  centres. 
Chloral  hydrate,  Indian  hemp,  hemlock,  bromides,  and 
anaesthetics  are  types  of  this  class.  Others  with  little  or  no 
central  action  paralyse  sensory  nerves  or  nerve-endings, 
and  so  prevent  painful  impulses  being  received.  These  are 
exemplified  by  atropine,  cocaine,  and  aconite.  Opium  and 
morphine  produce  their  anodyne  effects  by  depressing 
sensory  nerve-cells  of  the  brain  and  cord,  although  they  have 
little  or  no  effect  on  sensory  nerve-endings  and  so  are  of 
little  use  applied  locally.  Several  of  the  newly-discovered 
bodies  of  the  benzol  or  aromatic  series  conjoin  antiseptic  and 
anodyne  properties.  Such  are  salol,  a  salicylate  of  phenol ; 
antifebrin,  which  controls  many  varieties  of  pain  ;  while 
exalgin  is  still  more  generally  effectual.  Salicylic  acid  and 
salicylates  have  a  special  power  of  controlling  the  pain  of 
acute  rheumatism.  Electricity  applied  along  the  course  of 
the  stimulated  nerves,  and,  in  acute  rheumatism,  nerve- 
stretching,  are  sometimes  tried.  Dividing  the  nerves 
supplying  the  seat  of  injury,  as  is  done  in  navicular  and  some 
other  diseases  of  the  feet,  prevents  the  feeling  of  pain,  but  of 
course  does  not  arrest  local  inflammation  or  other  mischief. 
In  horses,  as  in  other  animals,  the  giving  of  a  dose  of  physic 
and  the  administration  of  tonics  are  often  effectual,  prob- 
ably owing  to  their  relieving  irritability  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal  centres,  by  removing  waste  material,  and  by  a  general 
improvement  in  tone. 

ANTISPASMODICS  are  agents  which  prevent  or  lessen 
muscular  spasm,  which  is  an  irregular  painful  contraction 
of  voluntary  or  involuntary  muscles.  In  the  medulla 
oblongata,  where  it  joins  the  pons,  and  related  to  the  respira- 
tory centre,  is  a  centre  which,  when  stimulated,  causes 
general  convulsions  and  spasms.  These  are  excited  by 
direct  irritation  of  the  centre  with  chemical  agents,  by 
contact  action  of  such  poisons  as  strychnine,  nicotine,  picro- 


TREATMENT   OF   SPASM  73 

toxin,  and  ammonia,  by  rabies  and  other  animal  toxins,  as 
well  as  by  the  altered  condition  of  the  blood  in  asphyxia,  and 
by  sudden  anaemia  of  the  medulla  from  copious  blood-letting. 
This  spasm  centre  appears  to  be  in  an  abnormal  state  in 
epilepsy,  when  its  inordinate  action  is  directly  controlled  by 
bromides.  The  tonic  spasms  of  tetanus,  and  strychnine- 
poisoning,  are  relieved  by  bromides,  chloral  hydrate,  and 
nicotine. 

But  spasms  are  more  frequently  local  than  general.  They 
have  been  defined  as  a  kind  of  insubordination,  in  which 
the  individual  muscles  or  nerve-centres  act  for  themselves, 
without  reference  to  those  higher  centres  which  ought  to 
co-ordinate  their  action  for  the  general  good  of  the  organism. 
Spasm  may  be  due,  therefore,  to  an  excess  of  action  in  the 
muscles  or  local  centres,  or  diminished  power  of  the  higher 
co-ordinating  centres.  As  a  rule,  it  is  due  to  diminished 
action  of  the  co-ordinating  or  inhibitory  centres,  rather  than 
to  excess  of  action  in  the  motor  centres.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
disease  rather  of  debility  and  deficient  co-ordination  than 
of  excessive  strength.  Local  irritation  is  frequently  the 
cause  of  spasm. 

Excessive  exertion  develops  in  the  muscles  of  locomotion, 
especially  when  employed  in  unwonted  work,  waste  products, 
which  produce  spasm  or  cramp.  Both  cause  and  effect  are 
frequently  removed  by  smart  friction.  In  the  intestine, 
cramp  may  be  due  to  the  presence  of  a  local  irritant,  which 
ought,  in  the  normal  condition,  to  produce  increased  peri- 
stalsis, and  thus  ensure  the  speedy  removal  of  the  offending 
substance.  '  From  some  abnormal  conditions,  the  muscular 
fibres  around  the  irritant  contract  excessively,  and  do  not 
pass  on  the  stimulus  to  those  adjoining.  From  this  want  of 
co-ordination,  painful  and  useless  spasm  occurs.  In  order 
to  remove  it  we  apply  warmth  to  the  abdomen,  so  as  to 
increase  the  functional  activity  both  of  the  muscular  fibres 
and  of  the  ganglia  of  the  intestine.  Peristalsis  then  occur- 
ring instead  of  cramp,  the  pain  disappears,  and  the  offending 
body  is  passed  onwards  and  removed.  Or  we  give,  inter- 
nally, aromatic  oils,  which  have  a  tendency  to  increase  the 
ordinary  peristalsis  ;  or,  yet  again,  we  may  give  opium  or 
other  anodyne  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  sensibility  of 


<4  TREATMENT    OF   SPASM 

the  irritated  part  '  (Brunton).  In  the  treatment  of  colic  in 
horses,  these  several  modes  of  attack  are  usually  conjoined. 
A  diffusible  stimulant  such  as  ether  or  alcohol  is  given  to 
improve  the  local  circulation  and  to  increase  the  powers  of 
the  higher  nerve-centres,  and  thus  bring  the  disturbed  lower 
centres  and  the  muscles  into  subordination  ;  an  anodyne  is 
associated  to  lessen  local  excitability  ;  while  a  purgative  is, 
besides,  administered  in  order  to  remove  the  indigestible 
food,  which  is  usually  the  cause  of  the  mischief. 

The  convulsions  of  epilepsy,  as  already  mentioned,  are 
warded  off  by  bromides,  while  endeavour  is  also  made  to 
remove  the  conditions  which  produce  them  by  the  adminis- 
tration of  arsenic  or  iodides.  Chorea,  depending  probably 
upon  some  lesion  of  the  sensori-motor  ganglia  at  the  base 
of  the  brain,  is  treated  by  arsenic  and  iodides,  and  when  the 
patient  is  anaemic  by  iron  and  a  generous  oleaginous  diet. 
Spasm  affecting  the  heart  is  usually  controlled  by  the 
judicious  use  of  alcohol,  ether,  digitalis,  or  nitrites.  These 
nitrites,  exemplified  by  amyl-nitrite,  nitro-glycerin,  and 
nitrous  ether,  are  pre-eminently  relaxers  of  spasm  of  in- 
voluntary muscles.  They  relieve  the  heart  and  blood- 
vessels in  angina  pectoris  of  human  patients,  and  the 
dyspnoea  of  bronchitis,  as  well  as  intestinal  cramp  in  all 
animals.  In  overcoming  spasm  of  particular  parts,  it  is, 
as  already  indicated,  important  to  exalt  the  power  of  the 
controlling  centres  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  by  such 
stimulants  as  alcohol,  ether,  camphor,  and  bromo-camphor, 
and  thus  regulate  or  co-ordinate  the  lower  disturbed  centres. 
This  twofold  stimulation  of  the  higher  central  and  lower 
topical  centres  is  also  exerted  by  valerian,  asafcetida,  musk, 
and  volatile  oils.  Other  antispasmodics  as  borneol  and 
menthol,  instead  of  exalting  nervous  excitability,  lessen 
irritability,  and  paralyse  motor,  sensory,  and  reflex  centres 
of  the  brain  and  cord,  and  thus  often  relieve  spasm.  In  the 
successful  treatment  of  spasmodic  diseases  which  generally 
depend,  as  already  indicated,  on  deficient  and  imperfect 
nervous  power,  restoratives,  tonics,  and  good  hygiene  are 
essential  factors. 

ANAESTHETICS  are  substances  that  produce  insensibility  to 
pain,  diminish  muscular  action  and  other  phenomena.  They 


ANAESTHETICS  75 

are  allied  to  anodynes,  but  act  more  promptly  and  power- 
fully. Certain  volatile  drugs,  brought  into  contact  with  the 
nerve-cells,  reduce  or  arrest  for  considerable  periods  their 
functional  activity,  probably  in  virtue  of  chemical  action. 

Local  anaesthetics  produce  paralysis  of  the  peripheral 
endings  of  sensory  nerves.  They  include  cocaine,  stovaine, 
eucaine,  holocaine,  ethyl-chloride,  methyl-chloride,  carbolic 
acid,  antipyrine,  iodoform,  orthoform,  and  extreme  cold. 
Cocaine  is  generally  preferred.  The  part  is  painted  or  in- 
jected with  a  solution  of  the  hydrochloride,  until  the 
requisite  insensibility  is  secured.  Cocaine  proves  particu- 
larly serviceable  in  diminishing  irritability,  and  facilitating 
examinations  of  the  eye  and  larynx,  as  well  as  for  the 
performance  of  minor  operations. 

General  anaesthetics,  when  inhaled,  are  carried  by  the 
blood-stream  to  the  centres  of  the  brain  and  cord,  which 
they  paralyse,  producing  unconsciousness.  They  comprise 
nitrous  oxide  gas,  chloroform,  ether,  and  other  substitution 
compounds  of  the  methane  (CH4)  and  ethane  (C2H6)  series. 
Nitrous  oxide  produces  its  effects  rapidly,  induces  a  general 
anaesthesia,  which  can,  however,  only  be  kept  up  for  a  very 
short  time — one  to  two  minutes — because  of  the  asphyxia 
which  is  produced.  This  is  shown  by  the  venous  condition 
of  the  blood,  cyanosis  of  mucous  membranes,  with  con- 
traction of  arterioles  and  rise  of  blood-pressure,  and  there 
is  hence  no  risk  of  its  causing  syncope.  Admixture  with 
oxygen  prevents  asphyxia,  but  lessens  and  delays  the 
anaesthesia.  In  human  practice,  anaesthesia  is  often  induced 
by  nitrous  oxide,  and  subsequently  maintained  by  chloro- 
form or  ether.  Chloroform  is  generally  used  both  in  human 
and  veterinary  practice.  It  is  the  most  effectual  and, 
rightly  used,  the  safest  known  anaesthetic.  It  acts  in 
smaller  quantity,  more  rapidly,  and  with  less  excitement 
than  ether.  Ether,  first  employed  in  America,  is  preferred 
by  many  English  practitioners,  on  the  plea  that  it  is  less  apt 
than  chloroform  to  impair  cardiac  action.  But  it  has  the 
disadvantage  of  greatly  increasing  bronchial  secretion  and 
salivation,  of  causing  more  irritation  and  excitement  than 
chloroform,  while  its  administration  requires  the  use  of  an 
inhaler. 


76  ANAESTHETICS 

The  A.  C.  E.  Mixture  consists  of  one  part  of  absolute 
alcohol,  two  of  chloroform,  and  three  of  pure  ether.  It  is 
much  used  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  is  stated  to  be 
more  stimulant  than  chloroform,  and  less  likely  to  depress 
heart  action.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ether  and  chloro- 
form is  used  in  various  parts  of  France  and  Germany.  The 
Austrian  Government  has  advised  one  part  of  chloroform 
with  six  of  ether  in  winter,  and  with  eight  of  ether  in  summer. 
The  theoretical  arguments  in  favour  of  these  mixtures  have 
not  been  justified  in  practice.  Alcohol,  chloroform,  and 
ether  volatilise  at  different  rates  and  at  different  tempera- 
tures, so  that  the  composition  of  the  vapour  inhaled  does 
not  remain  constant ;  at  first  the  animal  receives  chiefly 
ether,  and  this  necessitates  a  high  concentration  of  vapour 
to  air.  Later,  the  chloroform  becomes  the  chief  constituent 
of  the  vapour,  and  the  former  concentration  becomes  highly 
dangerous.  Since  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  this  variation 
in  composition,  the  mixture  increases,  instead  of  lessening, 
the  risk.  Chloral  hydrate  is  given  by  the  mouth  or  rectum, 
or  by  intravenous,  or  intraperitoneal  injection.  It  depresses 
the  heart  and  vaso-motor  centres,  and  consequently  the 
vessels  dilate  and  blood  pressure  falls.  METHYLENE 
(CH2C12),  containing  an  atom  more  of  nitrogen  and  an  atom 
less  of  chlorine  than  chloroform,  causes  more  rapid  anaes- 
thesia, but  requires  to  be  used  in  larger  amount.  The  pure 
drug  has  also  the  disadvantage  of  being  costly,  and  that 
usually  sold  is  stated  to  be  a  mixture  of  chloroform 
and  alcohol.  METHYLAL,  which  has  also  been  used,  acts 
quickly  and  effectually  on  dogs  without  apparent  in- 
jurious after-effects,  and  is  also  serviceable  for  local 
anaesthesia. 

Anaesthesia  is  generally  divided  into  four  stages — I.  Sti- 
mulant ;  II.  Narcotic  ;  III.  Anaesthetic  ;  IV.  Paralytic. 

I.  The  stimulant  stage  is  characterised  by  symptoms  of 
inebriation,  more  marked  in  the  case  of  ether  than  of  chloro- 
form ;  excitation  of  cerebral  and  cardiac  functions  ;  vigorous 
animals  struggle  ;  the  pulse  is  accelerated  usually  from 
nervousness  or  fear,  and  respiration  is  irregular  and  quick- 
ened ;  the  pupil  is  dilated  ;  the  special  senses  and  general 
sensibility  are  blunted.  This  stage  usually  continues  from 


THE    FOUR   STAGES    OF   ANAESTHESIA  77 

one  to  three  minutes,  but  is  shortened  when  the  drug  is 
given  quickly  in  full  doses. 

II.  The  narcotic  stage  is  marked  by  paralysis  of  the 
motor  centres,  the  voluntary  muscular  system  gradually 
becomes  relaxed,  the  force  and  volume  of  the  pulse  are 
lowered,  the  functions  of  the  higher  brain  centres  are  im- 
paired, but  reflex  functions  are  slightly  if  at  all  affected. 
This  stage,  usually  reached  in  less  than  five  minutes,  is  that 
suitable  for  anodyne  and  antispasmodic  effects,   and  for 
moderating  violent  and  irregular  labour  pains. 

III.  The  anaesthetic  stage  exhibits  complete  muscular 
relaxation,    unconsciousness,    and   insensibility ;     the    fre- 
quency and  force  of  the  pulse  are  decreased,  although  it 
remains  quite  regular ;  respiration  is  regular  but  somewhat 
shallow,  the  functions  of  the  cerebrum  and  spinal  cord  are 
paralysed,  the  oculo-palpebral  reflex  is  impaired  or  abolished, 
the  pupil  is  slightly  contracted,   but  the  centres   of  the 
medulla  presiding  over  respiration  and  heart  action  are  only 
slightly  affected.     This  complete  insensibility  may  be  safely 
maintained  for  an  hour  or  two  by  small  doses  of  the  anaes- 
thetic, and  is  the  condition  requisite  for  the  performance  of 
serious  surgical  operations. 

IV.  The  paralytic  stage  occurs  when  the  functions  of  the 
medullary  centres  are  abolished.     It  includes  two  distinct 
phases — suspension  of  respiration,  and  subsequently  suspen- 
sion of  cardiac  action.    Implication  of  the  respiratory  centre 
is   indicated  in   animals   by   irregular   sighing   or   shallow 
breathing,  with  long  pauses  between  the  respiratory  move- 
ments.    This  is  partly  due  to  direct  depression  of  the  medul- 
lary centre  and  also  to  anaemia  of  the  centre  owing  to  failing 
circulation.     Up  to  this  point  the  animal  is  in  no  serious 
danger.     But  if  anaesthesia  is  further  pushed,   the  heart 
centre  is  paralysed,  the  pulse  beats  very  quickly  then  stops, 
blood  pressure  falls  to  zero,  and  usually  within  two  minutes 
heart  action  also  ceases. 

The  action  of  anaesthetics  was  very  fully  elucidated  by  two 
series  of  investigations  undertaken  at  the  instance  of  the 
Nizam  of  Hyderabad.  The  first,  made  in  the  spring  of  1888, 
under  the  supervision  of  Surgeon-Major  Lawrie,  comprised 
141  experiments,  chiefly  on  dogs  ;  while  the  second,  made 


78      THE    HYDERABAD    CHLOROFORM    EXPERIMENTS 

in  the  later  months  of  1889,  under  the  direction  of  Sir  Lander 
Brunt  on,  included  571  experiments  on  dogs,  monkeys, 
horses,  goats,  cats,  and  rabbits.  Chloroform,  ether,  and  the 
A.C.E.  Mixture  were  used.  The  investigations  demonstrate 
that  the  action  of  these  anaesthetics  is  much  the  same  on 
man  and  on  the  animals  mentioned  ;  that  lethal  doses,  of 
chloroform  or  ether,  whether  poisoning  be  slow  or  rapid, 
usually  arrest  the  respiratory  before  the  cardiac  action  ;  and 
that  the  heart  in  uncomplicated  cases  stops  two  to  six 
minutes  after  respiration.  Consequently,  as  was  taught  by 
Simpson  and  Syme,  the  careful  observation  of  the  respira- 
tion is  the  safeguard  in  the  administration  of  anaesthetics. 
Although  the  patient  is  safe  so  long  as  the  anaesthetic  vapour 
continues  to  be  eliminated  by  respiration,  whenever  the 
heart  stops,  unless  artificial  respiration  is  had  recourse  to, 
the  chances  of  resuscitating  the  animal  are  small.  This 
important  practical  point  was  established  by  numerous 
experiments.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  early  stages 
of  chloroform  administration,  the  heart  may  be  inhibited 
to  a  serious  degree,  or  even  cease  to  beat,  by  irritation  and 
stimulation  of  the  vagus  centre  in  the  medulla.  Thus,  if 
concentrated  chloroform  vapour  is  given  at  first,  sudden 
inhibition  of  the  heart  may  cause  death.  When  anaesthesia 
is  established  this  danger  ceases. 

In  the  use  of  chloroform,  and  indeed  of  all  anaesthetics, 
in  animals,  these  investigations  emphasise  the  necessity  of 
constantly  watching  the  breathing,  and,  moreover,  ensuring 
that  nothing  shall  in  any  way  interfere  with  it.  The  animal 
should  be  in  the  recumbent  position — the  head  placed  so 
that  air  passes  directly  into  the  lungs  ;  no  girths,  straps,  or 
pressure  must  interfere  with  respiratory  movements. 
Monkeys,  encased  in  plaster  of  Paris,  or  bound  with  ab- 
dominal bandages,  died  quickly.  The  paralysed  tongue, 
dropping  back  upon  the  larynx  of  the  unconscious  patient, 
may  cause  suffocation.  Respiratory  failure  is  also  hastened 
by  having  the  limbs  of  the  subject  firmly  bound  ;  while 
struggling,  or  shallow,  gasping  breathing,  by  filling  the  lungs 
with  the  volatile  vapour,  intensifies  its  effects. 

Deaths  occurring  during  anaesthesia,  both  in  men  and 
animals,  have  been  ascribed  to  syncope,  or  surgical  shock, 


USES    OF   ANESTHETICS  79 

and  in  order  to  elucidate  this  matter  numerous  experiments 
were  made  on  dogs  and  monkeys.  When  full  anaesthesia 
was  produced,  teeth  were  extracted,  nails  evoluted,  incisions 
made  into  the  abdomen,  portions  of  intestine  ligatured,  and 
the  testicles  sharply  struck  ;  but  in  no  case  was  any  marked 
effect  produced  on  the  heart  action.  To  test  the  effect  of 
chloroform  on  animals  with  enfeebled  heart,  dogs  and 
monkeys  were  fasted,  others  were  freely  bled,  while  others 
were  given  grain  doses  of  phosphorus  during  several  days, 
in  order  to  produce  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  muscle. 
But  neither  syncope  nor  heart-shock  was  observable  when 
these  subjects  were  deeply  chloroformed  ;  respiratory  failure 
invariably  preceded  cardiac  failure  ;  and  when  breathing 
was  stopped  by  full  doses,  the  animals,  like  others  in  perfect 
health,  were  restored  by  artificial  respiration.  Occasion- 
ally, however,  as  mentioned  above,  death  occurs  suddenly 
through  inhibition  of  the  heart  by  vagal  stimulation  during 
the  earlier  stages  ;  and  experiments  prove  that  healthy 
horses  can  be  killed  in  a  few  minutes  by  rapid  administra- 
tion of  concentrated  chloroform  vapour. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  of  animals  dying  under 
anaesthesia  consist  in  general  congestion  of  the  lungs,  liver, 
kidneys,  and  spleen,  which  is  also  puckered,  and  two  or 
three  times  larger  than  usual.  The  left  heart  may  be  empty 
and  the  right  heart  distended  with  blood. 

Anaesthetics  are  used  in  painful,  delicate,  or  protracted 
operations,  as  in  castration,  neurectomy ,  excisions  of  portions 
of  the  hoof,  and  other  operations  on  the  foot  ;  reduction  of 
herniae,  and  removal  of  tumours  ;  extraction  of  firmly-fixed 
teeth,  especially  in  dogs  and  cats  ;  in  tetanus,  and  strych- 
nine poisoning  ;  in  difficult  parturition,  especially  in  the 
mare  ;  and  in  destroying  injured,  useless,  or  old  animals. 

Administration  to  horses  may  be  made  while  the  animal 
is  standing,  but  more  safely  and  effectually  when  he  is  cast 
and  secured.  A  sponge  or  piece  of  lint,  saturated  with  the 
anaesthetic,  is  placed  in  a  tolerably  close-fitting  nose-bag, 
which  is  adjusted  to  the  head.  Inhalers,  bags  or  muzzles 
for  the  purpose  have  been  designed  by  Cox,  and  other 
veterinary  surgeons.  Many  practitioners,  when  the  horse 
is  cast,  place  the  lint,  moistened  with  chloroform,  over  one 


80  TREATMENT    OF   ANESTHESIA   NARCOSIS 

nostril,  that  on  the  upper  side  being  preferable,  while,  to 
prevent  undue  evaporation,  a  napkin  is  laid  over  both 
nostrils.  Endeavour  is  sometimes  made  to  dilute  the  chloro- 
form vapour  with  about  ten  volumes  of  air,  as  in  Wallis 
Hoare's  method,  but  as  far  as  possible  air  should  be  excluded, 
as  diluted  chloroform  vapour  acts  slowly,  and  the  stage  of 
excitement  is  prolonged.  Undue  excitement  and  struggling 
can  be  overcome  by  giving  the  anaesthetic  freely  or  by 
previous  subcutaneous  injection  of  morphine.  But  chloro- 
form anaesthesia  can  be  most  satisfactorily  induced  in 
horses  by  slow  administration,  beginning  with  half  an 
ounce  poured  on  a  warm  sponge  and  adding  a  drachm  or 
two  at  short  intervals  until  the  requisite  degree  of  insensi- 
bility is  reached,  which  is  ascertained  by  testing  the  con- 
junctival  reflex.  Small  quantities  of  the  drug  suffice  to 
maintain  insensibility  safely  for  an  hour  or  more,  provided 
a  careful  watch,  as  already  stated,  is  kept  on  the  respiration. 
An  ounce  and  a  half  to  three  ounces  of  chloroform  properly 
given,  without  waste,  will  fully  anaesthetise  an  average  horse 
or  ox  in  from  five  to  ten  minutes.  Four  times  the  quantity 
of  ether  is  required.  Young  animals  are  more  readily 
anaesthetised  than  old  ones.  In  giving  chloroform  to  the 
horse  standing,  a  leather  muzzle  which  fits  lightly  over  the 
nose  and  mouth  of  the  animal  is  used.  In  the  muzzle  is 
placed  a  sponge  on  which  the  drug  is  poured,  the  commencing 
dose  being  one  to  one  and  a  half  ounces.  The  horse  is 
securely  held  by  two  ropes  attached  to  the  head-collar,  but 
struggling  and  violence  are  exceptional. 

Dogs  are  very  susceptible  to  the  action  of  anaesthetics,  but, 
with  rational  precautions,  may  be  kept  under  their  influence 
for  an  hour  or  longer.  It  has  frequently  been  stated  that 
chloroform  is  not  so  safe  as  ether  ;  but  the  Hyderabad  ex- 
periments seem  to  disprove  this.  The  dog  should  be  fasted 
for  two  or  three  hours.  The  drug  may  be  placed  on  a 
sponge,  or  on  lint,  in  a  wire  muzzle  covered  with  a  towel ; 
or  it  may  be  given  through  an  inhaler.  For  small  animals 
Hobday's  apparatus  may  be  used,  by  means  of  which  a 
fixed  safe  percentage  of  chloroform  is  given.  During 
anaesthesia  free  respiration  by  the  mouth  is  advisable,  and 
the  tongue  must  be  prevented  from  falling  back  so  as  to 


TREATMENT    OF   ANAESTHESIA   NARCOSIS  81 

obstruct  entrance  of  air  into  the  larynx.  Savage  dogs  are 
coaxed  into  a  kennel,  or  covered  with  a  packing  case,  and 
pieces  of  cotton  waste  or  blotting  paper,  saturated  with  the 
drug,  are  then  introduced.  Small  dogs,  cats,  rabbits,  etc., 
are  speedily  and  safely  anaesthetised  when  placed  under  a 
bell  jar  or  tin  pail  enclosing  cotton  wool  saturated  with 
chloroform.  In  dogs  the  last  reflex  is  furnished  by  the 
upper  incisor  gum,  which  when  irritated  induces  quick 
elevation  of  the  lower  lip.  This  reflex  is  abolished  in  com- 
plete anaesthesia. 

The  aspect  of  an  animal  perfectly  anaesthetised  is  that 
of  an  inert  body,  in  which  movements  of  the  thorax  and 
heart  alone  show  that  life  is  not  yet  extinct  (Gurnard). 
When  anaesthesia  has  been  pushed  too  far,  inhalation  of  the 
drug  must  immediately  be  stopped,  and  any  impediment 
to  breathing  of  fresh  air  removed.  The  mouth  should  be 
widely  opened  and  the  tongue  pulled  forward;  if  breathing  has 
ceased,  artificial  respiration  must  at  once  be  adopted.  In  such 
a  case  unless  the  lungs  are  surcharged  with  the  anaesthetic,  as 
when  it  has  been  given  in  large  quantity  or  too  concentrated, 
and  for  some  considerable  time,  artificial  respiration,  properly 
employed  within  thirty  seconds  after  natural  breathing  has 
ceased,  will  revive  most  animals  in  two  or  three  minutes. 
In  the  Hyderabad  experiments  some  animals  were  recovered 
fifty,  but  none  sixty,  seconds  after  natural  breathing  had 
stopped.  In  narcosis  occurring  in  ordinary  practice,  recov- 
ery, however,  need  not  be  despaired  of  so  long  as  cardiac 
movements  continue.  Artificial  respiration  should  be  per- 
sisted with  for  at  least  half  an  hour  after  natural  breathing 
has  ceased.  Insufflation  of  air  through  a  tube  inserted  in 
the  trachea  may  be  tried.  Inhalation  of  amyl-nitrite,  or 
ammonia  ;  hypodermic  injections  of  ether,  strychnine,  ad- 
renalin solution,  or  hot  brandy  ;  and  the  continuous  galvanic 
current,  the  positive  pole  being  placed  in  the  rectum,  and 
the  negative  moved  rapidly  over  the  chest  wall,  are  recom- 
mended in  the  hope  of  stimulating  the  arrested  respiratory 
movements  ;  and  bleeding  from  the  jugular  is  enjoined  to 
relieve  the  right  heart.  Hobday  recommends  the  adminis- 
tration of  a  dose  of  prussic  acid  to  exert  an  energetic,  but 
transitory,  stimulation  of  the  respiratory  centre. 

F 


82  SPINAL   ANAESTHESIA 

Spinal  Anaesthesia. — Intraspinal  injections  of  sterilised 
solution  of  cocaine,  stovaine,  tropacocaine,  novocaine,  or 
other  suitable  anaesthetic,  may  be  used  to  produce  anaes- 
thesia of  the  posterior  portions  of  the  body,  prior  to  opera- 
tions on  the  hind  limbs  and  pelvic  organs.  This  method, 
introduced  in  human  surgery  by  Dr.  Boer,  was  first  tried 
on  veterinary  patients  by  Guille  and  Sendrail.  Under  the 
influence  of  lumbar  anaesthesia,  neurectomy,  tenotomy,  and 
cauterisation  of  the  hind  limbs,  oophrectomy,  the  reduction 
of  inverted  uterus,  castration,  urethrotomy,  and  some 
hernial  operations  can  be  painlessly  performed,  and  without 
the  risks  attending  general  anaesthesia.  Injection  is  made 
through  the  lumbosacral  space  at  the  point  of  intersection 
of  two  lines,  one  median  uniting  the  last  lumbar  and  first 
sacral  vertebrae,  the  other  transverse,  connecting  the  summits 
of  the  internal  angles  of  the  haunch.  The  skin  of  the  region 
is  shaved  and  carefully  disinfected,  and  a  sterilised  hollow 
needle  or  fine  trocar  and  cannula  is  implanted  perpendicu- 
larly, to  a  depth  of  one  half  to  three  inches  (dog  or  cat), 
or  four  to  six  inches  (horse),  at  the  point  of  intersection  of 
the  two  lines  in  the  dog  and  cat,  and  about  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  in  front  of  this  point  in  the  horse.  The  entrance 
of  the  needle  into  the  subdural  space  is  indicated  by  the 
escape  of  cerebro-spinal  fluid.  Recently  attempts  have 
been  made  in  the  dog  to  enlarge  the  area  of  anaesthesia  by 
injecting  the  drug  through  the  occipito-atloid  ligament,  but 
at  this  situation  the  operation  is  more  dangerous  to  the 
patient  than  lumbar  injection.  In  practising  injection 
at  the  poll,  the  dog's  head  should  be  held  well  elevated, 
and  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  puncture  of  the  cord. 
Doses. — Solution  of  cocaine  (2  per  cent.),  dog  and  cat, 
fl\v  to  Tl\15  ;  horses,  H\xx  to  TT\xlv  ;  solution  of  stovaine 
(5  per  cent.),  dog,  H\20  to  Tl\30  ;  cat,  H\10  to  1T[20  ;  horse, 
3j  to  3ijss. 

ACTION   OF   DRUGS  ON  THE  SPINAL  CORD 
AND  MEDULLA 

SPINAL   STIMULANTS — SPINAL   DEPRESSANTS 

As  on  the  brain,  so  on  the  spinal  cord  and  medulla  drugs 
act  in  one  of  two  ways,  namely,  to  stimulate  or  to  depress. 


ACTION    OF   DRUGS    ON    THE    SPINAL    CORD         83 

It  is  impossible  to  find  a  drug  whose  actions  are  confined  to 
the  cord  alone,  for  in  some  degree,  and  with  different  doses, 
the  other  parts  of  the  central  nervous  system  are  affected. 
At  the  same  time  there  are  drugs  whose  chief  action  is  on 
the  spinal  cord.  By  stimulation  is  meant  an  improvement  in 
the  carrying  out  of  the  normal  function  ;  the  centre  becomes 
more  sensitive  and  quicker  to  act.  By  depression  is  meant 
a  delay  in  action,  and  a  lessening  of  the  power  to  carry  out 
the  normal  function. 

SPINAL  STIMULANTS  increase  the  functional  activity  of  the 
cord.  This  they  do  by  either  direct  excitation  of  the  part, 
or  by  the  depression  of  those  cerebral  centres  which  control 
the  spinal  centres.  (See  Alcohol.)  The  direct  excitants 
apparently  act  much  in  the  same  manner  as  mechanical 
irritation  or  electricity.  They  seem  to  increase  conductiv- 
ity and  lessen  all  resistance  between  the  nerve-cells.  Small 
doses  heighten  reflex  excitability  ;  large  doses  cause  tetanic 
convulsions  ;  whilst  very  large  doses  eventually  bring  about 
depression  and  paralysis.  Spinal  stimulants  include  strych- 
nine, brucine,  and  thebaine,  as  well  as  calabarine,  caffeine, 
absinthe,  and  ammonia.  They  are  used  in  cases  of  collapse, 
of  general  debility,  in  certain  forms  of  paralysis,  and  to 
rouse  sluggish  action,  as  of  the  bowels.  A  pure  medullary 
stimulation  would  be  shown  by  quickening  and  deepening 
of  respiration,  rise  of  blood  pressure  from  vaso-motor 
stimulation  and  slowing  of  the  heart  from  stimulation  of  the 
vagus  (cardio-inhibitory)  centre. 

SPINAL  DEPRESSANTS  comprise  most  of  the  agents  which 
depress  the  brain,  such  as  the  hypnotics,  narcotics,  and 
anaesthetics,  but  in  addition  there  are  some  drugs  which 
especially  act  on  the  medulla  and  cord.  Thus  hydrocyanic 
acid,  turpentine,  and  camphor,  after  more  or  less  preliminary 
stimulation,  depress  the  medulla  and  cord.  Others,  such  as 
physostigmine,  emetine,  carbolic  acid,  and  the  antipyretics, 
depress  from  the  first.  For  practical  purposes,  to  lessen 
reflex  action  and  counteract  the  effects  of  spinal  stimulants 
such  as  strychnine,  the  general  narcotics  and  hypnotics 
like  chloral  and  bromides  should  be  preferred. 

Spinal  depressants  are  prescribed  to  lessen  increased 
excitability  of  the  cord,  as  in  tetanus,  chorea,  and  some 
forms  of  paralysis.  By  diminishing  the  conducting  power 


84  SPINAL    DEPRESSANTS 

of  the  grey  matter  of  the  cord,  they  impede  the  trans- 
mission of  painful  impressions.  Sir  Lauder  Brunton  pro- 
pounds an  explanation  of  the  nature  of  inhibition.  He 
believes  that  nervous  stimuli  consist  in  vibrations  in  nerve- 
fibres  or  nerve-cells,  analogous  to  the  vibrations  of  light  or 
sound.  When  two  waves  of  light  or  sound  fall  upon  each 
other  so  that  their  crests  coincide,  the  intensity  of  the  light 
or  sound  is  increased  ;  but  when  they  fall  so  that  the  crest 
of  one  wave  occupies  the  trough  between  the  two  preceding 
or  succeeding  waves,  such  two  waves  of  light  cause  dark- 
ness, or  two  such  waves  of  sound  cause  silence.  Moving  the 
one  wave  forward  or  backward  upon  the  other  intensifies 
or  diminishes  the  vibrations  of  light  or  sound.  '  Supposing 
nervous  stimuli  to  consist  of  vibrations  like  those  of  light 
and  sound,  the  action  which  any  nerve-cell  would  have  upon 
the  others  connected  with  it  would  be  stimulant  or  inhibi- 
tory according  to  its  position  in  relation  to  them.'  If  nerve- 
force,  as  believed,  consists  of  vibrations  similar  to  those  of 
light  or  sound,  the  relative  position  of  nerve-cells  in  action 
will  often  determine  a  stimulant  or  inhibitory  result.  If 
one  nerve-current  meets  another  in  such  a  way  that  the 
waves  of  which  they  consist  coincide,  the  nervous  action 
will  be  doubled,  but  if  they  interfere  the  nervous  action 
will  be  abolished.  If  they  meet  so  as  neither  completely  to 
coincide  nor  to  interfere,  the  nervous  action  will  be  some- 
what increased,  or  somewhat  diminished,  according  to  the 
degree  of  coincidence  or  interference  between  the  crests  of 
the  waves.  The  relation  of  these  waves  to  one  another 
may  be  affected  by  the  distance  each  travels  and  the  rate  of 
transmission. 

This  hypothesis  seems  to  explain  why  different  doses  of 
poisons  sometimes  produce  very  different  results.  The 
phenomena  of  strychnine  poisoning  thus  appear  to  depend 
upon  the  nervous  vibrations  being  thrust  crest  upon  crest, 
when  intense  convulsions  occur  ;  while,  from  one  or  another 
wave  dropping  half  a  length  behind,  the  interval  of  rest  or 
relaxation  follows.  In  like  manner  may  be  explained  the 
similar  effects  of  cold  and  heat.  Cold  retards,  while  heat 
accelerates,  transmission  of  vibrations,  and  either  agent 
may  thus  alter  one  of  the  waves,  causing  coincidence  and 


PARALYSERS  OF  MOTOR  NERVES        85 

consequent  stimulation,  or  separation  by  a  half  or  a  quarter 
of  a  wave  and  consequent  inhibition  or  restraint. 


ACTION  OF  DRUGS  ON  THE  NERVES 

PARALYSERS — STIMULANTS — ELECTROTHERAPY 

Nerves  may  be  acted  upon  in  various  parts  of  their  course  ; 
in  the  nerve  centres  in  which  they  originate  ;  in  their  cords 
or  trunks  ;  or  in  their  minute  endings  distributed  in  muscles 
or  glands,  or  on  the  surface  of  the  skin  (sensory  endings). 
Motor  nerves  have  their  excitability  more  readily  disturbed 
or  destroyed  than  sensory  nerves.  Injuries  of  compound 
nerves  frequently  arrest  motor  function,  but  leave  the 
sensory  function  slightly,  or  only  temporarily,  impaired. 
The  nerve  trunks  are  much  less  susceptible  than  the  end 
plates,  and  are  only  acted  upon  by  strong  solutions  directly 
applied  to  them. 

Nerve-endings — motor,  secretory,  or  sensory — are  acted 
upon  by  many  drugs,  and  these  effects  can  be  shown  by 
experiments  on  isolated  organs.  When  an  impulse  is  con- 
veyed by  a  nerve  to  a  nerve-ending,  it  is  thought  that  some 
chemical  change  takes  place  in  the  ending  which  produces 
a  substance  acting  on  the  cells  of  the  muscle  or  gland  to 
cause  either  increased  or  decreased  activity.  Instead  of  an 
impulse  by  way  of  its  nerve  fibres,  the  nerve-ending  may  be 
acted  upon  in  a  similar  fashion  by  various  drugs  applied 
locally,  or  brought  to  it  in  the  blood  stream. 

Increased  excitability  of  motor  nerve-endings  is  produced 
by  aconitine,  physostigmine,  pilocarpine,  and  pyridine. 
Alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform,  applied  directly  to  nerves, 
first  increase  and  then  diminish  their  irritability. 

PARALYSERS  of  motor  nerve-endings  have  their  most 
powerful  representative  in  curare,  which  when  injected 
prevents  stimulation  of  the  nerve  from  producing  a  con- 
traction. Numerous  other  agents  act  similarly,  of  which 
the  best  known  is  conine.  The  nerve-endings  in  secretory 
glands  and  unstriped  muscle  are  also  stimulated  by  drugs 
like  pilocarpine  and  physostigmine,  whilst  atropine  and 
hyoscyamine  have  the  reverse  effect. 


86  PARALYSERS    OF   SENSORY   NERVES 

Sensory  nerves  are  readily  affected  by  many  drugs  ;  their 
local  effects  are  comparatively  easy  to  determine  ;  but  when 
the  drug  enters  the  circulation  many  structures  are  liable 
to  be  affected,  and  definite  results  are  difficult  to  obtain. 
Much  trustworthy  information  has,  however,  been  got  by 
experiments  on  frogs,  chiefly  by  ligaturing  the  sciatic  artery 
of  one  leg,  injecting  into  another  part  of  the  body  the  drug 
to  be  tested,  and  by  pinching,  pricking,  heat,  or  electricity, 
noting  the  difference  in  sensation  between  the  poisoned  limb 
and  the  ligatured  unpoisoned  limb.  By  these  and  other  ex- 
periments it  has  been  demonstrated  that  nervous  sensibility 
is  diminished  by  aconite,  veratrine,  belladonna  and  atropine, 
carbolic  acid,  and  chloroform.  Hydrocyanic  acid  exerts 
topical  paralysing  effects  on  sensory  nerves.  Notable 
reduction  of  the  sensibility  of  sensory  nerves  is  likewise 
effected  by  several  members  of  the  aromatic  series  of  carbon 
compounds,  such  as  exalgin  (methyl-acetanilide),  antifebrin 
(acetanilide),  and  antipyrine  (phenazone).  Diminishing 
excitability  of  sensory  nerves,  such  agents  relieve  pain,  and 
are  accordingly  anodynes.  Others  exert  marked  paralysing 
effects  on  the  terminals  of  cutaneous  nerves,  temporarily 
destroy  sensibility,  and  hence  are  useful  local  anaesthetics. 
Among  these  are  cocaine  and  its  allies,  ether  spray,  cold,  in 
the  form  of  ice  or  freezing  mixtures,  and  carbolic  acid. 

The  irritability  of  sensory  nerves  is  increased  by  topical 
or  cants.  Aconite  and  veratrine,  whether  applied  locally, 
irritarried  through  the  circulation,  produce  at  first  peculiar 
numbness  and  tingling  of  the  tongue  and  lips,  and  indeed 
of  all  parts  supplied  by  the  fifth  nerve,  to  be  followed  by 
depression  and  lessened  sensibility. 

Electrotherapy  constitutes  an  important  method  of  treat- 
ment in  human  medicine,  but  in  veterinary  practice  its 
application  is  limited  to  the  occasional  use  of  Faradism  or 
Galvanism.  The  faradic,  alternating,  or  induced  current 
is  serviceable  in  peripheral  paralysis  where  muscular  stimula- 
tion is  required,  as  in  the  treatment  of  equine  facial,  radial, 
or  crural  paralysis,  and  of  similar  conditions  in  the  dog. 
The  Galvanic,  Voltaic,  or  constant  current  is  most  useful  in 
cases  where  definite  chemical  change  in  the  tissues  is  re- 
quired. Insulated  needles  placed  in  the  tissues  and  tra- 


ELECTROTHERAPY  87 

versed  by  a  constant  current  induce  decomposition  and  this 
process  of  electrolysis  has  been  employed  for  the  removal  of 
tumours.  Cauterisation,  haemostasis,  and  the  amputation 
of  diseased  organs,  tongue,  eyeball,  etc.,  are  sometimes 
effected  by  means  of  a  platinum  wire  or  other  suitable 
instrument  heated  by  a  constant  current,  which  may  be 
obtained  from  one  of  Faure's  portable  Accumulators. 
Galvanism  is  also  used  to  improve  nutrition  and  prevent 
further  wasting  in  muscular  atrophy,  and  in  the  treatment 
of  paralysis  of  central — cerebral  or  medullary — origin. 

Slight  electric  currents  stimulate  both  motor  and  sensory 
nerves  and  muscles ;  more  powerful  or  long-continued 
currents  exhaust,  paralyse,  or  tetanise. 

Like  nux  vomica  and  other  excito-motors,  electricity 
stimulates  depressed  nervous  action,  controls  disordered 
action,  and  hence  improves  impaired  nutrition.  For  strains 
of  muscles,  after  the  primary  inflammation  and  effusion  are 
relieved  by  fomentations  and  rest,  faradism  over  the  seat 
of  injury  lessens  pain  and  stiffness.  A  current  of  suitable 
strength  applied  for  six  or  eight  minutes,  and  repeated  if 
needful  twice  daily,  frequently  benefits  and  sometimes 
removes  muscular  rheumatism,  and  is  also  serviceable  in 
chronic  articular  rheumatism,  which  has  resisted  other 
treatment.  In  patellar  luxation,  when,  owing  to  muscular 
contraction,  replacement  is  very  difficult,  a  prolonged  ap- 
plication of  the  induced  current  is  helpful.  The  current 
increases  the  contraction,  but  when  it  is  discontinued  the 
muscles  quickly  relax  and  reduction  can  be  readily  effected. 

Paralysis  depends  upon  various  conditions,  functional  and 
molecular,  and  hence  demands  very  different  methods  of 
treatment.  Electricity,  however,  is  often  useful  in  diag- 
nosing its  seat  and  extent,  and  also  in  abating  or  removing 
the  depressed  or  disordered  conditions  on  which  it  depends. 
Torpidity  of  the  bowels,  resulting  from  imperfect  intestinal 
peristalsis,  is  sometimes  overcome  by  faradisation.  To 
stimulate  contractions  in  muscular  atrophy  one  electrode 
is  placed  over  the  principal  local  nerve-centre,  or  nerve  of 
the  wasted  part ;  while  the  other  is  moved  over  the  altered 
muscles,  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  twice  daily.  Cases  of 
roaring  have  thus  been  treated.  One  electrode  is  applied 


88  ELECTROTHERAPY 

to  the  jugular  furrow  above  the  larynx,  while  the  other  is 
moved  over  the  surface  of  the  larynx  and  down  the  trachea. 
Only  feeble  currents  should  be  used.  The  application  is 
continued  for  five  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  repeated  two  or 
three  times  a  day. 

Clonic  spasms,  represented  according  to  their  cause  or 
site  by  trifling  tremors  or  violent  convulsions,  are  some- 
times treated  by  electricity.  The  current  may  be  directed 
to  the  faulty  centre  in  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  to  the  nerve 
trunk  the  conductivity  of  which  is  morbidly  affected,  or  to 
the  local  centres  which  are  acting  abnormally.  Chorea  in 
dogs,  especially  when  of  the  chronic  paralytic  type,  has  been 
benefited  by  electric  treatment. 

To  facilitate  the  passage  of  the  current  the  skin  of  the 
affected  region,  as  weU  as  the  rheophores,  should  be 
moistened  with  salt  solution.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
induced  current  the  horse  is  restless,  sometimes  struggling 
violently,  and  the  muscular  contraction,  which  is  always 
considerable,  may  provoke  defaecation  and  emission  of 
urine.  In  all  cases  before  applying  the  current  the  horse 
should  be  carefully  secured. 

Electro-therapeutics  as  applied  to  the  domestic  animals 
deserves  more  extended  practical  study.  The  primary  con- 
ditions for  its  rational  and  safe  employment  consist  in  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  instruments  used,  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  strength  of  currents  and  their  proper 
distribution  to  the  parts  to  be  influenced.  Batteries,  coils, 
and  apparatus  for  veterinary  purposes  are  now  manufactured 
by  Messrs.  Arnold,  West  Smithfield,  London  ;  and  the 
advantages  of  the  various  forms  of  electricity  are  fully 
discussed  in  Electrical  Treatment,  by  Wilfred  Harris,  M.D., 
London,  1908. 

ACTION  OP  MEDICINES  ON  THE  EYE 

In  the  local  treatment  of  the  cornea  and  conjunctiva 
appropriate  astringents  are  zinc  sulphate  and  silver  nitrate. 
When  the  surface  of  the  cornea  is  abraded,  lead  salts  are 
unsuitable,  as  they  form  an  insoluble  albuminate,  which  may 
cause  opacity  ;  while  alum  and  potassium  permanganate  are 


ACTION    OF   MEDICINES    ON   THE    EYE  89 

undesirable,  on  account  of  their  tendency  to  dissolve  the 
corneal  cement.  The  antiseptics  generally  used  are  mercuric 
chloride  and  boric  acid,  the  latter  frequently  conjoined  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  sodium  sulpho-carbolate.  The  ano- 
dynes preferred  are  atropine,  cocaine  and  eucaine.  The 
sensitiveness  of  the  eye  is  increased  by  strychnine.  It  is 
diminished,  and  local  anaesthesia  produced,  by  cocaine, 
which,  accordingly,  is  serviceable  in  some  examinations,  as 
well  as  in  operations  on  the  eyes.  The  lachrymal  secretion 
is  increased  by  pungent  odours  from  such  volatile  oils  as 
mustard  and  onion,  and  by  physostigmine.  It  is  diminished 
by  atropine. 

The  pupil  is  dilated  by  belladonna,  atropine,  homatropine, 
cocaine,  daturine,  and  hyoscyamine.  Such  dilators  are 
termed  mydriatics.  The  pupil  is  contracted  by  calabar 
bean,  eserine,  opium,  morphine  (see  opium),  pilocarpine,  and 
nicotine.  They  are  termed  my o tics.  Anaesthetics,  and 
some  narcotics  in  full  doses,  first  contract,  and  afterwards 
from  circulation  of  venous  blood  dilate,  the  pupil.  The 
action  of  most  mydriatics  and  myotics  is  purely  local.  Most 
mydriatics  are  anodynes,  and  hence  are  useful  to  allay  irrita- 
tion, inflammation,  and  pain.  They  are  used  in  iritis  to 
prevent  adhesions.  Dilating  the  pupil,  they  facilitate  ex- 
amination of  the  lens  for  cataract  and  of  the  retina.  Myotics 
are  used  alternately  with  mydriatics  to  discover  adhesions  of 
the  iris,  and  to  break  them  down,  to  restrict  the  passage x)f 
light  in  painful  diseases  of  the  eye  ;  and  to  lessen  intra-ocular 
tension,  as  in  the  earlier  stages  of  glaucoma. 


ACTION  OF  MEDICINES  ON  RESPIRATION 
ERRHINES   AND   EXPECTORANTS 

Respiration  consists  in  the  alternate  enlargement  and 
diminution  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  whereby  air  is  alter- 
nately inspired  and  expired.  These  movements,  so  essential 
to  the  life  of  all  the  higher  animals,  are  chiefly  presided  over 
by  a  nerve-centre  or  group  of  ganglionic  cells,  situated  in  the 
medulla,  posterior  to  the  vaso-motor  centre,  and  extending 
into  the  anterior  part  of  the  spinal  cord.  This  centre  is 


90  THE    RESPIRATORY    FUNCTIONS 

normally  stimulated  by  venous  blood  as  well  as  by  afferent 
impulses  from  the  lungs  by  way  of  the  vagi,  and  inspiratory 
and  expiratory  movements  are  thence  co-ordinated.  The 
diaphragm  is  drawn  back,  the  intercostal,  scaleni,  and  other 
muscles  raise  the  ribs,  and  air  enters  the  lungs,  distending  the 
elastic  walls  of  the  air-cells.  In  ordinary  circumstances,  the 
chest  then  contracts,  largely  passively,  with  little  muscular 
exertion  and  air  is  expired.  Expiratory  effort,  although 
scarcely  realised  in  ordinary  breathing  is,  however,  evoked  in 
coughing  and  sneezing,  as  well  as  in  producing  vocal  sounds. 
Inspiration  and  expiration  thus  alternate,  in  healthy  adult 
horses  at  perfect  rest,  from  twelve  to  sixteen  times,  in  cattle 
about  fifteen  to  twenty  times,  in  sheep  from  thirteen  to 
eighteen  times,  and  in  dogs  from  fifteen  to  twenty  times  per 
minute. 

The  respiratory  centre  is  stimulated  in  various  ways. 
Changes  in  the  air  breathed,  such  as  an  increase  of  C02,  or 
an  excess  of  this  gas  in  the  blood,  will  stimulate  the  centre  and 
cause  quicker  and  deeper  breathing.  Similarly,  deficiency 
of  haemoglobin,  or  loss  of  blood  by  haemorrhage,  increase 
respiratory  activity.  Then  there  are  various  drugs  which 
directly  stimulate  the  centre,  notably  strychnine,  ammonia, 
atropine,  thebaine,  substances  of  the  digitalis  group,  and 
caffeine.  It  is  first  excited  and  then  depressed  by  chloro- 
form, ether,  and  alcohol.  Its  activity  is  diminished,  with 
consequent  slow  and  shallow  respiration,  by  opium,  eserine, 
and  aconite,  and  by  the  narcotics  and  depressants  of  the 
central  nervous  system  generally.  The  centre  can  also  be 
affected  reflexly,  for  as  we  have  seen  afferent  impulses  from 
the  lungs  and  bronchioles  by  way  of  the  vagus  determine 
normal  respiratory  rhythm.  Thus  any  irritant  gas  inhaled,  or 
irritant  drug  excreted  by  the  bronchial  mucous  membrane, 
will  affect  the  centre,  deepen  respiration  and  may  cause 
coughing  or  sneezing.  Other  sensory  (afferent)  impulses, 
such  as  cold  to  the  skin,  a  blow,  or  pain  anywhere,  usually 
stimulate  the  respiratory  centre,  often  after  a  momentary 
inhibition  with  holding  of  the  breath. 

When  respiration  is  paralysed,  as  in  narcotic  poisoning, 
subcutaneous  injection  of  strychnine  is  sometimes  useful. 
The  changes  in  calibre  of  the  bronchial  tubes  are  determined 


ERRHINES  91 

by  contractions  and  relaxations  of  the  bronchial  muscle 
(unstriped).  Afferent  impressions  conveyed  in  the  vagus 
fibres  affect  the  respiratory  centre,  and  at  the  same  time 
efferent  (motor)  impulses  in  the  vagus  efferent  fibres  may 
determine  a  contraction  of  the  muscle  with  lessening  of  the 
calibre.  Such  a  spasmodic  contraction  occurs  in  asthma. 
It  can  be  produced  experimentally  by  drugs  like  pilocarpine 
and  physostigmine  which  stimulate  vagal  nerve-endings,  or 
by  barium  chloride  acting  directly  on  the  muscle.  The 
vagal  nerve-endings  are  depressed,  and  consequent  relaxation 
and  dilatation  of  the  tubes  produced  by  atropine,  hyoscya- 
mine,  and  lobelia.  The  muscle  is  directly  depressed  and 
relaxed  by  the  nitrites. 

ERRHINES  or  sternutatories,  when  applied  to  the  nostrils, 
cause  irritation,  sneezing,  and  increased  secretion.  They  in- 
clude tobacco  in  a  finely  divided  state,  hellebore,  ipecacuanha 
euphorbium,  and  saponin.  Errhines,  although  now  seldom 
used,  were  formerly  prescribed  to  cause  counter-irritation  in 
diseases  of  the  eye  and  head,  and  to  expel,  by  inducing 
sneezing,  foreign  substances  lodged  in  the  nostrils,  facial 
sinuses,  and  respiratory  passages. 

EXPECTORANTS  increase  and  facilitate  ths  removal  of 
secretions  from  the  air-passages.  The  healthy  respiratory 
mucous  membrane  is  moistened  and  protected  by  a  thin, 
slightly  adhesive  solution  of  mucin,  which  is  gradually  moved 
outwards  by  the  cilia.  Cold  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
body,  dust  and  foreign  particles,  and  micro-organisms,  as  in 
cases  of  influenza,  readily  excite  irritation  of  the  respiratory 
tract,  and  alter  the  amount  and  character  of  the  mucus. 

While  the  irritated  membrane  is  dry  and  vascular,  as  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  the  breathing  of 
warm,  moist  air,  diffused  from  a  steam  kettle,  or  nose-bag 
containing  steamed  hay,  beneficially  dilates  the  congested 
vessels,  and  promotes  secretion.  In  such  cases,  and  notably 
in  laryngitis,  heat  and  moisture  should  also  be  applied 
externally  by  means  of  poultices,  or  fomentation  with  flannel 
or  woollen  waste  wrung  out  of  boiling  water,  covered  with 
thin  waterproofing,  and  kept  in  place  by  a  properly  adjusted 
hood.  Further  counter-irritation  may  subsequently  be  need- 
ful. In  the  dry  stage  of  inflammation  of  the  respiratory 


92  EXPECTORANTS 

membrane,  or  when  the  secretion  becomes  thick  and  ad- 
hesive, so  that  irritating  coughing  is  set  up,  expectorants 
increasing  secretion  and  assisting  its  expulsion  are  indicated. 
They  may  produce  their  action  in  various  ways.  Some 
agents,  such  as  jaborandi  and  pilocarpine,  stimulate  the 
secretory  nerve-endings  in  the  mucous  glands  and  so  in- 
crease secretion.  Others  are  absorbed  into  the  system  and 
excreted  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  the  bronchial  mucous 
membrane,  and  their  local  effect  is  to  increase  secretion. 
Such  are  the  alkaline  carbonates  and  the  iodides.  Still 
another  class  are  drugs  which  are  irritants  in  the  stomach 
and  produce  vomiting  in  larger  doses,  such  as  ipecacuanha, 
saponins,  tartar  emetic,  and  squill.  These  in  small  doses 
all  increase  bronchial  secretion.  Then  in  addition  to  the 
foregoing  are  the  balsams  and  volatile  oils,  which,  besides 
being  partly  excreted  in,  and  increasing,  bronchial  secretion, 
also  exert  antiseptic  effects  locally.  Terpine,  oil  of  turpen- 
tine in  a  vaporised  state,  creosote,  or  the  old  popular  remedy 
of  the  fumes  of  burning  tar,  prove  effectual  in  moderating 
irritable  congestion  and  continued  secretion  in  many  cases  of 
bronchitis  by  their  disinfectant  action,  and  by  causing  expul- 
sion of  the  irritant.  A  relaxed  throat  generally  indicates  the 
existence  of  a  similar  condition  throughout  the  respiratory 
tract.  An  appropriate  remedy  is  a  combination  of  terebene 
and  an  acid  given  as  an  electuary,  which  exerts  beneficial 
effects  both  topically  and  generally. 

Expulsion  of  the  respiratory  secretions  is  produced  by  in- 
creased activity  of  the  cilia,  which  are  believed  to  be  stimu- 
lated by  ammonia  solutions  ;  by  coughing  ;  and  by  in- 
creased activity  of  the  respiratory  centre,  which,  as  already 
stated,  is  stimulated  by  ammonia  salts,  as  well  as  by  ipeca- 
cuanha, belladonna,  and  strychnine. 

Influenza  colds,  so  common  amongst  horses,  and  notori- 
ously infectious,  no  doubt  depend  upon  specific  micro- 
organisms, which  attack  the  upper,  sometimes  the  lower 
air-passages,  and  not  infrequently  also  induce  gastro-intesti- 
nal  catarrh,  and  other  complications.  Occasionally  such 
seizures  may  be  checked  or  mitigated  in  their  early  stages  by 
moistening  the  parts  first  affected  with  solution  of  carbolic 
or  sulphurous  acid  or  eucalyptus  oil,  applied  in  the  form  of 


THE    TREATMENT    OF    COUGH  93 

spray,  gargle,  or  inhalation.  Similar  treatment  proves 
beneficial  in  the  later  stages,  by  lessening  congestion  or  by 
exerting  antiseptic  effects.  The  washing  out  of  the  nostrils 
is  conveniently  done  by  an  ordinary  syringe,  by  Higginson's 
enema  apparatus  or  by  Key's  nasal  funnel. 

COUGH  is  a  modified,  usually  involuntary,  respiratory  act, 
whereby  gaseous,  liquid  and  solid  substances  are  forcibly 
removed  from  the  air-passages.  This  sudden  expulsive 
expiratory  effort  is  brought  about  by  faulty  mucus  or  other 
irritant,  lodged  in  the  pharynx  or  larynx,  by  irritation  of  the 
lower  air-passages,  and  reflexly,  by  impressions  produced  on 
surfaces  other  than  the  respiratory  mucous  tract,  as  by  cold 
applied  to  the  skin,  or  by  nasal,  buccal,  pleural,  gastric,  or 
hepatic  irritation. 

Soothing  gargles  and  electuaries,  even  if  they  do  not  actu- 
ally reach  the  seat  of  irritation,  frequently  abate  cough. 
Mechanically  acting  mucilaginous  or  saccharine  substances 
may  be  rendered  more  effectual  by  combination  with  mor- 
phine, which  diminishes  irritability  of  the  respiratory  centre, 
and  decreases  secretion  of  mucus.  The  latter  result  is  still 
more  notably  effected  by  atropine.  A  combination  of  these 
alkaloids  is  hence  specially  valuable  where  there  is  trouble- 
some cough  and  profuse  secretion  of  mucus.  A  some- 
what different  effect  is  obtained  by  conjoining  morphine 
and  apomorphine,  which,  with  diminished  excitability  of 
the  respiratory  centre,  produce  increased  bronchial  secre- 
tion, and  are  hence  serviceable  where  there  is  cough, 
and  the  membrane  is  dry,  or  coated  with  thick,  sticky 
mucus. 

A  comfortable  loose  box,  with  abundance  of  pure  fresh  air, 
at  a  temperature  of  about  60°  Fahr.,  in  several  ways  benefits 
the  patient  suffering  with  respiratory  disease.  More  perfect 
aeration  of  blood  is  secured,  while  the  cool,  pure  air,  more- 
over, contracts  dilated  vessels,  combats  congestion,  and 
hence  will  often  remove  cough,  especially  when  depending 
upon  irritation  of  the  larynx,  trachea,  or  larger  bronchi. 
But  while  in  many  stages  of  respiratory  disease  the  breathing 
of  cool  air  is  grateful  and  beneficial,  draughts  and  cold  must 
be  scrupulously  guarded  against,  and  the  body  and  legs  of 
the  patient  kept  comfortably  warm,  with  extra  covering,  in 


94      ACTION    OF   MEDICINES    ON   THE    CIRCULATION 

order  to  promote  free  circulation  in  the  superficial  vessels, 
and  thus  antagonise  congestion  of  the  internal  organs. 

Cough  depending  upon  gastric  derangement,  not  un- 
common in  young  animals,  is  often  relieved  by  antacids. 
Cough  resulting  from  bronchial  filariae  is  abated  by  the  usual 
soothing  remedies,  and  sometimes  removed  by  turpentine 
administered  in  drench  or  intratracheally,  or  by  inhalation 
of  diluted  chlorine,  vapour  of  iodine,  or  sulphurous  acid, 
which  is  rendered  still  more  effectual  for  destruction  of  the 
parasites  when  conjoined  with  carbolic  vapour. 

In  dogs  with  bronchitis  or  pneumonia,  when  the  breathing 
is  difficult,  relief  is  often  obtained  by  giving  an  emetic  of 
ipecacuanha  and  squill.  Venous  congestion  is  overcome, 
and  the  state  of  the  bronchial  secretions  improved.  These 
good  effects  may  often  be  maintained  by  the  subsequent  use 
of  frequently  repeated  doses  of  ammonium  carbonate,  which 
is  also  serviceable  earlier,  or  when  the  patient  is  too  weak  to 
justify  the  use  of  an  emetic.  In  dogs  recovering  from  acute 
attacks,  or  suffering  from  chronic  bronchitis,  cod  liver  oil 
is  often  useful,  possibly  on  account  of  its  furnishing  readily 
assimilable  nourishment  for  the  delicate  epithelial  cells. 

ACTION   OP  MEDICINES   ON  THE  CIRCULATION 

Medicines  can  affect  the  circulation  by  acting  on  either  the 
heart  or  the  vessels.  There  are  many  ways  in  which  the 
heart  can  be  affected,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
normally  the  rhythm  of  the  heart  is  under  the  control  of  two 
sets  of  nerves,  namely  the  vagus  and  the  sympathetic.  The 
vagus  has  its  centre  in  the  medulla  and  its  fibres  end  in  the 
heart  wall,  where  they  connect  with  the  intra-cardiac  ganglia 
from  which  non-medullated  fibres  ramify  in  the  heart  wall. 
Whether  stimulated  Centrally  or  peripherally  the  vagus 
causes  inhibition,  slowing  the  beat  and  lessening  the  heart 
force.  The  sympathetic  has  the  reverse  effect,  and  stimula- 
tion quickens  and  strengthens  the  heart  beat.  But  in 
addition  to  these  direct  nervous  effects,  any  changes  in  blood 
pressure  affect  the  cardiac  rhythm,  a  fall  in  pressure  producing 
a  quicker  pulse  and  vice  versa.  Then  again  cardiac  muscle 
is  directly  acted  on  by  several  drugs,  some  strengthening  and 


HEART    STIMULANTS  95 

others  decreasing  its  power.  One  part  of  the  muscle — a 
band  between  auricles  and  ventricles  known  as  the  excito- 
motor  area — is  concerned  in  cardiac  rhythm,  and  if  stimu- 
lated causes  quickening  of  the  heart  beat. 

The  blood-vessels  are  regulated  in  calibre  and  blood 
pressure  is  maintained  by  the  muscle  (unstriped)  in  the  arter- 
iole  walls  under  the  control  of  the  vaso-motor  centres  and 
nerves.  The  vessels  can  be  dilated  and  blood  pressure 
lowered  by  drugs  which  either  relax  involuntary  muscle 
directly  or  which  depress  the  medullary  and  spinal  centres. 
On  the  other  hand,  stimulation  of  the  vaso-motor  centres  or 
of  the  muscle  in  the  vessel  walls  causes  a  constriction  and 
consequent  rise  of  pressure. 

The  heart  beat  may  be  slowed  by  stimulating  the  vagus, 
either  centrally  in  the  medulla,  or  peripherally  in  the  heart. 
Thus  such  agents  as  strychnine  or  ammonia,  or  concentrated 
chloroform  vapour,  when  first  administered,  slow  the  pulse 
rate  of  the  normal  heart  by  stimulating  the  medulla,  whilst 
digitalis  acts  on  the  peripheral  endings  to  produce  the  same 
effect. 

The  heart  beat  may  be  quickened  by  agents  which  either 
(1)  depress  the  vagus  either  centrally  or  peripherally,  or  (2) 
stimulate  the  sympathetic  accelerator  mechanism.  Thus 
agents  like  chloroform,  chloral,  or  any  of  the  narcotics  by 
central  depression,  quicken  the  heart  during  the  safe  stage 
of  anaesthesia  or  narcosis.  Atropine,  on  the  other  hand, 
paralyses  the  vagal  nerve-endings  in  the  heart,  and  so  causes 
quickening.  Again,  adrenalin  and  cocaine  afford  examples 
of  agents  which  stimulate  the  sympathetic  and  so  increase 
both  force  and  frequency  of  the  beat. 

The  heart  beat  may  be  strengthened  (1)  by  the  last-named 
group  of  agents,  namely  those  which  stimulate  the  sympa- 
thetic accelerator  mechanism  ;  (2)  by  agents  which  stimulate 
cardiac  muscle,  such  as  barium,  digitalis,  and  strychnine, 
and  these  in  small  doses  slow  the  beat  somewhat.  The 
exeito-motor  area  is  stimulated  by  larger  doses  of  most  of  the 
drugs  which  stimulate  cardiac  muscle  generally,  and  so  the 
heart  beats  become  very  frequent.  There  are,  in  addition, 
some  agents  which  specially  attack  this  area  from  the  first, 
notably  caffeine  and  its  allies,  so  that  with  small  doses  the 


96  HEART    STIMULANTS 

pulse  rate  is  greatly  quickened.  With  excessive  doses  the 
rate  gets  so  quick  as  to  produce  the  condition  of  delirium 
cordis,  where,  with  very  frequent  incomplete  beats  the  output 
of  blood  falls  down  to  zero.  This  occurs  with  toxic  doses  of 
digitalis  and  aconitine.  There  are  also  many  indirect  ways 
by  which  the  heart  and  circulation  may  be  affected.  For 
example,  alcoholic,  etherous,  and  ammoniacal  solutions, 
especially  when  given  in  tolerably  concentrated  form, 
immediately  irritate  the  mouth,  throat,  stomach,  and  other 
parts  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  produce  reflex 
acceleration  of  the  heart,  and  thus  their  effects  often  antici- 
pate their  subsequent  actions  resulting  from  their  actual 
conveyance  in  the  blood  stream  to  the  heart  and  other 
organs. 

Cardiac  stimulants  are  used  to  counteract  failure  of  the 
heart's  action  from  shock,  physical  injury,  overwork,  or 
depression  dependent  on  disease.  Stimulants,  when  acting 
favourably,  under  the  circumstances  produce  a  more  vigor- 
ous heart-beat — the  pulse,  previously  slow,  is  accelerated  ; 
or  if  quick,  unequal,  or  weak,  it  becomes  slower,  stronger, 
and  more  regular.  The  heart  pulsating  more  forcibly,  and 
propelling  at  each  contraction  a  larger  volume  of  blood, 
arterial  pressure  is  increased.  A  combination  of  two  stimu- 
lants, acting  as  indicated  in  more  ways  than  one,  is  often 
more  effectual  than  any  single  drug.  Hence  alcohol  is 
frequently  conjoined  with  ether,  ammonia,  or  aromatic 
volatile  oils.  Strychnine  is  prescribed  with  caffeine  ;  and  in 
serious  cases  hypodermic  injections  may  be  needful.  Heat 
used  in  the  form  of  warm  drinks,  and  also  externally,  as 
warm  rugs,  fomentations,  or  poultices,  is  a  heart  stimulant, 
especially  when  the  applications  are  made  to  the  chest. 

VASO  DILATORS  dilate  the  peripheral  vessels  (arterioles), 
and  thus  accelerate  the  blood-flow  through  them.  This  they 
do  either  by  depressing  the  vaso-motor  centres  or  by  relaxing 
involuntary  muscle.  Prominent  amongst  remedies  acting  in 
this  way  are  alcoholic  solutions,  ether,  nitrous  ether,  amyl- 
nitrite,  nitro-glycerin,  and  nitrites,  which,  by  dilating 
peripheral  vessels,  lower  blood  pressure.  Alcoholic  solutions 
combining  the  twofold  action  of  stimulating  the  heart  and 
dilating  vessels,  usefully  combat  chill,  equalise  circulation, 


HEART    TONICS  97 

and  prevent  or  relieve  congestion.  Horses  brought  in  chilled 
and  exhausted  are  frequently  saved  from  congestion  and 
inflammation  of  internal  parts  by  the  timely  use  of  a  stimu- 
lating drink,  the  good  effects  of  which  are  further  ensured 
by  an  extra  rug,  and  flannel  bandages  to  the  legs.  More 
permanent  dilatation  of  external  vessels  is  effected  by  fre- 
quently repeated  doses  of  nitrous  ether  and  ammonium 
acetate,  with  which  camphor  may  also  be  conjoined.  In 
combating  chronic  inflammation,  vascular  dilators  are  also 
serviceable,  and  their  operation  is  further  promoted  by  hot 
applications,  friction,  and  counter-irritation. 

HEART  TONICS  produce  their  effects  more  gradually  and 
slowly  than  heart  stimulants.  Although  large  doses  may 
induce  violent,  excitable,  irregular  heart  action,  repeated 
moderate  doses  prolong  the  diastole,  and  render  the  con- 
tractions slower,  stronger  and  more  regular.  Most,  besides, 
contract  the  muscular  coat  of  the  arteries,  and  hence  are 
vascular  tonics.  On  the  muscular  coat  of  the  digestive 
canal  they  are  also  liable  to  act,  producing  nausea,  spasms, 
and  sometimes  diarrhosa.  Heart  tonics  comprise  digitalis 
and  its  constituents,  sparteine,  cactus,  strophanthus,  vera- 
trine,  convallaria  majalis,  squill,  nux  vomica,  and  strych- 
nine. 

Digitalis  has  hitherto  been  the  heart  tonic  generally  used, 
notwithstanding  the  disadvantage  of  its  preparations  being 
of  irregular  strength,  and  its  active  principles,  digitalin  and 
digitoxin,  usually  consisting  of  several  bodies,  differing  con- 
siderably in  their  actions.  The  difficulty  is  overcome  only 
by  physiological  standardisation  of  the  drug  and  its  prepara- 
tions. Digitalis  is  prescribed  where  one  or  other  ventricle, 
from  weakness  and  dilatation  caused  by  reducing  disease, 
or  from  incompetence  of  the  auriculo-ventricular  valve,  is 
unable  to  drive  the  blood  into  the  arteries.  In  hard- 
worked  horses  compensating  hypertrophy  gives  increased 
propelling  power,  and  hence  sometimes  mitigates  the  results 
of  valvular  disease.  When  dilatation  occurs,  and  the  mitral 
valve  is  insufficient  to  close  the  orifice,  blood  is  liable  to 
regurgitate  into  the  left  auricle,  retarding  the  blood  flow 
from  the  lungs,  and  leading  to  general  venous  congestion. 
Heart  tonics,  notably  digitalis,  relieve  this  condition  by 

G 


98  CARDIAC    SEDATIVES 

imparting  to  the  contractions  the  needful  regularity  and 
strength  ;  while,  moreover,  by  slowing  the  beats,  the  ven- 
tricle is  more  completely  filled.  In  dilatation  of  the  right 
side  of  the  heart  usually  depending  upon  serious  attacks  of 
influenza,  bronchitis,  or  emphysema,  heart  tonics  are  seldom 
so  beneficial  as  in  mitral  disease.  In  the  various  diseases 
for  which  digitalis  has  been  used,  strophanthus  may  be 
given.  It  has  little  effect  on  peripheral  vessels,  is  a  better 
diuretic  than  digitalis,  but  is  much  more  toxic  to  the  heart, 
so  that  minimal  doses  should  be  used.  In  heart  failure, 
whether  depending  on  nervous  asthenia  or  on  muscular 
weakness,  strychnine  in  continued  small  doses  is  specially 
useful.  Where  there  is  marked  irritability,  it  may  be  con- 
joined with  cocaine,  and,  in  anaemia,  with  preparations  of 
iron.  Where  there  is  cardiac  pain,  nitrites  are  prescribed. 
Where  blood  pressure  is  abnormally  high,  it  is  usually 
desirable  in  vigorous  subjects  to  relieve  venous  congestion 
by  purgatives  or  diuretics  before  even  the  most  cautious 
use  of  heart  tonics  is  attempted.  Lymphangitis,  or  inflam- 
matory oedema,  attacking  usually  the  lymph  glands  and 
vessels  of  the  hind  limbs  of  the  heavier  breeds  of  horses, 
and  occurring  chiefly  in  well-fed,  hard-worked  animals  after 
a  day's  rest,  is  probably  caused  by  local  infection  and  con- 
nected with  imperfect  oxidation,  the  consequent  formation 
of  sarcolactic  acid,  obstruction  and  congestion  of  veins, 
capillaries,  and  lymph  vessels.  The  resulting  acute  inflam- 
mation is  combated  by  hot  fomentations,  a  smart  purgative, 
antiseptics,  and  saline  diuretics,  while  the  tediously  chronic 
oedema,  which  is  apt  to  follow,  is  removed  by  friction,  vaso- 
dilators, and  circulatory  stimulants,  and  regular  exercise. 

CARDIAC  SEDATIVES  lessen  the  force  and  frequency  of  the 
heart's  action.  For  such  purposes  aconite,  gelsemium, 
and  antimonials,  or  the  anaesthetics  and  narcotic  agents, 
are  chiefly  prescribed.  In  veterinary  patients  aconite  is 
effectual,  especially  when  given  in  small  doses,  at  intervals 
of  two  or  three  hours.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  antagonising 
violent  palpitating  action  of  the  heart,  or  lowering  the  quick, 
full,  bounding  pulse,  and  other  febrile  symptoms  of  laryn- 
gitis, laminitis,  acute  lymphargitis,  and  other  local  inflam- 
mations. In  cases  of  haemorrhage  the  narcotic  agents  are 


VASOCONSTRICTORS  99 

often  useful  by  lowering  blood  pressure  and  allaying  excite- 
ment and  movement. 

VASO-CONSTRICTORS  contract  blood-vessels,  lessen  the 
flow  of  blood  through  the  vessels,  and  hence  limit  local 
inflammation,  prevent  escape  of  lymph  and  consequent 
oedema,  and  arrest  haemorrhage.  They  may  act  either  by 
stimulation  of  the  vaso-motor  nerves  or  centres,  or  by 
directly  stimulating  the  involuntary  muscle  in  the  arteriole 
walls  to  contract.  They  are  represented  by  ergot,  lead 
acetate,  and  notably  adrenalin,  full  doses  of  digitalis  or 
strychnine,  and  other  heart  tonics,  and  topical  application 
of  cold.  Ice  or  refrigerant  lotions  applied  to  circumscribed 
spots  contract  the  arterioles,  and  even  considerable  arteries, 
and  thus  relieve  congestion,  inflammation,  and  pain.  In 
like  manner,  ice,  when  swallowed,  arrests  bleeding  from  the 
stomach,  reflexly  checks  bleeding  from  the  lungs,  and, 
moreover,  acts  as  a  cardiac  sedative.  When  the  bleeding 
vessels  cannot  be  reached,  either  directly  or  reflexly,  ergotin 
is  injected  hypodermically. 


MEDICINES  ACTING  ON  THE  DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM 

ON  THE  SALIVARY  GLANDS.— SIALAGOGUES— ANTISIALICS— 
REFRIGERANTS. 

ON  THE  STOMACH.  —  ANTACIDS  —  GASTRIC  TONICS  — 
STOMACHICS — BITTERS — EMETICS — ANTI-EMETICS — GASTRIC 
SEDATIVES. 

ON  THE  INTESTINES. — PURGATIVES — CARMINATIVES — INTES- 
TINAL ASTRINGENTS — ANTISEPTICS . 

ON    THE    LIVER. — HEPATIC    STIMULANTS — CHOLAGOGUES — 

HEPATIC  DEPRESSANTS. 
ON  THE  PANCREAS  AND  SPLEEN. 
ON  WORMS. — ANTHELMINTICS — VERMICIDES — VERMIFUGES. 

SIALAGOGUES  are  drugs  which  increase  the  secretion  of 
saliva.  This  alkaline  fluid  comes  from  the  secreting  glan- 
dular cells,  which  are  replenished  with  fresh  materials  from 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  glands.  The  process  of  salivation 
is  regulated  by  a  nerve-centre  in  the  medulla,  and  subsidiary 
nerve-centres  (ganglia)  in  the  several  glands.  By  food  or 


100  SIALAGOGUES 

other  substances  moved  in  the  mouth,  by  irritation  of  the 
stomach,  or  even  of  the  nostrils,  stimulation  is  conveyed  by 
their  respective  nerves  to  these  ganglia,  and  reflexly  saliva- 
tion ensues.  In  this  way  the  presence  of  food  in  the  mouth 
and  the  movements  of  the  jaws  naturally  provoke  saliva- 
tion. In  like  manner,  through  nerves  of  taste,  distributed 
within  the  mouth,  acids,  alkalies,  bitters,  ethers,  mustard, 
ginger,  and  other  pungent  substances  reflexly  increase 
secretion  of  saliva.  Tartar  emetic,  and  in  fact  all  emetics, 
exert  similar  effects  reflexly  by  acting  on  the  stomach. 
Jaborandi,  calabar  bean,  and  their  alkaloids,  with  muscarine 
and  nicotine,  produce  salivation  when  injected  into  the  blood 
by  stimulating  the  peripheral  ends  of  the  secreting  nerves 
within  the  glands  or  nerve-cells  in  the  ganglia,  and  are 
termed  specific  sialagogues.  Another  group,  including 
mercury,  and  potassium  iodide,  induce  their  effects  by 
stimulating  the  gland  cells,  to  a  slight  extent,  during 
excretion. 

The  salivary  and  buccal  secretions  moisten  the  mouth  and 
fauces,  and  hence  facilitate  mastication  and  swallowing,  and 
lessen  or  prevent  thirst.  The  ptyalin  of  the  saliva,  more- 
over, helps  the  digestion  of  starch  in  the  stomach,  whilst 
still  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice  is  small.  Graminivora 
secrete  proportionally  large  quantities  of  saliva  for  the 
moistening  of  the  dry  food,  on  which  they  chiefly  live.  The 
horse  in  twenty-four  hours  secretes  84  Ibs.  In  all  animals 
the  fluid  is  more  alkaline  the  larger  the  amount  of  the 
starch  food. 

Antisialics  are  medicines  which  lessen  the  salivary  secre- 
tion. Borax  and  potassium  chlorate  frequently  remove  the 
faulty  irritable  conditions  of  the  mucous  membrane,  which 
lead  to  over-secretion.  Opium  and  morphine  diminish  irri- 
tability of  the  nerve-centres,  while  atropine  is  the  most 
effective  paralyser  of  the  peripheral  endings  of  secreting 
nerves.  The  fermentative  action  of  ptyalin  is  diminished 
by  alcohol,  alkalies,  and  acids,  and  checked  by  1  per  cent, 
solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

Refrigerants,  in  contact  with  the  buccal  and  pharyngeal 
membrane,  induce  a  sensation  of  coolness,  and  allay  thirst, 
which  is  locally  manifested  by  dryness  of  the  mouth  and 


GASTRIC   ABSORPTION   IN   DIFFERENT    .4NIMALS      1Q1 

fauces.  Thirst  is  quenched  by  washing  out  the  mouth  with 
water,  or  lubricating  the  dry  throat  with  bland  mucilaginous 
fluids,  sucking  portions  of  ice,  which  horses  with  sore  throats 
soon  learn  to  do,  or  swallowing  slowly  slightly  acidulated 
drinks,  which,  by  stimulating  secretion  of  saliva,  moisten 
the  parched  membrane.  But  thirst  also  depends  upon  a 
deficiency  of  fluid  in  the  body,  and  excess  of  soluble  or 
saline  substances  in  the  blood — conditions  which  are 
remedied  by  ingestion  of  water  or  other  diluents.  The 
extreme  thirst  which  occurs  in  horses  affected  with  polyuria, 
or  diabetes  insipidus,  is  best  controlled  by  a  combination 
of  iodine  and  opium. 

ACTION  OP  DRUGS  ON  THE  STOMACH 

The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  small  relatively  to  his  size  ; 
the  cardiac  portion  is  lined  with  stratified  epithelium,  and 
secretes  no  digestive  fluid.  The  pyloric  portion,  which  occu- 
pies about  one-half  of  the  viscus,  is  the  active  digestive  part, 
and  is  lined  with  a  vascular  villous  membrane,  in  which  lie 
the  gastric  glands.  Gastric  absorption  in  horses  has  been 
questioned  or  denied  since  Bouley  and  Colin  published  their 
experiments  with  strychnine  ;  but  probably  slow  absorption 
does  take  place  from  the  right  sac  in  a  normal  condition.  In 
ruminants,  the  first  three  compartments  of  the  subdivided 
stomach  are  lined  with  cuticular  mucous  membrane,  are 
chiefly  occupied  in  the  reception,  maceration,  and  sub- 
division of  the  bulky  fibrous  herbage,  which  constitutes  their 
principal  diet.  This  thick  epithelial  covering,  and  the 
amount  of  food  always  lodged  in  these  three  stomachs,  ex- 
plain the  tardy  action  of  many  medicines  administered  to 
ruminants,  and  their  taking  with  impunity  large  doses  of 
irritants.  The  fourth  stomach  is  lined  with  vascular  velvet- 
like  mucous  membrane,  and  secretes  the  gastric  juice,  while 
from  its  walls  slow  absorption  takes  place.  In  the  dog  and 
pig  the  stomach  and  digestive  organs  resemble  those  of  man, 
and  in  both  animals  absorption  commences  in  the  stomach. 

Secretion  of  gastric  juice  is  stimulated  by  gentle  mechani- 
cal and  chemical  irritation,  by  introduction  of  suitable  food 
into  the  stomach,  and  by  stimulation  of  the  nerves  of  taste 


IQ2  ANTACIDS 

in  the  mouth,  for  example  by  means  of  bitters,  dilute  acids, 
alcohol  and  ether.  When  indigestion  occurs  from  presumed 
insufficiency  of  the  gastric  juice,  two  modes  of  treatment  are 
available — (1)  dilute  acids,  bitters,  and  a  little  spirit  are 
given  to  stimulate  secretion  ;  but  (2)  where,  from  reducing 
disease  or  other  causes,  the  stomach  is  enfeebled,  a  substitute 
for  the  gastric  juice  should  be  given  in  the  form  of  diluted 
mineral  acid,  preferably  hydrochloric,  conjoined  with  pepsin. 
Moreover  in  all  such  cases,  the  food  must  be  readily  digestible. 
For  horses,  well-prepared  mashes  are  substituted  for  dry 
corn  and  hard  fibrous  hay  ;  while  calves,  foals,  or  puppies, 
when  their  undiluted  milk  disagrees,  should  have  it  mixed 
with  water,  or,  better  still,  with  lime  water,  sodium  citrate, 
or  with  linseed  tea,  in  order  that  the  tough  curd  may  be 
more  easily  broken  down. 

ANTACIDS. — Certain  forms  of  dyspepsia  depend  upon,  or 
are  aggravated  by,  undue  gastro-intestinal  acidity,  which  is 
counteracted  by  antacids.  These  comprise  the  alkalies — 
potash,  soda,  and  ammonia  ;  the  alkaline  earths — lime  and 
magnesia  ;  and  carbonates  and  bicarbonates  of  these  bases. 
The  neutral  salts  which  these  alkalies  form  with  vegetable 
acids,  notably  the  tartrates  and  citrates,  after  acting  prim- 
arily as  salines,  are  converted  in  the  blood  into  carbonates, 
and  secondarily  exert  alkaline  effects  on  the  tissues  and 
secretions  with  which  they  are  brought  into  contact.  It  is 
thus  that  they  are  serviceable  in  rheumatism,  eczema,  some 
cases  of  pyrexia,  and  in  counteracting  acidity  of  the  urine. 
As  an  antacid,  the  volatile  ammonia  is  less  permanent  than 
the  fixed  alkalies.  Potash  and  its  salts  are  more  active  than 
soda  and  its  corresponding  salts.  Lime  salts,  being  pro- 
tective and  astringent,  and  not  readily  absorbed,  are  indi- 
cated in  diarrhoea  ;  magnesia  salts,  being  laxative,  are 
appropriate  where  acidity  concurs  with  torpidity  of  the 
bowels.  Lithium  carbonate,  present  in  Baden-Baden 
and  Bath  mineral  waters,  is  prized  in  human  medicine  as 
a  solvent  of  urinary  calculi  and  deposits. 

Horses  fed  irregularly,  or  too  closely  restricted  to  dry 
food,  frequently  suffer  from  gastric  acidity,  instinctively  lick 
the  lime-washed  walls  of  their  stables,  or  eat  earth,  and  are 
usually  promptly  relieved  by  antacids  and  suitable  feeding. 


EMETICS   AND    VOMITING  103 

Calves  carelessly  managed  manifest  the  same  disposition  to 
allay  their  discomfort  by  eating  earthy  matters.  Antacids 
given  with  or  just  after  meals  neutralise  this  gastric  and 
intestinal  acidity.  After  producing  local  and  direct  effects 
on  the  digestive  organs,  they  undergo  absorption,  and  pro- 
duce remote  antacid  effects  on  the  blood  and  urine. 

GASTRIC  TONICS  or  stimulants,  sometimes  called  stomachics, 
aid  gastric  digestion  and  improve  the  appetite.  Such 
results  occur  when,  in  experiments,  the  stomach  walls  are 
gently  irritated,  and  are  also  produced  by  small  doses  of 
stimulants  and  bitters.  In  certain  conditions  of  gastric 
irritation,  where  an  excess  of  a  weak,  inefficient  juice  is 
secreted,  stimulants  or  bitters  are,  however,  unsuitable,  and 
small  doses  of  mineral  acids,  or  of  gastric  sedatives,  such  as 
salts  of  bismuth,  or  prussic  acid,  are  prescribed. 

EMETICS  are  agents  which  cause  vomiting.  This  is  effected 
by  firm  compression  of  the  stomach  between  the  diaphragm 
and  the  abdominal  muscles,  and  by  the  simultaneous  con- 
traction of  the  longitudinal  fibres  which  pass  from  the 
oesophagus  round  the  gastric  walls.  When  the  stomach  is 
thus  compressed  from  behind,  and  drawn  forward,  the 
familiar  spasmodic  movements  of  retching  result.  When 
concurrently,  however,  with  these  movements,  the  cardiac 
orifice  is  dilated,  the  contents  of  the  stomach  are  thrown  up, 
and  vomiting  occurs.  Sir  Lauder  Brunton  thus  describes 
the  phenomena  of  vomiting  : — '  Uneasiness  is  felt ;  the  in- 
spirations become  deeper  ;  several  swallowing  movements 
are  made,  which  sometimes  carry  down  sufficient  air  to 
distend  the  stomach  moderately.  After  several  deep  in- 
spirations, there  suddenly  comes  one  which  is  deeper  still. 
Then,  instead  of  this  being  followed  by  expiration,  the  glottis 
shuts  to  prevent  the  escape  of  air  ;  the  diaphragm  again  con- 
tracts still  more  deeply  into  the  abdomen,  and  pulling  the 
ribs  together,  the  abdominal  muscles  forcibly  contract ;  the 
left  half  of  the  stomach  is  drawn  upwards,  and  the  cul-de-sac 
flattened  out ;  the  cardiac  orifice  dilates,  and  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  are  forcibly  expelled.  The  pylorus  remains 
firmly  contracted,  and  allows  but  little  escape  into  the 
intestines.' 

The  movements  of  vomiting  are  modified  respiratory  and 


104  THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    VOMITING 

ruminating  actions,  and  are  presided  over  by  a  nerve-centre 
in  the  medulla.  The  ganglia  regulating  respiration  and 
vomition  lie  close  together.  Certain  cells  probably  take 
part  in  both  actions,  and  are  acted  upon  by  the  same  agents. 
'  Emetics  usually  quicken  the  respiration  considerably  before 
they  produce  vomiting,  and,  if  injected  into  the  veins,  they 
not  only  quicken  the  respiration,  but  prevent  the  condition 
of  apnoea  being  produced  by  vigorous  artificial  respiration. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  desire  to  vomit  may  be  lessened,  to 
some  extent,  by  taking  frequent  and  deep  inspirations,  and 
narcotics  which  diminish  the  excitability  of  the  respiratory 
centre  also  lessen  the  tendency  to  vomit.' 

That  the  vomiting  centre,  rather  than  the  stomach  itself, 
is  the  prime  factor  in  the  production  of  emesis,  is  evident 
fromMagendie's  famous  experiment  of  removing  the  stomach 
of  a  dog,  attaching  to  the  severed  oesophagus  a  pig's  bladder 
filled  with  fluid,  which,  when  tartar  emetic  was  injected  into 
the  veins,  was  compressed  between  the  abdominal  muscles 
and  the  diaphragm,  and  emptied  of  its  contents  by  vomiting. 

When  the  fauces  of  men,  dogs,  or  other  animals  which 
vomit  readily,  are  tickled  with  a  feather,  or  when  the  interior 
of  the  stomach  is  irritated  mechanically,  or  by  a  solution  of 
mustard,  the  stimulus  is  conveyed  by  afferent  nerves  to  the 
vomiting  centre  with  which  the  special  motor  impulses  are 
correlated.  Many  other  parts  of  the  body,  through  their 
afferent  nerves,  have  communication  with  the  vomiting 
centre,  and  hence  vomiting  is  produced,  not  only  by  irrita- 
tion of  the  fauces  and  stomach,  but  by  irritation  of  the  brain, 
lungs,  liver,  and  gall  ducts,  the  intestines,  kidneys,  and 
bladder,  sometimes  even  by  pain  or  injury  of  the  extremities. 

Dogs,  cats,  and  pigs  vomit  as  readily  as  men.  Indeed,  in 
dogs,  vomiting  is  induced  by  most  disagreeably-tasted, 
nauseous,  or  acrid  substances,  and  sometimes  is  brought  on 
purposely  by  the  eating  of  grass.  But  horses,  ruminants, 
rabbits,  and  guinea-pigs  rarely  if  ever  vomit,  and  are  in- 
sensible to  the  action  of  powerful  emetics.  In  horses  emesis 
only  occurs  from  extreme  distension  and  spasm  of  the 
stomach,  from  dilatation  of  the  lower  part  of  the  gullet, 
from  complete  obstruction  of  the  intestines,  and  from  the 
action  of  large  doses  of  aconite,  which,  however,  induce 


HORSES    AND    RUMINANTS    DO    NOT    VOMIT       105 

retching  and  discharge  of  excessive  secretion  of  saliva  rather 
than  true  vomiting.  The  insusceptibility  of  horses  to  the 
action  of  emetics  is  due  apparently  to  some  undiscovered 
peculiarity  of  the  nervous  mechanism  concerned  in  vomition 
in  most  other  animals.  The  horse's  inability  to  regurgitate 
matters  from  the  stomach,  even  when  attempts  to  vomit  are 
excited,  depends  upon  several  conditions — on  the  smallness 
of  the  stomach,  which  prevents  it,  even  when  tolerably  full, 
from  being  grasped  and  squeezed  between  the  abdominal 
muscles  and  the  diaphragm  ;  on  the  strong  horse-shoe-like 
band  of  fibres  which  guards  the  cardiac  orifice  ;  and  on  the 
greater  length  of  that  portion  of  the  oesophagus  between  the 
diaphragm  and  stomach,  which  bends  on  itself,  and  thus 
more  securely  obstructs  the  cardiac  orifice  when  the  tube, 
under  the  influence  of  emetics,  is  shortened  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  its  longitudinal  fibres.  The  contents  of  the  horse's 
stomach,  even  if  discharged  upwards,  owing  to  the  position 
and  length  of  the  soft  palate,  would  pass  out  by  the  nostrils, 
and  not  by  the  mouth.  As  cattle  naturally  ruminate,  it 
might  be  supposed  that  they  might  also  readily  perform  the 
analogous  act  of  vomiting  ;  but  the  substances  which  cause 
emesis  in  other  animals  have  no  such  effect  on  cattle  or  sheep. 
This,  in  part,  depends  upon  the  large  size  of  the  subdivided 
stomach,  which  cannot  be  grasped  and  compressed  between 
the'  abdominal  walls  and  diaphragm.  In  horses  and  rumi- 
nants, the  arrangement  of  the  digestive  organs  thus  virtually 
preventing  vomiting,  the  vomiting  centre  would  not  be 
required  ;  if  it  ever  existed  amongst  earlier  races,  it  has 
become  dwarfed  or  ineffective,  as  seems  evident  from  the 
notable  tolerance  which  horses  have  of  tartar  emetic.  Sir 
John  M'Fadyean  suggests  that  in  ruminants  the  power  to 
vomit  has  perhaps  been  merged  into  the  habit  of  rumination. 
Emetics  are  divisible  into  two  classes  : — 

(1)  Those  which  mainly  act  locally  on  the  stomach,  such 

as  copious  draughts  of  tepid  water,  ipecacuanha, 
solutions  of  salt,  mustard,  alum,  and  ammonium 
carbonate,  with  copper  and  zinc  sulphates. 

(2)  Those  which   act,   through   the   circulation,   on   the 

vomiting  centre,  such  as  apomorphine.  Muscarine, 
digitalis,  pilocarpine,  and  the  saponins,  such  as 


106  USES    OF    EMETICS 

senega,  are  emetics  by  peripheral  stimulation  of  the 
alimentary  tract,  although  not  used  medicinally. 
Emetics,  acting  locally,  stimulate  the  vomiting  centre 
reflexly  from  the  stomach.  Those  of  the  second  class  may 
be  carried  direct  to  the  vomiting  centre  ;  but  some  are  also 
attracted  to  the  stomach,  and  thus,  in  part,  at  any  rate,  act 
reflexly.  Tartar  emetic  injected  into  the  blood  is  believed 
thus  to  act  in  both  ways.  The  effects  of  local  emetics  are 
not  usually  of  long  duration,  ceasing  as  a  rule  when  the  cause 
of  irritation  is  expelled,  and  leaving  little  depression.  Some, 
however,  are  more  persistent,  and  are  followed  by  nausea, 
depression,  and  increased  secretion  of  saliva  and  sweat,  as 
well  as  of  mucus,  alike  from  the  digestive  and  respiratory 
tracts. 

Emetics  are  used  on  dogs  and  pigs  for  removing  from  the 
stomach  foreign  bodies,  acrid,  irritating,  undigested  food, 
and  poisons .  Where  prompt  and  effectual  results  are  desired, 
as  in  cases  of  poisoning,  apomorphine  or  copper  and  zinc 
sulphates  are  most  suitable.  By  relaxing  the  longitudinal 
fibres  of  the  gullet,  and  exciting  anti-peristaltic  movements, 
they  are  also  serviceable  in  expelling  obstructions  from  the 
fauces  and  upper  part  of  the  oesophagus.  They  expel  bile 
from  the  gall  ducts,  and  gall  bladder,  and  force  inspissated 
mucus  and  small  gall  stones  into  the  intestine,  thus  relieving 
jaundice  resulting  from  obstruction.  By  clearing  out  both 
the  stomach  and  biliary  system,  they  remove  biliousness, 
and  sometimes  arrest  epileptic  seizures.  In  animals  which 
vomit  easily  it  is  better  that  irritants  lodged  in  the  anterior 
parts  of  the  digestive  tube  should  be  promptly  got  rid  of  by 
the  mouth,  rather  than  make  the  longer  and  more  tedious 
route  through  the  intestines,  running  risk  of  absorption,  and 
thus  probably  doing  further  mischief.  By  stimulating  the 
respiratory  as  well  as  the  vomiting  centre,  emetics  benefici- 
ally promote  secretion  and  expectoration  in  the  dry  stage  of 
catarrh  and  bronchitis,  and  sometimes  in  congestive  as  well 
as. spasmodic  asthma.  In  respiratory  disorders,  ipecacuanha 
and  squill  are  often  conjoined,  and,  where  there  is  cardiac 
depression,  ammonium  carbonate  is  prescribed,  alone  or  in 
combination.  Relaxing  muscular  fibre,  they  were  wont  to  be 
given  to  assist  in  the  reduction  of  dislocations,  but  for  such 


EMETICS    AND    ANTI-EMETICS  107 

purposes  anaesthetics  are  much  more  effectual.  Their 
paralysing  effect  on  muscle  explains  why  emetics  in  excessive 
doses  often  fail  to  cause  vomiting. 

Emetics  are  contra-indicated  in  gastric  inflammation, 
cerebral  congestion,  and  haemorrhagic  conditions,  and  they 
should  be  cautiously  used  in  pregnancy  and  hernia. 

A  safe  and  convenient  emetic  for  a  medium-sized  dog 
consists  of  a  teaspoonful  each  of  common  salt  and  mustard 
dissolved  in  three  ounces  of  tepid  water.  More  prompt  and 
certain  effects  are  produced  by  two  or  three  grains  of  copper 
or  zinc  sulphate  dissolved  in  a  couple  of  ounces  of  warm 
water,  rolled  in  a  piece  of  meat,  or  mixed  with  other  food. 
Greater  depression  follows  the  administration  of  three  grains 
tartar  emetic  and  ten  grains  ipecacuanha,  given  dissolved  in 
three  or  four  ounces  of  tepid  water.  Apomorphine,  the  most 
prompt  and  certain  of  emetics,  acts  by  whatever  channel  it 
enters  the  body,  and  produces  full  effects  on  dogs  in  doses  of 
one-tenth  to  one-fifth  of  a  grain. 

To  check  vomiting,  which  occasionally  proves  troublesome 
in  dogs,  three  methods  of  relief  are  indicated — (1)  the  re- 
moval, by  appropriate  means,  of  the  irritation  of  the  fauces, 
bronchi,  stomach,  or  other  part  which  excites  the  reflex  act  ; 

(2)  lessening  irritability  of  the  gastric  nerves  by  giving  small 
pieces  of  ice,  or  atropine,  cocaine,  carbolic  acid,  creosote, 
silver  nitrate,   bismuth  subnitrate,   or  hydrocyanic   acid  ; 

(3)  quieting  over-activity  of  the  irritable  vomiting  centre  by 
morphine,   chloral,  potassium  or  ammonium  bromide,   or 
amyl-nitrite. 

ACTION  OP  DRUGS  ON   THE  INTESTINES 

PURGATIVES — CARMINATIVES — INTESTINAL    ASTRINGENTS 
AND   ANTISEPTICS 

PURGATIVES  or  CATHARTICS  cause  intestinal  evacuations 

by  stimulating  the  muscular  coat,  and  accelerating  the 
peristaltic  movements  of  the  bowels  ;  by  increasing  secre- 
tion from  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane  ;  and  also  by 
limiting  absorption  of  the  intestinal  fluids,  or  by  setting  up 
exosmosis  of  fluid  from  the  blood  and  tissues  into  the  lumen 
of  the  bowel. 


108  INTESTINAL   MOVEMENTS       . 

Intestinal  movements  are  dependent  on  the  ganglia  of 
Auerbach's  plexus,  situated  between  the  outer  longitudinal 
and  inner  circular  layers  of  muscle.  Secretion  is  believed 
to  be  influenced  by  Meissner's  plexus,  lying  in  the  sub- 
mucous  coat ;  but  these  ganglia,  immediately  regulating 
intestinal  movements  and  secretions,  are  controlled  by 
cerebro-spinal  centres  and  nerves,  notably  by  the  vagi, 
which,  when  irritated,  cause  increased  peristalsis,  and  by 
the  splanchnics,  which  diminish  intestinal  movements. 
The  blood-supply  of  the  intestine  is  mainly  regulated  by 
the  splanchnics  and  vagi,  but  also  in  part  by  the  lumbar 
portion  of  the  cord. 

Purgatives  vary  in  the  degree  and  method  of  their  action. 
The  purgative  oils,  such  as  linseed  and  castor  oils,  act  in 
virtue  of  their  fatty  acids,  linoleic  and  ricinoleic  acids,  set 
free  on  saponification  in  the  duodenum.  These  acids  mildly 
irritate  the  bowel  and  so  increase  peristalsis  gently  and 
without  griping.  Their  mechanical  lubricant  effects  assist 
this  action  throughout  the  alimentary  tract. 

Another  group  of  purgatives  are  the  anthracene  group, 
all  derivatives  of  anthraquinone.  They  include  aloes, 
rhubarb,  and  senna,  cause  moderate  purgation  by  increasing 
peristalsis,  but  do  not  inflame  the  bowel  wall  to  any  extent. 

The  drastics  are  much  more  irritant,  and  cause  inflamma- 
tion of  the  intestine  with  the  outpouring  of  considerable 
inflammatory  exudate.  In  consequence  of  this  condition, 
absorption  is  prevented,  peristalsis  is  very  violent,  and 
severe  purgation,  often  with  griping,  follows. 

The  last  group  of  agents  are  those  which  act  by  stimu- 
lating the  unstriped  muscle  in  the  bowel  wall  to  contraction. 
These  are  exemplified  by  physostigmine  and  barium,  and 
their  action  is  produced  whether  given  by  the  mouth  or  by 
hypodermic  or  intravenous  injection. 

Purgatives  are  frequently  classified  clinically  as  follows  : — 

Laxatives  or  aperients,  such  as  small  doses  of  oil,  mag- 
nesia, sulphur  and  treacle,  with  fruits,  roots,  and  green 
vegetable  food. 

Simple  purgatives,  such  as  full  doses  of  oils,  aloes,  various 
species  of  rhamnus,  which  produce  more  copious,  softened, 
or  fluid  evacuations. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   CATHARTICS  109 

Drastic  purgatives,  such  as  croton  oil,  colocynth,  ela- 
terium,  gamboge,  and  podophyllum,  which  greatly  increase 
peristalsis,  violently  stimulate  intestinal  contractions,  caus- 
ing more  or  less  pain,  promptly  produce  copious,  fluid  dis- 
charges, and  in  large  doses  may  cause  serious  intestinal 
irritation  and  inflammation.  Eserine  and  barium  chloride 
exert  similar  effects. 

The  term  hydragogue  is  often  applied  to  those  agents 
which  greatly  increase  the  fluid  contents  of  the  faeces, 
examples  being  the  more  active  salines  in  large  doses  and 
the  drastics. 

Cholagogue  purgatives,  such  as  mercurial  preparations, 
podophyllum,  and  euonymin,  remove  bile,  and  will  be 
further  noticed. 

Saline  purgatives  consist  of  neutral  salts  of  the  alkalies 
and  alkaline  earths,  such  as  magnesium  sulphate  and  citrate, 
sodium  sulphate,  potassium  tartrate,  and  bitartrate. 

The  salines  produce  purgation  by  greatly  increasing  the 
amount  of  fluid  in  the  bowel,  and  this  they  do  by  drawing 
water  from  the  blood  and  tissues  through  the  bowel  wall. 
These  salts  in  solution  undergo  dissociation  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  and  their  purgative  action  largely  depends 
on  their  rate  of  absorption,  which  varies  with  each  salt. 
Potassium  and  sodium  ions  are  freely  absorbed,  but  mag- 
nesium very  slowly  and  with  difficulty.  Thus  a  magnesium 
salt,  other  things  being  equal,  will  remain  longer  in  the 
bowel,  and  will  exert  its  osmotic  effects  to  draw  out  more 
water  than  a  sodium  or  potassium  salt.  Again,  the  Cl  ions 
are  very  rapidly  and  easily  absorbed,  the  NO3  ions  less 
rapidly,  and  the  S04  ions  hardly  at  all.  Thus  chlorides  are 
not  nearly  so  effective  as  sulphates  in  producing  purgation. 
Since  in  magnesium  sulphate  neither  of  the  ions  is  absorbed 
to  any  extent,  this  salt  is  an  excellent  saline  purgative,  for 
it  remains  in  the  bowel  and  exerts  its  osmotic  power  until 
sufficient  water  has  been  drawn  out  to  make  it  isotonic. 
Salines  act  especially  on  the  small  intestines,  but  only  very 
slightly  increase  the  secretion  of  bile  or  pancreatic  fluid. 
When  the  accumulated  fluid  mechanically  distends  and 
stimulates  the  intestine,  extra  peristalsis  is  excited.  These 
salines  excite  very  little  intestinal  secretion  when  injected 


110  PRECAUTIONS  IN  THE  USE  OF  CATHARTICS 

into  the  blood,  or  subcutaneously.  The  amount  of  fluid 
secreted  has  been  measured  by  Sir  Lauder  Brunton,  who 
experimented  on  cats  with  concentrated  solutions  of  Epsom 
salt  tied  into  a  loop  of  intestine.  In  four  hours  he  found 
that  from  42  to  56  minims  of  serous  fluid  were  outpoured 
for  every  inch  of  surface  acted  on.  In  cattle  or  horses 
upwards  of  12  square  feet  of  intestine  must  often  be  directly 
stimulated  by  even  a  moderate  dose  of  physic.  A  secretion 
of  50  minims  to  the  inch  would  give  a  discharge  of  nine 
pints  of  fluid.  Such  considerations  illustrate  the  depura- 
tive  and  febrifuge  effects  of  an  active  cathartic. 

The  intestines  of  the  horse  are  voluminous,  presenting 
about  550  square  feet  of  vascular  mucous  membrane. 
Purgatives  and  other  irritants  hence  require  to  be  used  with 
much  caution.  For  a  day  previous  to  the  exhibition  of  a 
purgative,  the  animal,  if  possible,  should  be  restricted  to 
mash  diet  or  green  food.  The  dose  should  be  moderate,  and 
its  effect  may  be  accelerated  and  increased  by  administering 
it  while  the  animal  is  fasting,  by  occasional  gentle  exercise, 
until  it  begins  to  operate,  and  by  the  repeated  use  of  clysters. 
This  last  auxiliary,  when  properly  employed  with  sufficient 
perseverance,  is  indeed  so  effectual  in  promoting  the  action 
of  the  bowels  that  one  of  the  most  successful  of  army 
veterinarians  was  wont  to  trust  almost  entirely  to  its  use, 
seldom  giving,  except  in  extraordinary  cases,  any  purgative 
medicine  whatever.  In  serious,  obstinate  impaction  of  the 
large  intestines,  a  flexible  tube,  six  feet  long,  should  be 
screwed  on  to  a  Read's  pump,  and  copious  enemata  intro- 
duced into  the  colon. 

For  horses,  aloes  is  the  best  cathartic.  Linseed  and  castor 
oils  are  tolerably  good,  but  less  certain  ;  while  croton  is 
much  too  drastic,  unless  in  small  amount,  and  largely  mixed 
with  some  bland  oil.  Salines  in  cathartic  doses  are  irregular, 
and  sometimes  act  with  unexpected  violence.  Senna,  colo- 
cynth,  buckthorn,  and  other  drugs  used  as  purgatives  for 
men  and  dogs  have  little  effect  on  horses. 

With  a  warm  mash  the  previous  night,  and  subsequent 
abstinence  from  solid  food,  a  moderate  dose  of  aloes  given  in 
the  morning,  assisted  by  further  mashes  and  occasional 
draughts  of  tepid  water,  purges  most  horses  in  ten  or  twelve 


CATHARTICS   FOB   CATTLE,    SHEEP,    AND    DOGS       111 

hours.  Without  this  desirable  preliminary  preparation, 
purgation  seldom  occurs  within  eighteen  or  twenty  hours. 
In  acute  febrile  cases  absorption  is  usually  tardy,  and  the 
action  of  the  purgative  is  hastened  by  combination  with  a 
small  dose  of  calomel,  nux  vomica,  or  tartar  emetic.  A 
horse  should  never  have  purgative  medicine  when  his 
strength  is  reduced  as  in  the  advanced  stages  of  inflamma- 
tory disease  of  the  air-passages,  in  influenza  and  other 
debilitating  epizootics,  and  seldom  when  the  bowels  are  con- 
gested or  inflamed.  Horses  affected  by  bronchitis  may  die 
from  superpurgation,  induced  by  three  or  four  drachms 
of  aloes  ;  and  similar  susceptibility  to  the  action  of  moderate 
doses  may  also  be  observed  in  influenza,  purpura  haemor- 
rhagica,  and  laminitis. 

In  cattle  and  sheep  the  magnitude  of  the  quadrisected 
stomach,  the  large  amount  of  food  which  it  always  contains, 
the  relatively  small  size  of  the  true  digestive  compartment, 
and,  compared  with  the  horse,  the  greater  length  but  smaller 
capacity  of  the  intestines,  explain  the  tardy,  uncertain 
action  of  purgatives  and  some  other  drugs.  For  these 
ruminants  saline  cathartics  are  preferable,  and  their  action  is 
materially  hastened  by  encouraging  the  drinking  of  water, 
rendered  palatable  by  sweetening  it  with  treacle.  In 
obstinate  constipation,  or  torpidity  of  the  bowels,  gamboge, 
croton,  and  calomel  are  often  useful.  Purgation  may  usually 
be  produced  in  cattle  in  twelve  to  sixteen  hours  ;  but  cases 
frequently  occur  where,  in  spite  of  treatment,  the  bowels 
remain  unmoved  for  several  days.  The  best  purgatives  for 
sheep  are  common  and  Epsom  salts  and  castor  oil,  in  doses 
of  about  one-fourth  of  those  given  to  cattle.  Calomel  and 
croton  are  apt  to  act  too  violently.  As  sheep  drink  sparingly 
their  medicine  should  be  given  with  a  liberal  quantity  of 
fluid. 

The  dog,  on  account  of  his  small  stomach  and  short 
alimentary  tube,  and  the  concentrated  nature  of  his  food,  is 
peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  action  of  purgatives.  Jalap, 
with  a  little  calomel  or  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  syrup 
of  buckthorn  and  castor  oil,  is  most  generally  approved  of, 
and  usually  operates  in  from  five  to  eight  hours.  Aloes  acts 
more  slowly  and  uncertainly,  while  saline  medicines  are 


112  USES    OF   CATHARTICS 

apt  to  cause  vomiting,  or,  if  retained,  to  purge  with  undue 
violence. 

Pigs  are  affected  by  cathartics  much  in  the  same  way  as 
men  and  dogs,  and  are  best  physicked  by  administering 
three  or  four  ounces  of  Epsom  salt  dissolved  in  water,  or  a 
like  amount  of  linseed  or  castor  oil. 

The  uses  of  purgatives  are  numerous.  Few  medicines  are 
applied  to  so  many  important  purposes. 

(1)  They  empty  the  alimentary  canal  of  undigested  food, 
faeces,  bile,  unabsorbed  poisons,  and  worms.  Sweeping  away 
partially  digested  food,  they  diminish  the  amount  of  blood- 
making  materials,  and  thus  diminish  plethora  and  obesity. 
In  horses  fully  two-thirds  of  the  fluid  ingesta,  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  is  removed  by  the  bowels,  and  this 
large  amount  is  greatly  increased  when  physic  is  given. 
They  remove  noxious  gases  and  fluids,  micro-organisms, 
ptomaines,  and  other  intestinal  toxic  matters  which  are  the 
causes  of  dyspepsia,  colic,  and  diarrhoea  ;  and  which,  more- 
over, secondarily  or  reflexly  produce  nervous  depression, 
and  other  serious  effects  on  the  system. 

Constipation  is  usually  dependent  in  great  part  on  deficient 
peristalsis,  and  hence,  when  of  frequent  occurrence,  is  often 
advantageously  combated  by  conjoining  a  little  nux  vomica 
with  the  cathartic.  When  the  general  vigour  of  the  patient 
is  defective,  the  aperient  may  be  conjoined  with  iron  or 
arsenic ;  and  where  there  is  venous  congestion,  with 
digitalis  or  belladonna.  Horses  restricted  to  dry  food  are 
frequently  affected  with  constipation,  and  in  such  cases  the 
diet  should  be  varied  with  an  occasional  mash,  a  little  lin- 
seed cake  or  green  food,  while  water  ad  libitum  should  be 
allowed  at  least  four  times  daily.  The  bulky  and  com- 
paratively indigestible  nature  of  the  horse's  food  induces 
copious  alvine  evacuations,  which  are  passed  usually  at 
intervals  of  four  or  five  hours.  Impaired  intestinal  action, 
or  obstruction,  hindering  or  arresting  these  frequent  evacua- 
tions, causes  more  serious  and  rapidly  fatal  results  in  horses 
than  in  dogs,  or  ruminants,  in  which  the  bowels  naturally 
act  less  frequently.  Torpidity  or  obstruction  which  has 
resisted  ordinary  treatment  is  now  usually  relieved — even 
in  horses — by  the  hypodermic  injection  of  a  grain  of  eserine 


PURGATIVES    RELIEVE    PYREXIA  113 

and  one  or  two  grains  of  pilocarpine  ;  or  by  intravenous 
injection  of  a  solution  of  barium  chloride,  or  arecoline 
hydrobromide.  Constipation,  troublesome  in  dogs  kept 
in  the  house,  or  on  the  chain,  is  best  treated  with  a  dose 
of  oil,  and  prevented  by  attention  to  diet. 

Diarrhoea,  at  its  outset,  is  usually  most  effectually  treated 
by  a  dose  of  oil,  containing  a  little  laudanum  or  hyoscyamus 
— a  combination  which  removes  the  cause  of  irritation,  and 
prevents  irregular  peristalsis  and  griping. 

(2)  Purgatives,  notably  salines  or  hydragogues,  increase 
the  amount  of  intestinal  fluid,  hinder  its  absorption,  and 
thus  purge  the  blood  of  waste  products,  relieving  febrile 
attacks,  and  lowering  blood-pressure. 

The  blood,  thus  left  in  a  state  of  concentration,  speedily 
recuperates  itself,  absorbs  water  and  lymph  from  the  tissues, 
thus  relieving  oedema,  dropsy,  and  lymphangitis.  To  secure 
this  special  action,  such  salines  as  Epsom  salt  and  alkaline 
tartrates  are  specially  useful,  and  their  efficacy  is  increased 
when  they  are  prescribed  in  tolerably  concentrated  form, 
and  given  when  there  is  comparatively  little  fluid  in  the 
alimentary  canal. 

(3)  Purgatives  lower  fever  temperature,  but   how  this 
effect  is  produced  is  not  definitely  known.     They  diminish 
the  force  of  the  circulation,  and  may  in  this  way  lessen  the 
production  of  heat,  and,  moreover,  hasten  removal  from  the 
body  of  waste  or  other  deleterious  matters,  which  are  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  fever.    In  animals  in  health  purgatives  do  not, 
however,  produce  any  appreciable  lowering  of  temperature. 

CARMINATIVES  are  agents  which  regulate  peristalsis  and 
assist  the  expulsion  of  gases  from  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
When  digestion  is  in  any  way  interfered  with,  the  contents 
of  the  stomach  are  liable  to  undergo  excessive  or  irregular 
fermentation,  giving  rise  to  large  quantities  of  gas  composed 
chiefly  of  carbon  dioxide,  marsh  gas,  and  hydrogen,  with 
some  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Formation  of  these  gases  is 
favoured  by  accumulation  of  mucus  on  the  walls  of  the 
stomach,  which  prevents  secretion  of  gastric  juice,  and  by 
want  of  the  normal  stomach  movements.  These  gases 
cause  uncomfortable  distension,  and  often  provoke  spasm 
and  pain.  (See  Antispasmodics.) 

H 


114  CARMINATIVES 

Carminatives  are  closely  allied  to  Antispasmodics,  and 
include  the  aromatic  volatile  oils  of  the  umbelliferse,  labiatae, 
and  other  orders,  with  ginger,  mustard,  and  peppers,  alcohol, 
ethers,  and  chloroform.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  neutralised  by 
solution  of  ammonia  and  by  solution  of  chlorine  or  chlorin- 
ated lime. 

These  agents,  therefore,  are  used  to  expel  flatus,  relieve 
spasm,  and  prevent  or  lessen  pain.  Their  effects  mainly 
depend  upon  their  controlling  irregular  peristalsis.  They 
stimulate  contraction  of  the  distended  stomach,  and  thus 
promote  escape  of  gas  by  either  the  cardiac  or  pyloric  open- 
ing. Regulating,  in  like  manner,  intestinal  peristalsis,  they 
displace  and  expel  gases  from  other  parts  of  the  canal.  They 
are  usefully  conjoined  with  purgatives.  In  cattle,  owing  to 
the  large  amount  of  food  in  the  first  stomach,  it  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  remove  accumulations  of  gas,  by  either  carmin- 
atives or  antispasmodics,  the  use  of  a  gag  fixed  in  the  mouth, 
or  even  by  the  probang.  Where  these  means  fail,  and  dis- 
tension is  so  great  as  to  interfere  with  breathing  or  circula- 
tion, it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  gas  by  opening  the  rumen, 
with  either  a  trochar  and  canula,  or  a  tolerably  large  knife. 
In  serious  distension,  threatening  rupture  of  the  large 
intestines,  in  horses,  the  gas  is  liberated  by  puncture  of  the 
caecum  or  colon  with  a  special  trochar  and  canula. 

INTESTINAL  ASTRINGENTS  diminish  excessive  or  unduly 
fluid  intestinal  evacuations.  They  are  specially  used  to 
antagonise  various  forms  of  diarrhoea.  Some,  like  opium 
and  chloral,  lessen  the  excessive  peristalsis  on  which  diarrhoea 
generally  in  great  part  depends.  Some,  like  antacids, 
neutralise  acids  which  provoke  both  peristalsis  and  increased 
secretion.  Some,  like  creosote,  check  fermentation  and 
putrefaction,  and  thus  arrest  formation  of  irritants.  Others, 
like  catechu  and  tannin-containing  substances,  coagulate 
albumin,  and  consequently  dry  up  both  discharge  of  mucus 
and  of  blood.  Others,  like  copper  and  iron  sulphates,  usually 
conjoin  antiseptic  and  astringent  actions.  Many  cases  of 
diarrhoea,  whether  continuous  or  alternated  with  constipa- 
tion, are  best  checked  by  castor  oil,  administered  with  a  few 
drops  of  opium  tincture.  Where  the  diarrhoea  still  persists, 
opium  in  moderate  doses  is  given.  Where  active  peristalsis 


INTESTINAL   ASTRINGENTS  115 

occurs  after  eating,  drinking,  or  the  excitement  of  quick 
work,  as  in  some  nervous  horses  and  dogs,  liquor  arsenicalis 
is  useful,  or  strychnine  may  be  prescribed.  Undue  relaxa- 
tion of  the  bowels,  occurring  in  irritable  horses  during  active 
work,  is  mitigated  by  careful  attention  to  diet,  by  using  the 
best  food  in  digestible  form,  allowing  water  in  small  quantity 
at  a  time  but  frequently,  and  withholding  water  for  several 
hours  previous  to  putting  the  animal  to  quick  work. 

Intestinal  antiseptics  or  disinfectants  are  sometimes  pre- 
scribed in  the  treatment  of  disorders  of  the  bowels,  and  of 
diseases  which  are  believed  to  depend  on  the  presence  of 
pathogenic  bacteria  or  their  toxins  in  the  intestine.  Naph- 
thol,  salol,  iodol,  dermatol,  lysol,  creolin,  creosote,  carbolic 
acid,  salicylates,  iodine,  iodides,  tannoform,  thymol,  tannal- 
bin,  tannic  acid,  and  terebene  are  the  disinfectants  generally 
employed.  Experiments  show  that  repeated  small  doses  of 
beta-naphthol,  salol,  or  creolin,  rapidly  diminish  the  number 
of  micro-organisms  expelled  with  the  faeces  ;  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  these  or  other  intestinal  antiseptics  in 
hsemoglobinuria,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  ulcerative  enter- 
itis, some  cases  of  tetanus,  and  in  distemper  and  other 
infectious  diseases,  deserves  further  trial.  To  ensure  full 
effects  within  the  bowel,  the  agent  selected  should  be  given 
encased  in  keratin,  which  is  unaffected  by  the  gastric  secre- 
tion. 


ACTION  OP  MEDICINES  ON  THE  LIVER 
CHOLAGOGUES 

The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body.  It  not  only 
secretes  and  excretes  bile,  but  part  of  the  bile,  mingled  with 
the  food  materials,  is  again  taken  up  from  the  intestine  and 
again  excreted.  The  liver,  moreover,  forms  glycogen,  and  is 
concerned  with  the  general  metabolism  of  the  body,  the 
breaking  up  of  the  red  corpuscles,  and  the  formation  of  urea. 
Medicines  taken  up  by  the  vessels  of  the  small  intestine 
enter  the  liver,  where  they  may  be  retained,  destroyed,  or 
neutralised.  Some  are  excreted  in  the  bile.  Arsenic, 
copper,  and  mercury  are  retained,  and  morphine,  atropine, 


116  CHOLAGOGUES 

strychnine,  veratrine,  antipyrine,  cocaine,  and  other  alka- 
loids, are  detained  and  their  action  is  delayed.  This  im- 
portant power  of  the  liver  to  delay  the  action  of  or  actually 
to  destroy  poisons,  whether  elaborated  in  the  vital  processes 
or  introduced  from  without,  is  illustrated  in  Lautenbach's 
experiments.  One-twentieth  of  a  drop  of  nicotine  does  not 
kill  a  frog,  but  half  that  dose  suffices  when  the  liver  has  been 
removed. 

The  bile  has  various  functions.  It  promotes  absorption 
and  assimilation  of  fats.  It  moistens  the  intestinal  walls, 
and  excites  contraction  of  their  muscular  coat,  thus  acting  as 
a  natural  laxative. 

DIRECT  CHOLAGOGUES  increase  the  formation  of  bile,  and 
are  represented  first  and  foremost  by  bile  salts  themselves, 
put  into  the  blood  stream.  Others  are  dilute  nitro-hydro- 
chloric  acid,  sodium  salicylate  and  benzoate,  turpentine, 
podophyllum,  euonymin.  Some  of  these  drugs  augment  the 
quantity  of  bile  without  altering  its  quality  ;  others,  like 
sodium  salicylate,  increase  the  quantity  and  fluidity ; 
others,  such  as  toluylendiamine,  increase  the  solid  parts, 
rendering  it  so  viscid  that  it  cannot  readily  pass  through  the 
bile  ducts,  and  hence  becomes  reabsorbed,  and  may  produce 
jaundice.  Healthy  dogs  with  biliary  fistulse,  liberally  fed 
with  fats  and  oils,  were  found  to  secrete  more  bile  than  when 
freely  fed  on  albuminoids  or  carbo-hydrates.  It  is  of  little 
practical  importance  to  increase  biliary  secretion,  although 
often  necessary  to  remove  excess  of  bile  from  the  intestines. 
This  can  be  done  by  the  administration  of  purgatives. 

INDIRECT  CHOLAGOGUES  remove  bile  from  the  body  mainly 
by  increasing  intestinal  action.  Excess  of  bile  is  apt  to  lodge 
in  the  small  intestine,  and  become  reabsorbed.  Effectually 
to  get  rid  of  it,  the  bowels  must  be  freely  moved,  preferably 
by  a  purge,  which  will  produce  sufficient  fluid  to  wash  out  the 
small  intestine.  The  drugs  which  effect  this  are  calomel  and 
other  purgative  mercurial  salts,  given  with  a  cathartic,  such 
as  aloes,  jalap,  podophyllum,  or  sulphates  of  magnesium  and 
sodium.  Their  effects  are  increased  by  active  exertion.  In 
dogs  and  other  animals  that  vomit,  emetics  effectually 
remove  bile  by  compressing  the  liver  between  the  diaphragm 
and  the  abdominal  muscles,  diluting  the  bile  with  abundant 


CHOLAGOGTJES  117 

mucus,  and  promptly  discharging  it  by  the  mouth  as  well  as 
by  the  rectum. 

Owing  to  the  low  blood-pressure  in  the  portal  vein,  and 
also  the  low  pressure  at  which  bile  is  secreted,  there  is  little 
vis  a  tergo  to  overcome  obstruction  in  the  gall  ducts,  and 
hence  the  bile  flow  is  rather  liable  to  stagnation,  with  conse- 
quent increased  reabsorption.  This  is  apt  to  occur  in  human 
patients  living  largely  on  albuminoid  food,  and  not  taking 
sufficient  brisk  exercise.  It  also  occurs  in  cattle  forced  for 
exhibition,  and  in  all  animals  as  a  concomitant  of  intestinal 
catarrh.  It  is  frequent  among  horses  suffering  from  in- 
fluenza, and  the  circulation  of  bile  accounts  not  only  for  the 
yellow  membranes,  but  also,  in  great  part,  for  the  dulness 
and  languor  characterising  such  complaints.  The  removal 
of  this  superfluous  bile  in  these  cases  is  suitably  effected  by 
half  a  dose  of  physic,  or  by  some  calomel  or  grey  powder, 
followed  by  or  conjoined  with  salines.  Nitro-muriatic  acid 
and  iron  salts,  which  experience  shows  to  be  subsequently 
serviceable,  owe  their  good  effects,  at  least  in  part,  to  their 
action  on  the  liver.  In  jaundice,  Kobertson  prescribed  a 
purgative,  followed  by  salines,  and  subsequently  adminis- 
tered twice  daily  a  bolus  of  inspissated  ox  bile,  alternately 
with  aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia. 

The  pancreas  has  been  termed  an  abdominal  salivary 
gland,  but  its  secretion  not  only  converts  starch  into  sugar, 
but  also  digests  proteids,  and  breaks  up  and  emulsifies  fat. 
Not  much  is  accurately  known  regarding  the  action  of  drugs 
upon  the  pancreas.  Its  secretion  is  increased  when  ether  is 
introduced  into  the  stomach,  and  diminished  in  dogs  by 
atropine  and  vomiting.  Calomel  and  salicylic  acid  check 
decomposition  of  pancreatic  juice. 

Few  investigations  have  yet  been  made  regarding  the 
action  of  drugs  on  the  spleen. 


MEDICINES  WHICH  KILL  OR   EXPEL  WORMS 
ANTHELMINTICS — VERMICIDES — VERMIFUGES 

ANTHELMINTICS  are  agents  which  kill  or  expel  intestinal 
worms.     They  include  vermicides,  which  kill  the  parasites, 


118        AGENTS    WHICH   KILL    OR   EXPEL   WORMS 

and  vermifuges,  such  as  purgatives,  which,  without  neces- 
sarily killing,  detach  them  from  the  walls  of  the  canal,  and 
wash  them  away  with  the  mucus  in  which  they  are  usually 
imbedded. 

The  parasites  most  frequently  infesting  the  alimentary 
canal  are — bots,  the  larvae  of  the  Gastrophilus  equi,  found  in 
the  stomach  of  the  horse  ;  various  tape-worms  and  round 
worms,  occurring  in  the  intestines  and  stomach  of  most 
animals  ;  and  flukes,  which  invade  the  liver,  bile-ducts,  and 
intestines  of  sheep,  and  occasionally  of  cattle  and  deer. 

The  appropriate  vermicides  are — 

1.  For  bots,  green  food,  a  combination  of  aloes,  asafcetida, 
turpentine,  and  ether  ;  iodine  tincture,  or  carbon  bisulphide. 

2.  For  tape-worms,  areca  nut,  male  fern,  kamala,  kousso, 
pomegranate  root  bark,  turpentine,  and  chloroform. 

3.  For  asearides,  popularly  known  as  round  worms,  the 
remedies  used  are  tsenicides,  with  santonin,  oil  of  cheno- 
podium,  bitters,  arsenic,  lysol,  and  creolin. 

4.  For  strongyli  or  thread- worms,  turpentine  and  essential 
oils,  thymol,  tannin,  and  tannin-containing  substances,  lysol, 
carbolic  acid,  naphthol,  turpentine  oil,  with  enemata  of 
common  salt,  ferric-chloride  solution,  or  lime  water. 

5.  For  flukes  infesting  the  liver  and  bile-ducts  of  sheep, 
and  sometimes  of  cattle  and  other  animals,  the  treatment 
consists  in  maintaining  the  patient's  strength  by  good  feed- 
ing ;   furnishing  common  salt  and  soluble  iron  salts,  which 
exert  general  tonic  effects  and  limited  vermicidal  action,  and 
giving  a  dose  of  physic,  which  hastens  the  removal  of  flukes 
which  have  migrated  into  the  intestines.     Prevention  is 
ensured  by  keeping  the  flock  on  sound  pastures,  free  from 
the  developmental  forms  of  the  parasite. 

Bots  in  horses  complete  their  larval  stage  in  spring,  and 
their  discharge  is  then  readily  promoted  by  the  laxative 
fresh  grass.  During  autumn  or  winter  they  are  dislodged 
with  difficulty,  and  unless  numerous,  and  causing  much 
irritation,  their  removal  is  seldom  attempted  ;  but  animals 
seriously  infested  with  them  require  liberal  feeding.  A 
considerable  number  of  the  larvse  maybe  dislodged  by  giving, 
after  twelve  hours'  fast,  two  drachms  each  of  aloes  and 
asafoetida,  dissolved  in  hot  water,  to  which  is  added,  when 


BOTS   AND   TAPE-WORMS  119 

cold,  half  an  ounce  each  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  ether.  The 
mixture  is  administered  in  gruel  or  linseed  tea,  and  repeated 
on  several  consecutive  days.  Carbon  bisulphide,  in  half- 
ounce  doses,  given  for  several  days  before  feeding,  and 
followed  by  a  purgative,  causes  discharge  of  the  dead  bots  ; 
and  one  ounce  of  tincture  of  iodine  diluted  with  two  ounces 
each  of  glycerin  and  water  kills  bots  lodged  in  the  stomach. 
Tape-worms  of  the  three  species  infesting  horses  are 
usually  expelled  by  aloes,  turpentine,  and  oil.  Friedberger 
and  Frohner  place  first  on  their  list  of  tsenicides  three  to  five 
drachms  of  male  fern  extract.  Gamgee  recommended  two 
drachms  of  asafcetida,  a  drachm  each  of  powdered  savin  and 
calomel,  with  thirty  drops  of  male  fern  extract,  made  up 
with  treacle  and  Unseed  meal,  given  at  night,  and  followed 
by  a  purge  next  morning.  Whatever  remedies  are  used,  it  is 
essential  that  the  bowels  be  emptied  as  thoroughly  as  possible 
by  twelve  to  fifteen  hours'  fasting,  or  by  a  gentle  aperient,  in 
order  that  the  vermicide  shall  be  brought  into  contact  with 
the  head  of  the  worm. 

Dogs  in  some  localities,  in  the  proportion  of  fifty  to  every 
hundred,  are  infested  with  tape-worms.  The  most  effectual 
remedy  is  powdered  areca  nut,  the  dose  being  two  grains  per 
pound  of  body  weight.  Amongst  other  remedies  are  male 
fern  extract,  now  reputed  the  most  certain  remedy  for  tape- 
worm in  man  ;  aloes,  pomegranate  root  bark,  or  kousso, 
followed  by  a  purge  ;  the  American  remedy,  emulsion  of 
pumpkin  seed  ;  tenaline,  a  registered  preparation  of  areca 
nut ;  and  kamala,  obtained  from  a  Euphorbiaceous  plant,  is 
effectually  used  in  India.  A  drachm  of  turpentine  in  two 
ounces  of  castor  or  linseed  oil  is  frequently  used. 

Sheep,  and  especially  lambs,  are  frequently  infested  with 
tapeworms,  which  grow  very  rapidly,  and  sometimes  do 
widespread  mischief.  Areca  nut,  or  extract  of  male  fern, 
in  the  dose  suitable  for  large  dogs,  is  most  effectual.  Poultry 
harbour  various  species,  for  which  areca  nut  followed  by  a 
laxative  is  the  best  remedy. 

Ascarides  are  more  readily  removed  than  tape- worms. 
British  practitioners  usually  treat  the  Ascaris  equorum  with 
drenches  containing  one  to  two  drachms  of  aloes,  and  half  a 
drachm  each  of  chloroform  and  turpentine,  given  fasting  on 


120  VERMICIDES 

two  consecutive  mornings,  and  repeating  the  treatment  a 
week  later.  German  authorities  recommend  three  or  four 
doses  of  one  drachm  of  tartar  emetic,  conjoined  with  bitters, 
at  intervals  of  three  hours,  or  a  drench  of  arsenic,  aloes,  or 
absinthe,  thrice  daily,  either  prescription  being  followed  by 
an  aloe  tic  purge. 

The  Oxyuris  curvula,  met  with  in  the  colon  and  rectum 
of  the  horse,  is  removed  by  similar  prescriptions,  and  when 
confined  to  the  rectum  is  still  more  readily  dislodged  by 
enemata  of  quassia  decoction  or  other  bitters,  creolin  solu- 
tion, lime  water,  or  solution  of  common  salt. 

The  Ascaris  marginata,  the  most  common  lumbricoid  of 
dogs,  is  killed  by  three  to  five  grains  of  santonin,  the  active 
crystalline  principle  of  artemisia  or  wormwood.  This  agent 
is,  however,  dangerous  in  young  animals,  and  it  should  be 
prescribed  with  great  care.  Turpentine  and  oil,  gentian 
and  other  bitters,  oil  of  chenopodium,  and  various  other 
medicines  also  remove  round  worms.  The  effect  of  vermi- 
cides, as  already  indicated,  is  greatly  increased  by  first 
emptying  the  intestine  by  fasting,  or  by  a  purgative,  in 
order  that  the  drug  may  act  more  directly  on  the  parasites. 
Occasional  doses  of  salines  and  mineral  tonics  remove  super- 
fluous mucus,  which  shelters  the  worms.  The  spread  of 
parasitism  is  prevented  by  isolating  infested  animals,  de- 
stroying their  excreta,  and  by  keeping  healthy  animals  in 
uncontaminated  quarters,  and  supplied  with  pure  water  and 
sound  food. 

The  Strongylidse  include  many  species,  two  of  which  infest 
the  horse,  and,  imbedding  themselves  in  the  mucous  mem- 
brane usually  of  the  large  intestine,  are  difficult  to  expel. 
Various  strongyles  invade  the  fourth  stomach  and  intestine 
of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  and  not  infrequently  concur  with 
other  strongyles  infesting  the  bronchi.  Other  species  attack 
dogs,  cats,  pigs,  and  poultry  ;  while  the  S.  pergracilis  is  the 
cause  of  disease  in  grouse.  Empyreumatic  coal-tar  oils, 
lysol,  creolin,  thymol,  and  chloroform  are  the  remedies  used. 

Some  cases  of  parasitism,  unfortunately,  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  anthelmintics.  TrichinSB  get  immured  in  the 
muscles ;  the  palisade  worms  (Sderostomum  armatum) 
develop  aneurisms  ;  Scl.  tetracanthum,  which  causes  fatal 


MEDICINES    ACTING    ON   THE    SKIN  121 

enteritis  in  many  horses,  becomes  encysted  in  the  mucous 
coat  of  the  caecum,  colon  and  rectum,  and  is  thus  protected 
from  the  action  of  medicinal  agents.  Several  species  of 
Uncinaria  burrowing  in  the  mucous  coat  of  the  bowels  of 
dogs  and  cats  produce  a  pernicious  anaemia  (Friedberger) . 
The  treatment  of  such  cases  is  limited  to  a  dose  of  aloes, 
with  antiseptics,  nutritive  food,  and  tonics,  to  sustain  failing 
strength. 


MEDICINES   ACTING   ON   THE    SKIN 
DIAPHORETICS — SUDORIFICS — ANHYDROTICS 

The  skin,  in  the  domesticated  animals,  besides  being  pro- 
tective and  tactile,  secretes  sweat  and  sebaceous  matter, 
exerts  to  a  very  slight  extent  a  modified  respiratory  function, 
and,  on  account  of  its  constant  and  large  secretion  of  fluid, 
is  an  important  factor  in  regulating  animal  temperature. 
The  sweat  is  a  clear  colourless  fluid  containing  only  about 
two  per  cent,  of  solids,  of  which  sodium  chloride  is  the  chief. 
There  are  also  traces  of  fatty  acids,  but  there  is  little  or 
no  excretion  of  nitrogenous  waste  products  except  under 
pathological  conditions.  In  cases  of  kidney  disease,  urea 
is  excreted  to  some  extent  by  the  skin.  In  the  dog  and 
rabbit  it  has  been  found  that  removal  of  the  hair  and  var- 
nishing of  the  skin  causes  rapid  lowering  of  temperature 
and  death,  due  to  the  great  loss  of  heat  from  the  skin,  the 
vessels  of  which  are  dilated.  This  result  can,  however,  be 
prevented  by  wrapping  the  animals  in  cotton  wool,  and 
since  neither  of  these  animals  sweat  naturally,  death  cannot 
in  any  case  be  due  to  non-excretion  of  poisonous  waste 
products  through  the  skin.  Thus  the  only  important  effect 
of  the  secretion  of  sweat  is  to  cause  a  loss  of  heat  from  the 
skin  by  evaporation  of  the  fluid. 

The  sweat  glands,  placed  in  the  subcutaneous  adipose 
tissue,  number  2000  to  3000  on  every  square  inch  of  the 
surface  of  men  and  horses.  Their  activity  is  regulated  by 
the  special  centres  which  are  situated  in  the  spinal  cord. 
The  amount  of  natural  perspiration  depends  mainly  upon 
the  dryness  and  temperature  of  the  air.  Sweating  in  men 


122  DIAPHORETICS 

and  horses  begins,  even  while  they  are  at  rest,  at  a  little 
over  80°  Fahr.  It  is  chiefly  determined — (1)  by  anything 
which  increases  heat  production  in  the  system,  such  as 
muscular  exercise  ;  (2)  by  increased  activity  of  the  sweat 
glands  ;  and  (3)  by  increased  circulation  of  blood.  The 
taking  of  food,  the  drinking  of  warm  water  or  other  bland 
fluids,  and  the  administration  of  strong  tea  and  coffee,  by 
raising  arterial  pressure  increase  blood  circulation  through 
the  cutaneous  vessels,  and  promote  perspiration.  The 
sweat  glands  are  stimulated  by  various  aromatic  and  volatile 
substances  which  are  excreted  by  them.  The  sweat  centres 
are  stimulated  by  ammonia  salts,  ipecacuanha,  opium, 
camphor,  nicotine,  and  antimony  salts,  by  mental  emotions 
and  nausea,  by  a  venous  condition  and  high  temperature  of 
the  blood,  and  reflexly  by  warmth  to  the  surface,  warm 
drinks,  and  alcohol. 

Diaphoretics  or  sudorifics  are  agents  which  increase  the 
skin  secretions.  They  include  (1)  agents  which  stimulate 
the  sudoriparous  glands,  or  nerves  connected  with  them, 
such  as  pilocarpine,  jaborandi,  physostigmine,  and  warmth 
to  the  surface  ;  (2)  agents  which  increase  superficial  blood 
supply,  including  such  vascular  stimulants  as  alcohol,  ethers, 
and  ammonia  acetate  solution,  vaso-dilators  such  as  amyl- 
nitrite,  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  and  such  nauseants  as  ipeca- 
cuanha and  tartar  emetic.  Diaphoretics  are  less  prompt  and 
certain  in  veterinary  than  in  human  patients.  Horses  are 
made  to  sweat  more  readily  than  cattle,  while  the  skin  of 
horses  and  cattle  is  more  easily  acted  upon  than  that  of 
sheep  or  pigs.  In  the  dog  and  cat  there  are  no  sweat  glands 
in  the  skin  except  on  the  hairless  pads  of  the  feet,  so  that 
diaphoretics  are  without  action  on  these  animals.  In  all 
animals  the  readiest  way  of  promoting  copious  cutaneous 
secretion  is  by  heavy  clothing,  warm  diluents,  and  keeping 
the  animal  in  a  dry  atmosphere  of  about  70°,  and  administer- 
ing small  and  repeated  doses  of  ammonia  acetate  solution, 
or  sweet  spirit  of  nitre.  Friction  or  grooming  with  suitable 
brushes  beneficially  excites  the  action  of  the  skin  in  all 
animals.  Warm  and  vapour  baths,  at  temperatures  vary- 
ing from  100°  to  120°  Fahr.,  are  useful  diaphoretics. 

Hydrotherapy  affords  a  ready  means  of  producing  dia- 


ANHYDROTICS  123 

phoresis  in  the  lower  animals,  as  well  as  in  man.  The 
patient  may  be  enveloped  in  a  sheet  saturated  with  either 
cold  or  tepid  water.  Over  this  are  placed  three  or  four 
large  horse-cloths.  The  legs  should  be  subjected  to  similar 
treatment,  or  rolled  in  warm  bandages.  After  the  patient 
has  been  thus  clothed  for  half  an  hour  or  an  hour,  he  will 
steam  and  perspire  very  freely.  The  sheet  and  rugs  should 
then  be  removed,  and  the  animal  dried  by  hand-rubbing, 
and  comfortably  clothed.  This  practice  has  been  success- 
fully adopted  both  with  horses  and  cattle.  The  evil  effects 
of  chills  are  thus  counteracted,  colds  are  cut  short,  and 
rheumatism,  especially  in  gross  subjects,  removed.  Hydro- 
therapy  should  not,  however,  be  adopted  unless  with  due 
consideration,  and  under  competent  supervision.  Pro- 
tracted or  violent  diaphoresis,  howsoever  produced,  proves 
debilitating. 

Diaphoretics  are  used  for  the  following  purposes  :^— 

(1)  They  restore  checked  cutaneous  secretion,  and  hence 
equalise  irregularities  of  circulation,  counteract  congestion  of 
internal  organs,  and  lower  abnormal  temperature.     They  are 
hence  often  serviceable  in  cutting  short  chills,  colds,  and 
simple  febrile  attacks,  especially  amongst  horses. 

(2)  They  help  to   remove  injurious  waste   products  of 
metabolism,  which  are  apt  to  accumulate,  particularly  in 
febrile,    inflammatory,    and    rheumatic    disorders.     These 
depurative  services  are  especially  valuable  when  the  elimin- 
ating   functions    of    the   kidneys,   bowels,    or   pulmonary 
membrane  are  impaired.     In  such  cases  the  skin  may  be 
made  to  undertake  a  vicarious  duty,  and  excrete  waste 
matters  usually  removed  by  other  channels. 

ANHYDROTICS  are  drugs  which  lessen  cutaneous  secretion. 
Their  effects  appear  to  be  induced  (1)  by  diminishing  the 
activity  of  the  sweat  glands  ;  (2)  by  lessening  excitability  of 
the  sweat  centres  ;  or  (3)  by  acting  on  the  circulation,  usually 
by  stimulating  the  respiratory  centre,  and  thus  overcoming 
that  venous  condition  of  the  blood  which  in  weakness  and 
disease  is  a  frequent  cause  of  sweating  ;  (4)  by  cooling  the 
skin  either  with  refrigerant  lotions  or  cool  air,  or  ventilated 
cellular  clothing  in  place  of  thick  rugs  which  prevent 
radiation  of  heat. 


124  DIURETICS 

MEDICINES  ACTING  ON  THE  URINARY  ORGANS 
ON  THE   KIDNEYS  :    DIURETICS 

Diuretics  are  agents  which  cause  increased  secretion  of 
urine. 

The  amount  of  urine  is  liable  to  much  variation,  depending 
mainly  on  the  nature  of  the  food,  the  quantity  of  water 
drunk,  and  the  proportion  of  fluid  removed  by  the  bowels 
and  skin.  Horses  during  the  twenty-four  hours  pass  from 
two  quarts  to  two  gallons,  or  on  an  average  about  ten 
pints.  Secretion  is  augmented  during  digestion,  especially 
when  the  diet  is  rich  in  proteids,  by  such  food  as  heated 
oats  or  musty  hay,  and  by  vetches,  particularly  when  animals 
are  unused  to  them.  More  urine  is  passed  during  rest  than 
when  the  horse  at  active  work  is  losing  fluid  freely  by  the 
skin  and  lungs.  Major-General  Smith,  from  a  series  of 
examinations  of  the  urine  of  horses,  finds  the  specific  gravity 
averages  1036,  and  that  3|  ounces  of  urea  are  excreted  in 
the  twenty-four  hours.  Cattle  pass  10  to  40  pints  of  urine 
per  diem,  the  specific  gravity  ranging  from  1007  to  1030. 
Sheep  pass  10  to  30  ounces  of  alkaline  urine  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  1006  to  1015.  Pigs  excrete  3  to  14  pints  of  urine, 
which  may  be  acid  or  alkaline.  The  quantity  of  urine,  15  to 
35  ounces,  excreted  by  the  dog  depends  upon  the  diet  and 
the  size  of  the  animal.  The  specific  gravity  ranges  from 
1016  to  1060. 

The  urinary  secretion  is  increased  by  a  variety  of  con- 
ditions, notably  by  raising  the  pressure  of  blood  in  the 
Malpighian  tufts  ;  by  cardiac  stimulation,  especially  in 
cases  where  there  is  valvular  disease  and  consequent  venous 
congestion  of  the  kidney  ;  also  by  contraction  of  the  blood- 
vessels of  other  vascular  areas,  as  when  cold  diminishes 
cutaneous  activity.  Then  too,  any  condition  which  in- 
creases the  percentage  of  water  in  the  blood  (hydraemia), 
such  as  saline  infusions,  causes  diuresis.  Irritation  of  the 
medulla  in  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle  experimentally 
produced  by  mechanical  injury,  or  naturally  produced  by 
circulation  of  venous  blood,  greatly  increases  secretion, 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   DIURETICS  125 

owing,   it  is   believed,   to   stimulation   of  the   vaso-motor 
centre  which  controls  the  renal  arteries. 

The  proportion  of  the  several  urinary  constituents  is 
altered  by  different  conditions.  Urea,  uric  acid,  and 
hippuric  acid  are  increased  by  nitrogenous  food,  by 
common  salt,  phosphoric  acid,  leucin,  and  glycocoll,  and  are 
also  augmented  during  the  early  stages  of  most  acute 
diseases.  The  percentage  is  diminished  by  alcohol,  turpen- 
tine, arsenic,  and  large  draughts  of  water.  Horses  at  rest 
pass  a  maximum  of  uric  acid  and  a  minimum  of  the  less 
perfectly  oxidised  hippuric  acid,  but  these  proportions  are 
reversed  during  and  immediately  after  exertion,  when  dis- 
integration of  proteid  tissues  freely  uses  up  oxygen  and 
increases  production  of  carbonic  acid. 

Albumin  is  always  a  pathological  constituent  of  urine,  but 
occurs  in  convalescence  from  febrile  disorders,  temporarily  in 
horses  receiving  excess  of  albuminoids,  and  also  in  hsemo- 
globinuria  in  horses,  and  red  water  in  cattle.  It  appears 
especially  in  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  kidney  ;  and  is 
likewise  produced  by  full  doses  of  cantharides,  which  drug 
also  causes  haematuria.  Such  exudation  of  albumin,  more 
apt  to  appear  suddenly  and  temporarily  in  horses  than  in 
man,  is  lessened  by  careful  dieting,  the  animal  only  receiving 
easily  digested  low  diet  or  even  milk  alone,  and  by  arbutin, 
the  active  principle  of  uva  ursi,  and  also  by  keeping  the 
bowels  and  skin  in  proper  action,  clothing  the  patient 
comfortably,  but  avoiding  active  diuretics.  Bile  constitu- 
ents are  occasionally  found  in  the  urine  of  the  lower  animals, 
but  sugar  is  rarely  present. 

Diuretics  may  be  classified  as  follows  : — 

1.  Saline  diuretics,  such  as  potassium  acetate  and  nitrate, 
liquor  ammonii  acetatis,  the  alkalies,  saline  infusions.     All 
these  induce  a  condition  of  hydraamia,  i.e.  of  excess  of  fluid  in 
the  blood,  and  this  excess  the  kidneys  promptly  endeavour 
to  remove.     Thus  the  tissues  are  drained  of  fluid  and  this 
action  is  particularly  useful  in  cases  of  dropsy  and  the  like. 

2.  Drugs  which  act  by  increasing  the  blood  flow  through 
the  kidneys.     Of  these  there  are  two  groups,  (a)  consisting  of 
drugs  which,  whilst  they  do  not  lower  general  blood  pressure, 
yet  dilate  the  renal  vessels,  examples  being  caffeine  and  the 


126  THE    USES    OF   DIURETICS 

purin  bodies,  the  volatile  oils,  nitrites  during  excretion  ;  and 
(/3)  drugs  which  are  only  diuretics  in  case  of  failure  of  the 
normal  circulation,  such  being  digitalis  and  strophanthus. 
These  agents  so  improve  the  general  circulation  in  cases  of 
heart  disease  that  the  kidneys  receive  supplies  of  fresh 
arterial  blood,  and  so  are  able  to  turn  out  larger  quantities  of 
urine. 

3,  Cold  applications  to  the  skin,  cold  air,  and  anything 
which  lessens  skin  secretion. 

The  selection  of  a  diuretic  must  in  great  part  depend  upon 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  given.  A  diuretic  ball,  commonly 
used  for  horses  standing  for  several  days  in  the  stable,  or 
affected  with  swollen  or  itching  legs,  is  made  with  half  an 
ounce  of  nitre,  resin,  and  soft  soap,  and  may  be  repeated  as 
required.  The  same  ingredients  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water 
make  a  diuretic  drink  for  the  cow.  For  a  medium-sized  dog, 
Stonehenge  advises  six  grains  of  nitre,  a  grain  of  digitalis, 
and  three  grains  of  ginger,  made  into  a  pill  with  linseed  meal 
and  water.  Another  useful  combination  for  dogs  consists  of 
thirty  minims  of  spirit  of  nitrous  ether,  and  five  grains  of 
potassium  nitrate  in  a  little  water.  Diuretic  effects  are  best 
ensured  by  conjoining  several  drugs,  by  giving  small  and- 
repeated  doses,  by  encouraging  the  animal  to  drink  water, 
thin  gruel,  or  other  bland  fluids,  and  otherwise  promoting 
excretion  of  the  medicine  by  the  kidneys  rather  than  by  the 
skin  or  bowels. 

Diuretics  are  used— 

(1)  To  increase  the  proportion  of  water  in  the  urine,  thus 
preventing  deposition  of  its  solids  in  the  kidneys  or  bladder, 
and  mechanically  washing  out  such  solids  and  other  deb] 
when  they  have  been  formed.     Along  with  medicinal  dii 
etics,  diluents  in  such  cases  are  freely  supplied. 

(2)  To  hasten  expulsion  of  waste  products  and  poisonoi 
matters  from  the  body,  as  in  febrile  or  rheumatic  disordei 
or  when  poisonous  drugs  are  required  to  be  excreted,  or  whe 
the  kidneys  are  acting  tardily.     In  these,  as  in  other  cases, 
combination  of  diuretics  is  desirable,  and  digitalis,  turpentim 
or  oil  of  juniper  is  often  usefully  conjoined  with  nitre.     Ii 
human  practice  caffeine  is  prescribed. 

(3)  To  remove  excess  of  fluid  from  the  tissues  or  seroi 


MEDICINES    ACTING    ON    THE    BLADDER          127 

cavities  as  in  hydro  thorax  or  ascites.  When  dropsy  is  con- 
nected with  cardiac  disorder,  digitalis,  and  other  drugs  which 
act  on  the  vascular  system,  are  indicated,  their  efficacy  being 
rendered  more  certain  by  combination  with  some  saline 
diuretic,  such  as  nitre.  Copaiba  is  added  to  the  prescription 
when  the  liver  is  affected.  In  dropsy  connected  with  chronic 
kidney  disease,  nitrous  ether  and  oil  of  juniper  are  preferred  ; 
but  they  should  be  used  with  extreme  caution. 

Calomel  augments  secretion  of  urea,  and  hence  promotes 
secretion  of  urine.  In  excessive  or  too  frequently  repeated 
doses  diuretics  are  apt  unduly  to  stimulate  the  kidneys  and 
urinary  organs,  and  provoke  strangury,  inflammation  and 
hsematuria.  In  cystitis,  urethral  disease,  or  obstruction,  to 
prevent  alkaline  decomposition  of  the  urine,  antiseptics, 
such  as  benzoic  and  salicylic  acids,  or  urotropine  are 
prescribed. 

MEDICINES  ACTING  ON   THE  BLADDER 

LITHONTRIPTICS — URINARY    SEDATIVES,    TONICS,    AND 
ASTRINGENTS 

The  movements  of  the  urinary  bladder  are  mainly  reflex 
and  regulated  by  a  centre  in  the  lumbar  portion  of  the  spinal 
cord,  but  in  all  the  higher  animals  there  is  also  a  certain 
amount  of  voluntary  control.  Most  drugs  influencing  the 
bladder  appear  to  come  into  actual  contact  with  it,  and 
produce  their  effects  reflexly.  Thus  irritant  agents,  such  as 
cantharides,  which  are  excreted  in  the  urine,  irritate  the 
bladder  and  cause  frequent  micturition.  Some  horses  will 
not  urinate  while  in  harness  ;  others  will  not  while  the  rider 
is  in  the  saddle.  As  with  other  animals,  the  desire  to  urinate 
is  suggested,  and  the  act  facilitated,  by  seeing  or  hearing 
other  animals  staling,  or  even  by  the  sound  of  flowing  water. 
If,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  horse  is  in  the  habit  of  being 
whistled  to  when  urinating,  the  act  will  be  encouraged  by 
whistling  to  him.  Control  of  the  sphincter  of  the  bladder  is 
frequently  lost  after  injuries  to  the  posterior  part  of  the 
spinal  cord  or  in  paralysis  of  the  hind  parts  of  the  body. 
Partial  loss  of  control  may  be  caused  by  nervous  debility, 
and  will  disappear  with  improved  general  condition. 


128  URINARY   DEPOSITS 

Horses  and  dogs  are  liable  to  suffer  from  urinary  deposits, 
which  are  sometimes  found  in  the  kidney,  but  more  com- 
monly in  the  bladder,  and  in  male  animals  in  the  tract  of  the 
long  urethra.  In  horses,  as  in  other  herbivora,  urinary 
deposits  consist  mainly  of  calcium  and  magnesium  salts, 
sometimes  derived  directly  from  drinking  water,  from  earthy 
matters  mixed  with  fodder  or  grain,  or  from  lime  salts, 
abundant  in  clovers  and  other  fodder,  which  unite  with  the 
carbonates  produced  by  oxidation  of  the  vegetable  acids  also 
present  in  the  food.  These  calcareous  deposits  are  some- 
times in  a  finely-divided  sabulous  state  ;  sometimes  they  are 
aggregated  into  masses  or  calculi.  Whether  occurring  as 
sediment,  gravel,  or  stone,  they  cause  more  or  less  difficulty, 
straining,  and  pain  in  urination  ;  the  stream  is  interrupted, 
and  from  irritation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  passage  the 
urine  usually  contains  excess  of  mucus  ;  while  the  portions 
last  discharged  are  often  turbid.  When  such  symptoms  are 
caused  by  a  calculus  in  the  bladder,  medical  treatment  is 
unavailing.  No  medicine  can  be  safely  given  in  sufficient 
amount  or  sufficiently  concentrated  to  dissolve  calcareous 
urinary  deposits  within  the  body.  Hence  a  stone  which 
cannot  be  naturally  discharged  can  only  be  removed  by  a 
surgical  operation.  When  small  it  may  be  extracted  by 
lithotomy  ;  when  large  or  of  awkward  shape,  it  should  be 
crushed  and  removed  in  pieces.  Calcareous  sediment  can 
usually  be  got  rid  of  in  great  part,  or  entirely,  by  giving 
liberal  supplies  of  barley  water,  linseed  tea,  or  other  diluents  ; 
or  with  a  syringe  and  flexible  catheter  the  bladder  may  be 
filled  with  tepid  water,  and  deposits  thus  washed  out. 
Successive  quantities  of  water  may  be  introduced  until  they 
come  away  tolerably  clear. 

LITHONTRIPTICS  are  defined  as  remedies  which  prevent 
deposit  of  solids  from  the  urine,  or  cause  their  resolution. 
In  veterinary  patients,  as  already  indicated,  they  cannot 
resolve  calculi,  although  they  may  promote  their  removal, 
and  may  check  their  formation.  Such  preventive  treat- 
ment in  the  case  of  horses  mainly  consists  in  furnishing 
abundant,  regular,  and  pure  supplies  of  drinking  water. 
Waters  rich  in  calcareous  matters  are  theoretically  more 
liable  to  deposit  such  earthy  constituents,  especially  under 


PREVENTION    OF   URINARY    DEPOSITS  129 

conditions  where  their  carbonic  anhydride  is  diminished.  A 
weekly  mash,  containing  any  simple  saline,  somewhat  lessens 
the  tendency  to  these  urinary  deposits  ;  and  it  is  further 
important  to  remove  conditions  which  interfere  with  regular 
urination  or  any  obstruction  to  the  outflow.  It  is  accord- 
ingly advisable,  from  time  to  time,  to  wash  out  the  horse's 
sheath  with  soap  and  tepid  water,  and  thus  get  rid  of 
accumulating  sebaceous  matter. 

Bulls  and  oxen,  and  still  more  frequently  rams  and 
wethers,  when  liberally  supplied  with  albuminoid  food,  and 
having  little  or  no  exercise,  are  liable  to  deposits,  chiefly  of 
ammonio-magnesian  phosphates,  in  the  bladder  and  curved 
or  tortuous  urethra.  Amongst  feeding  sheep,  fatal  uraemic 
poisoning  may  thus  be  produced.  The  patients  must  be 
turned  up,  and  endeavour  made  by  manipulation  to  displace 
the  deposits  which  block  the  urethra.  Where  these  means 
fail  to  effect  a  passage,  the  vermiform  appendage  may  be 
excised,  or  the  canal  may  be  opened,  when  a  full  stream  of 
urine  will  be  discharged,  and  with  it  a  considerable  amount 
of  deposit.  Prevention  is  effected  by  withholding  or  reduc- 
ing the  allowance  of  cake  and  corn,  supplying  soft  laxative 
food,  raising  the  sheep  and  moving  them  about  at  least  thrice 
daily,  so  as  to  encourage  urination,  and  by  prescribing 
potassium  bicarbonate. 

Dogs,  when  freely  eating  animal  food,  suffer  occasionally 
from  deposits  of  uric  acid  and  acid  urates,  the  tendency  to 
which  is  combated  by  suitable  diet,  diluents,  and  salts  of 
potassium  and  lithium,  both  of  which  form  soluble  salts  with 
uric  acid,  but  the  lithium  having  a  lower  atomic  weight, 
unites  with  a  larger  proportion  of  uric  acid. 

VESICAL  AND  URINARY  SEDATIVES  are  agents  which  lessen 
irritability  of  the  bladder  and  urinary  passages,  and  thus 
remove  straining  and  pain.  Diluents,  such  as  linseed  tea 
or  other  mucilaginous  drinks,  are  often  serviceable.  Irrita- 
bility when  caused  by  the  presence  of  calculi  is  diminished 
by  the  administration  of  alkalies.  In  cystitis,  rugs  wrung 
out  of  hot  water  and  laid  over  the  loins,  and  hot  fomenta- 
tions to  the  perineum,  afford  much  relief.  Irritability  of  the 
nerve-centres  is  soothed  by  opium,  belladonna,  and  hyoscya- 
Chronic  inflammatory  conditions  are  relieved  by  such 
I 


130  VESICAL   SEDATIVES    AND    TONICS 

astringents  as  uva  ursi,  buchu,  and  Pareira  root.     Copaiba, 
sandal  wood  oil,  urotropine,  and  terpenes  are  excreted  in  con- 
siderable amount  by  the  kidneys,  and  exert  their  antiseptic 
and  astringent  effects  throughout  the  urino-genital  tract.] 
Relaxed  and  haemorrhagic  conditions  may  be  treated  byj 
salicylic,  or  benzoic  acid,  or  by  injections  of  astringents  such 
as  a  dilute  solution  of  silver  nitrate  (half  a  grain  per  ounce),; 
and  iron  sulphate,  alternated  by  salicylic  acid. 

VESICAL  AND  URINARY  TONICS  are  agents  which  increase 
the  muscular  tone  of  the  bladder.  Strychnine  and  can- 
tharides  strengthen  the  sphincter  muscle  and  thus  prevent 
involuntary  escape  of  urine.  Belladonna  acts  upon  the 
sensory  nerve-endings,  and  so  is  believed  to  lessen  the 
sensibility. 

MEDICINES  ACTING  ON  THE  ORGANS  OP  GENERA- 
TION AND  THE  MAMMARY  GLANDS 

APHRODISIACS AN  APHRODISIACS — ECBOLICS,    OR    OXYTOCICS 

The  sexual  function  is  regulated  by  two  nerve-centres 
which  influence  and  react  on  each  other. 

(1)  The  cerebral  is  believed  to  lie  in  the  crus  cerebri,  and 
is  stimulated  reflexly  by  the  special  nerves  of  smell,  sight,  or 
hearing.  (2)  The  spinal  centre,  situated  in  the  lumbar 
region,  regulates  the  vascular  supply  of  the  erectile  genital 
tissues.  Irritation  of  this  centre  causes  turgid  rigidity. 
Erection  is  also  produced  reflexly  by  local  stimulation  of  the 
genital  organs,  as  well  as  by  irritation  of  the  bladder, 
prostate,  and  lower  intestine. 

APHRODISIACS  are  agents  which  increase  sexual  desire. 
Deficient  sexual  activity  usually  depends  upon  want  of 
general  vigour,  and  the  rational  treatment  consists  in  the 
administration  of  tonics — notably  iron,  strychnine,  and 
yohimbine,  which  have  a  special  effect  in  stimulating  the 
spinal  sexual  centres.  Cantharides  exerts  aphrodisiac  influ- 
ences mainly  by  irritating  the  urinary  mucous  membrane, 
and  hence  is  a  very  uncertain  and  unsafe  remedy.  Alcohol, 
although  stimulating  the  cerebral  sexual  centre,  appears  to 
paralyse  the  lumbar  vaso-motor  centres,  and  hence  interferes 
with  the  proper  performance  of  the  generative  act. 


ECBOLICS  131 

ANAPHRODISIACS  are  agents  which  diminish  the  sexual 
passion.  Some,  as  applications  of  ice,  or  cold  water,  act 
locally  on  the  organs  themselves  ;  others,  as  potassium 
iodide,  and  bromide,  purgatives,  and  hemlock,  act  generally 
on  the  genital  nerve  centres.  A  spare  diet  and  steady  work 
exert  anaphrodisiac  effects.  Irritation  of  the  genital  lumbar 
plexus  is  produced  reflexly  by  distension  of  the  bladder  with 
acid  urine,  by  accumulation  of  filth  around  the  prepuce,  by 
ascarides,  and  even  by  faeces  in  the  rectum.  Removal  of 
such  causes  of  irritation  accordingly  diminishes  undue  sexual 
excitement. 

ECBOLICS. — The  involuntary  muscular  fibres  of  the  uterus 
have  the  power  of  rhythmical  contraction,  but  are  besides 
controlled  by  higher  nerve-centres  in  the  lumbar  portion  of 
the  cord,  and  in  the  brain.  Experiments  have  demon- 
strated that  stimulation  of  the  cerebellum,  crura  cerebri, 
corpora  striata,  and  optic  thalami  produces  uterine  con- 
tractions. 

Ecbolics  cause  expulsion  of  the  contents  of  the  uterus. 
They  include  ergot,  hydrastis,  savin,  and  thuja  ;  but  ergot  is 
the  only  one  in  general  use.  It  induces  uterine  contractions 
even  when  all  nervous  connections  have  been  divided,  but  it 
also  acts  on  the  special  centre.  It  is  occasionally  used  in 
veterinary  patients — particularly  in  the  bitch — to  hasten 
parturition  when  no  obstruction  is  present,  but  when  ex- 
pulsive power  is  deficient.  As  it  induces  persistent  contrac- 
tion of  the  uterus,  with  consequent  arrest  of  placental  circu- 
lation, it  must  be  used  sparingly  and  cautiously  during 
parturition.  It  is  serviceable,  however,  subsequently  in 
promoting  contraction  and  checking  haemorrhage.  Prompt 
contraction  of  the  flaccid  uterus,  with  arrest  of  dangerous 
bleeding,  is  best  secured  by  subcutaneous  injection  of  ergotin, 
and  also  by  injection  of  warm  water. 

The  local  irritation  of  metritis  and  leucorrhcea  can  be 
relieved  by  injection  of  warm  water,  which  is  rendered  still 
more  effectual  by  addition  of  potassium  permanganate, 
creolin,  carbolic  acid,  or  chinosol.  Suppositories  of  opium 
and  belladonna  may  be  subsequently  introduced. 

AGENTS  ACTING  ON  THE  MAMMARY  GLANDS.— A  full  stream 
of  healthy  blood  passing  through  the  mammary  glands  is 


132      TREATMENT    OF   DISEASES    OF   THE    UDDER 

essential  to  the  abundant  secretion  of  good  milk.  Animals 
which  are  to  milk  well  must  accordingly  be  well  fed.  Their 
diet  must  contain  a  sufficient  proportion  especially  of 
albuminoids  and  fatty  matters,  which  furnish  the  casein  and 
cream  of  the  milk.  There  are  no  drugs  of  much  practical 
value  as  galactagogues,  or  inereasers  of  milk.  Jarborandi 
exerts  only  a  temporary  effect.  Many  drugs,  however,  pass 
into  the  milk,  communicating  to  it  their  flavour  and  medici- 
nal properties.  Volatile  oils  promptly  taste  the  milk  of  any 
animal  to  which  they  are  given.  Fixed  oils  and  salines 
administered  to  milking  mothers, purge  the  sucking  offspring. 
Acids,  diuretics,  opiates,  potassium  iodide,  arsenic,  and  other 
active  drugs  given  to  suckling  mothers  frequently  exhibit 
notable  effects  on  their  susceptible  progeny. 

By  careful  selection  of  good  milking  breeds,  and  by  suit- 
able management,  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded  by  first-class 
dairy  cows  is  many  times  that  obtained  from  cattle  in  their 
natural  or  semi-feral  state,  which  furnish  only  sufficient  for 
the  rearing  of  one  calf.  But  the  highly  developed  mammary 
organs  of  these  improved  dairy  animals  become  increasingly 
susceptible  to  disease,  and  less  amenable  to  treatment. 
Acute  inflammation,  usually  of  bacterial  origin,  frequently 
attacks  the  udder,  causing  much  constitutional  disturbance, 
and  necessitating  the  administration  of  purgatives,  and 
febrifuges,  and  the  application  of  antiseptics.  In  order  to 
relieve  its  weight,  the  inflamed  udder  should  be  suspended  by 
a  broad  web  passed  over  the  loins,  and  provided  with  holes 
for  the  teats.  The  web  will  conveniently  support  a  light 
poultice  of  spent  hops,  or  an  antiseptic  compress,  which  is 
often  advantageously  applied.  A  teat-syphon  is  generally 
useful  to  withdraw  the  milk  or  exudate,  and  to  introduce 
disinfectants.  The  inflamed  parts  are  dressed  with  bella- 
donna, which  paralyses  the  terminations  of  the  nerves,  and 
slightly  diminishes  lacteal  secretion ;  and  also  relieves 
tension,  lessens  pain,  and  relaxes  the  sphincters  of  the  teats. 

With  the  view  of  hastening  the  drying  of  cows,  belladonna 
is  sometimes  applied  topically  to  the  udder,  and  is  also 
administered  ;  but  as  milk  secretion  is  not  entirely  depend- 
ent on  nerve  influence,  atropine  and  belladonna,  which  act 
only  on  nerve-endings,  are  of  little  real  value  for  this  purpose. 


RESTORATIVES  133 

The  desired  object  is  more  practically  attained  by  restricting 
the  cow  to  dry  food,  milking  her  at  gradually  lengthening 
intervals,  and,  where  the  result  has  to  be  quickly  secured, 
giving  a  dose  of  purgative  medicine. 

REMEDIES  ACTING   ON   TISSUE  CHANGE 

RESTORATIVES — TONICS — HJEMATINICS — ALTERATIVES — 
FEBRIFUGES — BLOOD-LETTING 

The  various  structures  of  healthy  animal  bodies  are  con- 
tinually undergoing  reconstruction,  change,  and  devolution. 
Fresh  materials  or  restoratives,  in  sufficient  abundance,  and 
containing  in  suitable  proportion  the  constituents  of  the 
several  tissues,  are  required.  By  digestion  and  assimilation, 
the  food  materials  are  prepared  for  their  special  uses.  But 
these  complex  nutritive  processes  sometimes  become  de- 
ranged. Some  fault  occurs  in  the  digestive  enzymes  ;  some 
want  of  activity  or  correlation  overtakes  the  presiding 
nervous  centres  ;  some  delay  takes  place  in  the  prompt  and 
effectual  removal  of  waste  products  by  the  bowels,  kidneys, 
or  skin.  Hence  arise  muscular  and  nervous  depression, 
expressed  by  dulness,  debility,  and  diminished  capacity  for 
exertion.  For  such  weakened,  relaxed,  unfit  conditions,  the 
appropriate  remedies  are  tonics.1  Within  the  living  organs 
and  tissues  themselves,  further  subtle  reparative  processes 
constantly  occur,  and  certain  drugs,  termed  alteratives, 
modify  these  remoter  tissue  changes  in  a  manner  not  fully 
understood.  The  maintenance  of  a  tolerably  uniform 
temperature  is  essential  to  the  performance  of  normal  tissue 
changes  in  warm-blooded  animals.  In  fever,  however,  the 
temperature  is  increased,  and  the  agents  employed  for  its 
reduction  are  antipyretics,  or  febrifuges. 

RESTORATIVES. — The  bodies  of  all  animals,  especially  when 
at  work,  undergo  disintegration  and  waste,  and  their  growth 
and  repair  hence  require  continual  recuperation.  Food 
must  be  provided  in  sufficient  amount,  of  suitable  quality, 

1  Strictly  stated,  the  word  tonic  refers  to  an  agent  which  increases  muscle 
tonus,  but  in  therapeutics  the  term  has  a  wider  significance,  implying 
increased  functional  activity  and  improved  general  tone.  This  latter  mean- 
ing is  indicated  where  the  term  occurs  in  this  book. 


134  DIETING   OF  SICK  ANIMALS 

and  with  its  several  constituents  in  fitting  proportion,  to 
furnish  appropriate  nutriment  for  every  tissue.  Water, 
which  constitutes  four-fifths  of  the  total  weight  of  most 
animals,  is  being  constantly  removed  by  the  lungs,  skin, 
kidneys,  and  intestines,  and,  unless  restored  at  short  inter- 
vals, thirst  and  impaired  health  ensue.  Not  only  are  water 
and  watery  fluids  requisite  for  the  normal  nutrition  of  the 
tissues,  and  for  dissolving  and  carrying  away  their  waste 
products,  but  in  sick  animals  they  also  assist  the  removal 
of  the  products  of  disease.  Even  more  imperative  is  the 
need  of  pure  air  to  oxygenate  the  blood,  maintain  internal 
respiration  and  normal  tissue  change,  and  remove  waste 
products.  Animals  require,  either  in  the  form  of  food,  or 
when  the  subjects  of  disease,  as  restorative  medicines,  vary- 
ing supplies  of  many  constituents — phosphorus,  specially  for 
blood,  bone,  brain,  and  nerves  ;  sulphur,  for  the  skin  and 
bile  acids  ;  fats,  for  cell-growth  generally  ;  iron,  for  the 
blood  globules  ;  salines,  for  the  healthy  restoration  of  the 
blood  and  most  other  parts. 

These  requirements,  essential  in  health,  are  even  more  im- 
portant in  animals  affected  by  disease.  Food  then  requires 
to  be  given  with  especial  care,  and  in  an  easily  digested  form, 
for  in  all  serious  diseases  the  digestive  functions  are  impaired. 
In  many  febrile  complaints,  of  horses  and  cattle,  the  ordinary 
grains  and  dry  fodder,  being  imperfectly  digested  and  assimi- 
lated, are  apt  to  produce  or  aggravate  gastric  derangement. 
Animals  suffering  from  febrile  and  inflammatory  disorders 
should  therefore  be  restricted  to  mashes,  gruels,  or  cooked 
food,  to  which  extra  nutritive  value  can  be  given  as  required 
by  addition  of  milk,  eggs,  or  meat  extracts.  Food  should 
never  be  allowed  to  lie  long  before  a  sick  animal.  If  not 
promptly  eaten,  it  should  be  removed,  and  in  a  couple  of 
hours,  or  less  time,  replaced  by  a  fresh  supply.  During  and 
after  attacks  of  debilitating  diseases  patients  fed,  as  they 
should  be,  on  small  quantities  of  rapidly  digested  fare,  obvi- 
ously require  food  more  frequently  than  in  health.  With 
returning  appetite  a  convalescent  occasionally  greedily  eats 
more  than  can  be  easily  digested,  and  against  this  contin- 
gency well-intentioned  attendants  require  to  be  warned. 
Relapses  of  colic  and  lymphangitis  sometimes  occur  by 


HYGIENIC   REMEDIES  135 

allowing    horses,    immediately    after    recovery,    their    full 
allowance  of  dry  corn  and  hay. 

Unless  when  affected  with  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  or  diabetes, 
animals  do  not  injure  themselves  by  taking  too  much  water 
or  watery  fluids,  but  are  often  rendered  uncomfortable  by 
undue  restriction.  A  supply  of  water  should  always  be 
within  the  patient's  reach.  Cold  water  seldom  does  harm, 
and  is  more  palatable  and  refreshing  than  when  tepid. 
Salines,  chalk,  and  other  simple  medicines,  sometimes  given 
with  the  water  offered  to  sick  horses,  should  be  sparingly 
added,  or  administered  in  some  other  way. 

Much  mismanagement  occurs  with  regard  to  the  ventila- 
tion and  temperature  of  the  habitations  of  sick  animals. 
Even  for  horses  or  cattle  accustomed  to  comfortable  boxes, 
a  temperature  of  60°  to  65°  Fahr.  is  sufficiently  warm. 
Avoiding  draughts,  cool  air  should  be  freely  admitted.  No 
restorative  or  tonic  is  so  effectual  as  cool,  pure  air,  and  it  is 
especially  needful  in  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs  and 
in  zymotic  cases.  Sunlight  is  also  an  essential  factor  of 
health,  especially  in  young  animals.  It  increases  the  capa- 
city of  the  blood  and  tissues  for  oxygen,  favours  healthy 
excretion,  and  is  an  excellent  disinfectant. 

A  comfortable  bed  greatly  conduces  to  the  restoration  of 
most  sick  animals.  A  sick,  exhausted  horse,  who  to  his  dis- 
advantage would  continue  to  stand  if  kept  in  a  stall,  will 
often  at  once  lie  down  and  rest  if  placed  in  a  comfortable  box. 
In  febrile  and  inflammatory  attacks,  and  during  recovery 
from  exhausting  disease,  alike  in  horses  and  cattle,  a  warm 
rug  or  two,  and  flannel  bandages  to  the  legs,  help  to  maintain 
equable  temperature  and  combat  congestion  of  internal 
organs  ;  but  at  least  twice  daily  these  rugs  and  bandages 
should  be  removed,  the  skin  wisped  over,  and  the  clothing  at 
once  replaced.  In  fever,  when  the  skin  is  hot  and  dry,  great 
comfort  results,  a  natural  moist  state  of  skin  is  secured,  and 
more  active  blood  purification  and  restoration  ensue,  from 
sponging  the  body  several  times  a  day  with  tepid  water 
acidulated  with  vinegar,  quickly  drying,  and  at  once  putting 
on  the  clothing. 

Attention  to  the  position  of  the  patient  is  frequently  im- 
portant in  the  treatment  of  disease.     The  debilitated  horse 


136        MECHANICAL   AND    PHYSIOLOGICAL  REST 

allowed  to  lie  long  on  his  side  is  apt  to  suffer  from  congested 
lungs  or  even  hypostatic  pneumonia.  The  horse  with 
severely  injured  knees  is  advantageously  placed  in  slings. 
The  cow,  in  the  unconscious  stage  of  milk  fever,  if  permitted 
to  lie  on  her  side,  speedily  becomes  tympanitic,  and  her 
chances  of  recovery  are  seriously  impaired.  In  this  and  other 
cases,  in  which  she  has  to  lie  even  for  a  few  hours,  she  must 
be  propped  up  in  a  natural  position  on  her  breast-bone. 

Mechanical  and  physiological  rest  are  great  restoratives. 
The  pain  accompanying  most  injuries  and  diseases,  and 
greatly  aggravated  by  performance  of  the  natural  functions 
of  the  part,  instinctively  enjoins  as  much  rest  as  possible. 
Mechanical  rest  is  frequently  secured  by  splints  and  band- 
ages, applied  in  all  animals  in  cases  of  fractures  of  long  bones 
of  the  limbs,  and  serious  muscular  and  tendinous  strains. 
Slings  are  also  of  similar  service  in  horses  suffering  from 
fractures,  open  joint,  and  occasionally  in  laminitis.  An 
inflamed  part,  when  practicable,  should  be  raised  above  the 
level  of  surrounding  parts.  Any  pressure  likely  to  interfere 
with  circulation  should  be  removed.  To  relieve  irritation, 
pressure,  and  tension',  the  inflamed  udder  of  the  cow  is 
suspended.  In  irritable  and  inflammatory  states  of  the 
digestive  organs,  the  simplest  and  most  digestible  food  is 
given,  and  as  little  action  as  possible  exacted  from  the 
stomach  and  bowels.  When  the  kidneys  are  diseased,  their 
work  should  be  lightened,  by  promoting  the  action  of  the 
skin  and  bowels.  Emollients  and  demulcents,  as  well  as 
opium,  belladonna,  and  other  agents  which  paralyse  the 
endings  of  sensory  nerves,  exert  their  curative  effects  mainly 
by  ensuring  physiological  rest.  But  when  acute  disease  has 
passed  away,  the  gradual  use  of  an  affected  part  generally 
does  good.  Exercise  in  such  circumstances  proves  a  health 
restorer,  improving  appetite,  and  stimulating  most  of  the 
bodily  functions. 

The  medicinal  restoratives  in  common  use  are  as  follows  : 
Linseed,  in  the  form  of  gruel,  tea,  or  cake,  proves  a  soothing, 
palatable,  digestible,  laxative  combination  of  food  and  medi- 
cine. Cod-liver  oil,  especially  in  dogs  and  cats,  conveniently 
supplies  assimilable  fatty  matters.  Iron  salts,  possessing 
tonic  and  haematinic,  as  well  as  restorative  properties,  are 


TONICS  137 

specially  serviceable  in  anaemia  ;  phosphates  are  prescribed 
for  ill-thriving,  weakly  young  animals  ;  salines  are  indicated 
in  skin  eruptions  and  itching,  often  met  with  amongst  hard- 
worked,  liberally-fed  horses  ;  pepsin,  peptonised  milk,  liquor 
pancreatis,  and  malt  extract,  are  sometimes  administered  to 
foals,  dogs,  and  calves,  when  the  natural  digestive  ferments 
are  deficient  or  faulty. 

TONICS. — When  digestion  is  enfeebled,  nutrition  impaired, 
circulation  languid,  or  waste  products  not  promptly  removed, 
there  is  apt  to  ensue  weakness,  want  of  energy,  and  unfitness 
for  work — conditions  treated  for  the  most  part  by  tonics. 
They  are  defined  as  remedies  which  impart  tone  or  strength 
to  the  parts  on  which  they  specially  act.  They  are  allied  to 
nutrients  and  restoratives.  They  resemble  stimulants  ;  but 
their  effects  are  more  slowly  and  gradually  produced,  are 
more  permanent,  and  not  succeeded  by  subsequent  depres- 
sion. While  stimulants  usually  call  forth  strength  previously 
latent,  tonics  frequently  give  strength.  The  same  drugs, 
in  different  doses,  often  appear,  however,  in  two  or  more  of 
these  classes.  Alcohol,  for  example,  is  nutrient,  tonic,  and 
stimulant.  Iron  salts,  according  to  their  dose  and  the  state 
of  the  patient,  are  nutrient,  tonic,  and  astringent,  but,  used 
improperly,  are  sometimes  irritant. 

Tonics  exert  their  curative  effects  in  one  or  more  of  the 
following  ways  : — 

1.  By  influencing  digestion  directly,  usually  increasing 
gastric  secretion.     Gentian,  calumba,  chiretta,  and  other 
bitters    are    chiefly    serviceable    as    gastric    stimulants    or 
stomachics. 

2.  By  indirectly  assisting  digestion,  by  improving  the 
chemical  and  physiological  condition  of  the  blood,  secretions, 
and  tissues.     The  most  important  members  of  this  class  are 
hsematinics,  noticed  below. 

3.  By    acting  on  other  special  organs  and  structures, 
notably  on  the  heart,  nervous  centres,  or  liver. 

In  using  tonics  it  is  accordingly  essential  to  discover  what 
part  or  organ  is  primarily  and  chiefly  at  fault.  When  diges- 
tion is  enfeebled,  gastric  or  intestinal  tonics  are  prescribed. 
When  the  pulse  is  soft  and  weak,  with  a  tendency  to  local 
congestion  and  oedema,  cardiac  and  vascular  tonics  are  used. 


138    ALTERATIVES  INFLUENCE  METABOLISM 

When  nervous  functions  are  imperfectly  performed,  nervine 
tonics  are  appropriate.  Cold,  in  the  form  of  baths,  douches, 
and  sponging,  proves  a  valuable  tonic,  applicable  for 
general  as  well  as  local  purposes,  relieving  irritability, 
bracing  up  soft,  flabby  textures,  and  equalising  circulation. 

H^MATINICS,  or  blood  tonics,  constitute  an  important  group 
of  tonics,  which  increase  the  number  of  red  corpuscles  and 
the  quantity  of  haemoglobin  in  the  blood.  The  red  blood 
corpuscles  are  formed  chiefly  in  the  red  marrow  of  bones, 
especially  in  the  vertebrae  and  ribs.  Red  corpuscles  are  in 
great  part  destroyed  by  the  liver  and  spleen,  and  it  hence 
appears  possible  that  disorder  of  these  organs  is  a  cause  of 
the  anaemia,  which  is  very  common  amongst  badly  reared 
young  animals.  Anaemia  is  of  two  kinds  : — (1)  where  there 
is  a  normal  number  of  red  cells  all  more  or  less  deficient  in 
haemoglobin  (chlorosis)  ;  (2)  where  there  is  a  definite  short- 
age of  red  cells.  The  former  variety  is  frequently  due  to  the 
insufficient  absorption  of  iron  to  supply  the  haemoglobin, 
whilst  the  latter  may  result  from  haemorrhage  or  from 
haemolysis  due  to  disease  toxins,  or  poisons  such  as  lead. 
Then  again,  anaemia  may  often  be  due  to  malnutrition,  un- 
suitable or  insufficient  food,  digestive  diseases,  or  the  effects 
of  parasites.  In  order  to  restore  iron  and  fatty  matters 
which  are  deficient  in  anaemic  blood,  daily  doses  of  soluble 
iron  salts  are  prescribed,  while  easily  assimilated  fatty 
matters,  such  as  boiled  linseed,  or  linseed  cake,  are  given  to 
horses  and  cattle,  and  cod-liver  oil  to  dogs.  An  improve- 
ment of  general  health  is  further  effected  by  judicious  feed- 
ing and  comfortable  quarters.  The  anaemia  resulting  from 
debilitating  disease  requires  similar  treatment.  To  ensure 
their  good  effects,  tonics  are  generally  given  in  moderate 
doses,  two  or  three  times  daily,  for  several  days,  or  for  weeks, 
and  throughout  their  administration  the  bowels  should  be 
kept  in  a  normal  state. 

ALTERATIVES  are  defined  as  drugs  which  influence  the 
amount  and  kind  of  tissue  change  going  on  in  different  organs 
and  cells.  Their  results  are  usually  readily  recognised,  but 
the  way  in  which  they  are  produced  is  difficult  to  explain. 
With  the  better  understanding  of  pathological  processes 
and  the  pharmacological  actions  of  drugs,  this  term  is  falling 


FEBRIFUGES  139 

into  disuse  as  being  too  indefinite.  At  the  same  time,  many 
drugs  with  definite  and  well-understood  action  have  wide- 
spread and  remote  effects  on  metabolism  in  other  organs, 
and  this  might  be  called  an  alterative  effect.  Thus  purga- 
tives, by  removing  waste  materials  and  fluid  from  the 
intestine,  drain  off  further  waste  products  from  the  blood, 
and  cause  a  flow  of  lymph  from  the  tissues  into  the  blood- 
vessels, and,  so  to  speak,  wake  up  metabolism  in  these 
tissues.  Again,  an  agent  like  iodine,  which  in  the  form  of 
iodide  is  diffused  throughout  the  system,  witness  its  excre- 
tion in  so  many  channels,  combines  with  the  protoplasm  of 
the  cells,  and  then  is  gradually  set  free  from  it  and  excreted. 
This  combination  with  and  elimination  from,  the  cell,  stirs 
up  its  activities  and  promotes  metabolism.  The  complex 
chemical  changes  taking  place  in  living  protoplasm  are  being 
gradually  analysed  by  physiological  experiment,  and  are 
seen  to  consist  in  large  measure  of  a  great  number  of 
simple  chemical  combinations  and  alterations,  each  brought 
about  by  a  ferment — the  new  product  at  each  step  being 
handed  on  to  another  ferment  for  further  alteration.  These 
minute  processes  taken  in  the  mass  constitute  the  vital 
processes,  and  in  fact  constitute  life,  and  drugs  put  into  the 
blood  or  lymph  may  hasten  or  inhibit  any  of  these  minute 
but  multitudinous  changes,  and  so  alter  the  rate  or  quality 
of  the  process.  This,  it  will  be  seen,  covers  a  great  part  of 
the  field  of  drug  action,  and  therefore  the  term  alterative 
is  too  indefinite  to  have  any  real  significance. 

The  agents  formerly  credited  with  chief  value  as  alter- 
atives are  Iodine,  Mercury,  and  Arsenic. 

FEBRIFUGES  are  agents  which  lower  the  temperature  of  the 
body  in  fever.  Their  effects  are  more  notable  when  the 
temperature  is  abnormally  high.  Animal  heat  is  chiefly 
produced  by  oxidation,  in  the  muscles,  both  voluntary  and 
involuntary,  and  in  glands,  especially  when  they  are  in  a 
state  of  activity.  It  is  given  off  by  the  skin  and  lungs,  in 
small  amount  by  radiation  ;  in  still  larger  amount  by  con- 
tact with  cold  water  or  cold  air,  the  latter  abstracting  heat 
with  especial  rapidity  when  it  is  damp  or  in  motion,  and 
also  by  the  excretion  of  faeces  and  urine.  Owing  to  dimin- 
ished activity  of  the  cerebro-vaso-motor  centre,  and  conse- 


140 


FEBRIFUGES 


quent  dilatation  of  the  surface  vessels,  loss  of  heat  is  greater 
when  animals  are  asleep  than  when  awake.  Conversely, 
more  heat  is  produced  when  the  animal  is  in  active  motion, 
and  blood  circulates  freely  through  the  heat-producing 
apparatus  of  the  muscles  and  glands.  Small  animals, 
having  a  cooling  surface  relatively  larger  than  their  internal 
heating  appliances,  are  more  rapidly  cooled  than  large 
animals.  A  centre  in  the  corpus  striatum  appears  to  regu- 
late the  production  of  heat  (thermo taxis),  and  certain 
agents  (antipyretics)  appear  to  develop  their  effects  by 
acting  on  this  centre. 

Febrifuges  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — those  which 
lessen  production  of  heat,  and  those  which  increase  loss  of 
heat ;  and  these  again  are  subdivided,  as  shown  in  the 
following  table  : — 

Quinine 
and 

Cinchona  Alkaloids. 

Alcohol. 


'By  lessening  tissue  change  : 


Lessen  pro- 
duction of  < 
heat. 


By   depressing   the    circula-  f  Aconite 
tion :  \ 


I 


Increase 
of  heat. 


By  acting  on  the  heat  regula- 
ting centre  (Antipyretics) 
and  bringing  about  dila- 
tation of  skin  vessels  and 
sweating : 


Antipyrine. 
Antifebrin. 
Phenacetin. 
Carbolic  Acid. 
Salicylic  Acid. 


By  dilating  cutaneous  ves- 

sels     and     so     increasing  Alcohol 
radiation  : 


By  causing  sweating: 
phoretics : 


Dia-/P-ilocarpine- 


By    abstracting    heat    from 
the  body : 


Nitrites. 
I  Ipecacuanha. 

Cold  Baths. 

Cold  Sponging. 

Wet  Packs. 

Ice. 

Cold   Drinks 

Enemata. 
Purgatives. 
Diuretics. 
Venesection. 


and 


HOW  HEAT  IS  LOST  141 

The  production  of  heat  (thermogenesis)  is  lessened  in 

various  ways  : — The  use  of  cold  water,  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  cold  bath  or  cold  packing,  diminishes  abnormal  thermo- 
genesis. Water  absorbs  and  parts  with  heat  quickly  ;  it 
is  capable  of  application  locally  or  generally,  continuously 
or  intermittently.  Cold  water  taken  into  the  system,  by 
whatever  channel,  increases  the  activity  of  healthy  vital 
processes,  notably  metabolism,  elimination,  and  leucocy- 
tosis,  and  thus  both  lessens  abnormal  heat  formation  and 
increases  heat  loss. 

Quinine  and  its  allies  lessen  metabolism  in  the  tissues, 
prevent  the  oxidation  of  protoplasm,  and  the  movement  of 
leucocytes,  and  so  prevent  the  formation  of  heat.  Thus 
experiments  show  that  these  agents  will  still  lower  tempera- 
ture if  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  from  the  skin  is  prevented 
by  clothing  and  rugs.  Alcohol  probably  acts  to  some  extent 
in  the  same  way. 

Aconite  also,  and  other  agents  which  depress  the  circula- 
tion, lower  abnormal  temperature  by  preventing  the  forma- 
tion of  heat. 

The  loss  of  heat  (thermolysis)  is  increased,  as  set  forth  in 
the  above  table,  chiefly  in  the  following  ways  : — 

(1)  By  the  antipyretics  of  the  coal  tar  series  of  hydro- 
carbons. These  agents  are  experimentally  found  to  act  on 
the  thermotaxic  or  heat-regulating  centre  in  the  brain.  In 
health  heat  formation  and  heat  loss  balance  one  another  in 
such  a  way  that  the  normal  temperature  of  the  animal  is 
preserved,  and  these  drugs  have  little  or  no  reducing  effect 
on  this  normal  temperature.  In  fever  the  regulating  centre 
is  still  acting,  but  now  its  mean  point  has  been  raised  to  an 
abnormal  level.  Thus  exertion  causes  a  fevered  animal  to 
sweat  and  lose  heat,  but  this  does  not  result  in  lowering  of 
the  temperature,  for  metabolism  and  heat  formation  go  on  to 
an  extent  sufficient  to  keep  up  the  temperature  to  its  former 
abnormal  level.  In  other  words,  the  centre  now  aims  at 
keeping  the  temperature  at  the  suitable  temperature  for  the 
particular  disease,  and  appears  to  have  been  geared  up  to 
work  at  that  level.  The  antipyretics  such  as  phenazone 
(antipyrine),  and  acetanilide  (antifebrin),  act  on  the  centre 
and  bring  it  down  again  to  its  normal  level.  As  a  conse- 


142  ABNORMAL  TEMPERATURE 

quence,  heat  must  be  got  rid  of,  and  this  is  brought  about 
by  dilatation  of  the  skin  vessels,  and  by  sweating. 

(2)  By  dilating  the  cutaneous  vessels,  and   augmenting 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  body,  as  is  effected  by  alcohol, 
volatile  oils,  and  nitrites. 

(3)  By  promoting  secretion  of  sweat,  and  thus  increasing 
cooling  evaporation,  as  is  effected  by  diaphoretics. 

(4)  By  directly  removing  heat,  as  is  effected  by  hydro- 
therapy,  cold  baths,  cold  affusion,  and  by  purgatives  and 
diuretics. 

Febrifuges  are  used  to  lower  abnormal  temperature, 
whether  caused  by  prolonged  exposure  to  heat  or  by  febrile 
disease.  Cinchona  and  its  alkaloids  are  the  remedies  most 
trusted  in  the  treatment  of  the  fevers  of  animals.  They 
mitigate  the  pyrexia,  cut  short  the  attack,  and  prevent  the 
exacerbations  which  characterise  such  cases.  Antipyrine, 
although  it  has  little  action  on  the  temperature  of  healthy 
animals,  reduces  abnormal  temperature  quickly,  and  usually 
permanently.  For  veterinary  patients  it  is  one  of  the  best 
of  the  new  fever  medicines.  It  has  been  successfully  used 
in  influenza,  and  is  given  both  by  the  mouth  and  hypo- 
dermically.  Salicylic  acid  and  salicylates  are  specialty 
serviceable  in  combating  the  fever  and  pain  of  acute  rheu- 
matism. Alcohol,  in  its  several  forms,  exerts  a  twofold  effect, 
diminishing  oxidation  and  also  dilating  cutaneous  vessels, 
and  thus  accelerating  cooling.  Bleeding,  both  general  and 
local,  judiciously  used,  lowers  abnormal  temperature,  by 
relieving  local  inflammation.  Purgatives  doubtless  act  in 
like  manner,  and  in  some  cases,  moreover,  relieve  gastric 
derangement,  and  remove  disease  products.  Horses  and 
cattle  are  sometimes  quickly  sponged  with  cold  or  tepid 
water,  rapidly  dried,  and  comfortably  clothed.  Heat  is 
thus  directly  removed  ;  the  cooling  functions  of  the  skin, 
which  are  impaired  in  most  febrile  attacks,  are  re-estab- 
lished, and  this  action  may  be  further  stimulated  by  the 
administration  of  ammonia  salts,  ethers,  and  alcohol.  Very 
essential  adjuncts  for  ensuring  the  effects  of  antipyretics  are 
perfect  rest,  comfortable  quarters,  and  a  temperature  of 
about  60°  Fahr. 

BLOOD-LETTING    promptly    and    directly    affects    tissue 


PRECAUTIONS   REGARDING    BLOOD-LETTING       143 

changes.  A  full  bleeding  diminishes  the  activity  of  all 
vital  functions,  excepting  the  production  of  blood  corpuscles. 
The  heart-beat  is  quickened,  but  its  force  is  lessened  ; 
arterial  tension  is  lowered  ;  absorption  is  increased  ;  sensi- 
bility to  pain  is  diminished,  owing  to  reduced  activity  of 
the  peripheral  centres.  When  blood  is  lost  rapidly  or 
freely,  sighing,  yawning,  fainting,  and  convulsions  ensue, 
and  artificial  anaemia  is  produced.  In  healthy  subjects, 
however,  these  effects  quickly  disappear,  and  the  blood  is 
rapidly  restored  to  its  normal  state. 

Until  within  the  last  forty  years,  blood-letting  was  freely 
practised,  and  very  generally  abused.  Venesection  is  now 
seldom  employed  even  in  cases  of  acute  congestion  and 
inflammation,  which  it  is  especially  fitted  to  control.  It  may 
be  practised  either  generally  or  locally.  In  robust  animals 
suffering  from  acute  congestion  of  the  lungs,  especially 
when  accompanied  by  venous  stasis,  blood-letting  affords 
prompt  and  frequently  permanent  relief.  Alike  in  horses 
and  cattle,  it  is  serviceable  where  fever  is  acute,  with  a  firm, 
incompressible,  or  full,  slow  pulse,  as  in  laminitis,  as  well  as 
in  acute  rheumatism.  In  some  cases  of  lymphangitis  in 
horses  it  is  also  useful.  Dogs  are  so  readily  brought  under 
the  influence  of  emetics  and  nauseants  that  bleeding  is  less 
needed  in  them  than  in  horses  and  ruminants. 

Blood  may  generally  be  taken  from  full-grown  horses  or 
cattle  to  the  extent  of  three  or  four  quarts.  The  amount 
drawn  should  be  accurately  measured.  The  circumstances 
of  the  case  materially  affect  the  amount  of  blood  to  be 
drawn.  It  should  flow  freely  until  its  abstraction  has  made 
a  decided  impression  on  the  volume  and  strength  of  the 
pulse,  or  until  the  earliest  symptoms  of  nausea  and  fainting 
are  apparent.  The  jugular  vein  on  either  side  is  generally 
selected  as  the  vessel  on  which  it  is  most  convenient  and  safe 
to  operate.  Excepting  in  expert  professional  hands,  the 
fleam  is  safer  than  the  lancet,  which  in  restive  horses  may 
make  an  ugly  gash.  When  practicable,  the  horse  should  be 
bled  with  his  head  erect,  for  in  this  position  the  nauseating 
effects,  which  indicate  that  no  more  blood  can  be  spared,  are 
most  noticeable.  When  sufficient  blood  has  been  taken,  the 
edges  of  the  wound  of  the  skin  are  brought  accurately 


144  POISONS   AND    ANTIDOTES 

together,  and  secured  by  a  pin,  round  which  is  wound  some 
aseptic  thread,  or  tow. 

Blood-letting,  although  sometimes  valuable  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  acute  inflammation  in  vigorous  animals,  is  injurious 
in  young  or  weakly  subjects,  in  the  later  stages  of  disease,  in 
epizootic  and  eruptive  fevers,  and,  indeed,  wherever  the 
pulse  is  small,  quick,  or  weak.  A  pulse  of  this  character 
indicates  debility,  and  bleeding  in  such  cases  increases 
exudation  and  effusion  instead  of  preventing  them,  while  it 
unnecessarily  weakens  the  patient  and  retards  recovery. 
While  blood  is  being  drawn,  the  finger  should,  in  all  animals, 
be  placed  upon  a  prominent  artery,  and  if  the  pulse  is 
observed  to  become  rapidly  weaker,  it  is  evident  that  the 
treatment  is  unsuitable.  Such  mischance  should,  however, 
rarely  happen,  for  when  there  is  any  question  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  blood-letting,  such  a  reducing  remedy  should  be 
avoided. 

Local  blood-letting  is  not  much  practised  among  the  lower 
animals.  Lancing  the  tumid  gums  of  teething  horses  is 
seldom  necessary,  especially  if  soft  food  is  supplied,  as  it 
should  be  in  such  cases.  In  laminitis  some  practitioners 
pare  the  horny  sole,  and  open  the  vessels  of  the  sensitive 
sole,  encouraging  the  flow  of  blood  by  immersing  the  foot 
in  hot  water  or  in  a  warm  poultice  ;  but  in  such  cases  the 
heat  and  moisture  are  generally  of  more  benefit  than  the 
bleeding.  Cupping  and  leeches  are  not  used  in  veterinary 
practice. 

POISONS  AND  ANTIDOTES 

Antidotes  are  agents  which  counteract  the  effects  of  poisons. 

A  poison  is  an  agent  which  is  capable  of  determining  definite 
modifications  of  protoplasm.  In  the  popular  acceptation  of 
the  term,  a  poison  is  a  drug,  whether  animal,  vegetable,  or 
mineral,  which,  in  small  quantity,  destroys  health  and  life  ; 
but  it  differs  from  a  medicine  only  in  the  degree  or  intensity 
of  its  effects.  Indeed,  many  valuable  medicines,  when  given 
in  large  doses,  become  active  poisons,  whilst  many  poisons, 
properly  administered,  prove  valuable  medicines. 

Antidotes  may  prevent  the  action  of  the  poison,  or  may 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  ANTAGONISM  145 

mitigate  or  arrest  its  effects.  When  a  lethal  dose  has  been 
swallowed,  endeavour  should  be  made,  before  it  has  time  to 
enter  the  circulation,  promptly  to  remove  it  by  the  stomach- 
pump,  stomach  syphon,  or  by  an  emetic.  It  is  advisable, 
however,  in  all  cases  to  empty  the  stomach,  and  thus  remove 
unabsorbed  portions  of  the  poison,  before  giving  any  fluid 
which  favours  solution  and  absorption,  or  even  before  ad- 
ministering the  antidote.  Some  antidotes,  such  as  charcoal, 
and  demulcents,  mechanically  envelop  the  particles  of  the 
poison,  or  ensheath  and  protect  the  mucous  surfaces,  and 
thus  retard  absorption.  Many  enter  into  chemical  combina- 
tion with  the  poison,  forming  comparatively  insoluble  inert 
compounds  (chemical  antidotes).  Thus,  albumin  forms, 
with  corrosive  sublimate  and  other  metallic  salts,  insoluble 
albuminates.  Freshly  precipitated  ferric  oxide  converts 
arsenious  acid  into  an  insoluble  iron  arsenite.  When  poison 
has  been  introduced  into  a  wound,  as  by  the  bite  of  a  rabid 
dog,  or  by  the  fang  of  a  serpent,  a  ligature,  if  possible,  is 
placed  so  as  to  prevent  or  retard  absorption,  and  the  wound 
is  forthwith  thoroughly  washed  with  antiseptics  and 
cauterised  or  excised. 

The  action  of  poisons,  even  after  absorption,  may,  more- 
over, be  controlled  and  counteracted  by  remedies  which 
antagonise  their  lethal  tendencies  (physiological  antidotes). 
Hypodermic  injection  of  anti venomous  serum  neutralises  the 
poison  of  cobra.  Opium  lessens  the  irritation  and  pain 
caused  by  irritants.  Artificial  respiration  frequently  sus- 
tains life  throughout  the  stage  of  deadly  narcosis  induced  by 
curare,  prussic  acid,  or  anaesthetics.  But  still  more  definite 
antagonism  occurs  between  certain  drugs.  The  stimulant 
and  convulsant  effects  of  strychnine  on  the  spinal  cord 
are  opposed  by  chloral  hydrate  and  tobacco,  which  lessen 
the  excitability  of  the  cord.  The  fatal  depression  of  the 
cardiac  and  respiratory  centres,  produced  by  large  doses 
of  aconite,  is  antagonised  by  alcohol,  atropine,  digitalin, 
and  by  strychnine.  Between  pilocarpine  and  atropine 
the  antagonism  is  very  marked  in  their  actions  on  the 
vagus,  heart,  muscular  tissues,  and  iris,  as  well  as  on 
secretion. 

Two  explanations  are  given  of  this  antagonism — (1)  By 


146 


POISONS   AND   ANTIDOTES 


chemical  action,  the  drug  first  given  is  supposed  to  combine 
with  the  tissues  immediately  acted  on,  and  to  this  combina- 
tion the  second  drug  may  be  added,  developing  another  and 
less  active  compound  ;  or  otherwise,  from  such  compound 
the  second  drug  may  displace  the  first.  (2)  The  two  ant- 
agonistic drugs  may  act  independently  of  each  other  on  the 
tissues,  producing  opposite  effects — the  one  exciting,  the 
other,  it  may  be,  paralysing.  This  latter  physiological  view 
seems  to  meet  with  most  general  approval  (Brunton).  In 
the  case  of  poisons  not  rapidly  fatal — such  as  lead,  mercury, 
savin,  or  yew — an  important  curative  measure  consists  in 
hastening  their  removal  from  the  body  by  the  organs 
through  which  they  are  chiefly  excreted. 


Poisons 

Sulphuretted  Hydro- 
gen 

Chlorine,  Bromine    . 
Iodine  Vapour 

Ammonia  Vapour     . 
Carbon  Monoxide     . 

Nitrous  Oxide 

Coal  Gas          .         , 
Charcoal  Fumes 
Carbonic  Acid 
Marsh  Gas 


Sulphuric  Acid 
Hydrochloric  Acid 
Nitric  Acid 
Phosphoric  Acid 


Antidotes 

Chlorine  cautiously  inhaled. 

(Ether :  alcohol. 
-!  Steam  inhalation. 
[Opium  :  starch. 
Vinegar  vapour. 

I  Fresh  air  and  artificial  respiration  : 
[     transfusion. 

{Artificial  respiration  ;  tongue  drawn 
forward  ;  intermittent  pressure  over 
cardiac  region  if  heart  action  failing. 

Artificial  respiration. 

Alternate  warm  and  cold  douches  to 
the  head  and  neck. 

Encourage  circulation  by  friction. 

Mustard  plasters  over  surface. 

Alkalies  :  sodium  or  potassium  bi- 
carbonate. 

Magnesia  :  chalk  :  plaster 

Soap  :  milk  :  eggs  whisked 

Olive  or  Almond  oil. 

The  alkalinity  of  the  blood  impaired 
by  acids  is  restored  by  intravenous 
injection  of  sodium  bicarbonate. 


in  oil. 


POISONS    AND    ANTIDOTES 


147 


Oxalic  Acid  and  Ox- 

alates 

Tartaric  Acid 
Acetic  Acid 


Chalk,  whiting,  or  wall  plaster,  with 
'  I     water.     Carbonates    of    lime    and 
magnesia. 


Hydrocyanic  Acid 
Potassium  Cyanide 


Potassium    hydrate 
and  Carbonate 

Sodium  hydrate,  Car- 
bonate and  Chlo- 
ride    .       V ... ; 

Ammonia  Solution 

Calcium  Oxide 


Alternate  cold  and  warm  affusions  to 
the  spine. 

Artificial  respiration  :  ether  and 
camphor  subcutaneously. 

Atropine  injection,  repeated  every 
half-hour. 

Mixed  salts  of  iron :  ferrous  sul- 
phate, ferric  perchloride :  magnesia : 
tracheotomy. 


Vinegar  :  lemon  juice. 

Other  dilute  acids. 

Milk  :   oil  :   acidulated  drinks. 

Stimulants. 


Aconite 

Acorns  ;  Oak  Shoots  ; 
Fern    .         , 

Alcohol  . 


Anaesthetics — 

Chloroform,  Ether, 
etc. 


Antimony 


(Alcohol :  ammonia  :  ether  hypodermi- 
cally. 
Digitalis  :  atropine  :  warmth. 


Oil :   salines  :  laxative  diet. 


fStrong  coffee,  and  cold  douches  to 
the  head  :  camphor :  ether :  am- 
monia. 

Artificial  respiration  :  amyl-nitrite  : 
ammonia  :  adrenalin  chloride  sol.  : 
hydrocyanic  acid. 

Cold  douche  to  head  and  neck. 

In  patients  that  do  not  vomit, 
wash  out  the  stomach  with  tan- 
nic  or  gallic  acid,  followed  by 
milk,  white  of  egg,  or  other  demul- 
cents. 


148 


POISONS   AND    ANTIDOTES 


Arsenic 


Atropine — 
Belladonna  . 
Hyoscyamus 
Stramonium 


Barium  Chloride 

Calabar  Bean — 
Physostigmine 

Cantharides 

Carbolic  Acid 
Creosote 


Chloral   . 

Cocaine 
Colchicum 

Conium  :   Conine- 
Cicuta  Virosa 
(Enanthe 


Wash  out  stomach  with  large  amount 
of  warm  water,  introduced  by 
stomach  syphon  or  pump. 

Give  dogs  zinc  sulphate  or  other 
emetic. 

Iron  oxide,  moist,  made  by  precipita- 
tion of  ferric  chloride  solution  by 
sodium  carbonate  or  ammonia  : 

>    milk  :   oil. 

^Stimulants  and  coffee  :   tannic  acid. 

Caffeine,  subcutaneously  injected. 

Sustain  action  of  motor  centres  by 
interrupted  electric  current,  and 
occasionally  moving  the  animal. 

Artificial  respiration,  if  needful  : 
animal  charcoal. 

uPhysostigmine  given  cautiously. 

f  Epsom  salt :  Glauber's  salt. 
'  ^Sulphuric  acid  diluted. 

j  Stimulants  :   chloral. 

Atropine  :  strychnine. 

Artificial  respiration,  if  necessary. 

f  Barley  water,  gruel,  and  other  demul- 
J     cents. 

I  Avoid  oils  and  fats. 

[Oil :   sodium  sulphate. 
'  J  Saccharated  lime  :   stimulants. 
'  I  Sulphate  of  lime. 

I  Warmth. 
Keep  patient  moving. 
Strychnine  and  caffeine,   subcutane- 
ously. 

Chloral  :  amyl-nitrite. 
Inhalation  of  chloroform. 
Tannic  and  gallic  acids  :   demulcents. 
Stimulants. 
Tannic  acid. 
Potassium  iodide. 
Strong  coffee. 
Stimulants. 


1  / 


POISONS   AND    ANTIDOTES 


149 


Curare 


Digitalis — 
Digitalin 

Ergot 

Fungus-infested  or 
mouldy  fodder  or 
grain 


Gelsemium 

Insects' 
Stings 

lodoform 
Laburnum 
Lobelia 
Lead  Salts 


Croton  Oil       .          .   Demulcents  :   stimulants. 
Artificial  respiration. 
If    there    be    a   wound,    ligature,    if 
possible,  above  it,  and  incise  and 
suck  strongly. 

Loosen  ligature  from  time  to  time,  but 
avoid  letting  too  much  poison  into 
the  blood  at  a  time. 
[Tannin  :  stimulants. 
•I  Aconite,  subcutaneously. 
[Perfect  quiet. 
Tannin  :   stimulants. 
[Substitute    sound    food  :    laxatives : 
I     eucalyptol :    menthol :    other  anti- 
septic volatile  oils. 
Ether  :  stimulants  :  saline  antiseptics. 
[Atropine  :   stimulants. 
|  Artificial  respiration. 

Venomous  [Apply  ammonia  and  oil :    solution  of 
.  |     carbolic  acid  :   sal  volatile. 
Stimulants  :     starch  :     diaphoretics  : 

hot  baths. 
Stimulants  :   coffee. 
Alternate  hot   and  cold   douches   to 

chest. 

| Tannin  :   stimulants. 
( Strychnine,  hypodermically. 
[Epsom  salt  :  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
-j  Potassium  iodide  :   occasional  dose  of 
(_     castor  oil. 

White  of  egg,  in  large  amount. 
Subsequently  wash  out  stomach. 
Give    demulcents :    milk    and    soap  : 

Copper  .          .  \     treacle  :  magnesia  :  moist  iron  per- 

oxide. 

Foment :   poultice. 
Morphine,  if  needful. 
Magnesia  sulphate  :  sodium  sulphate. 
Sulphur. 
Mercury  .          .   Potassium  iodide  :   olive  oil. 


150 


POISONS   AND   ANTIDOTES 


Morphine — 
Opium 
Other  Narcotics 


/Empty  stomach  by  syphon  or  pump, 
or   wash    out    stomach   with   sol. 
potassium  permanganate. 
Warm  coffee  :    ammonia  :    emetics  : 

alcohol. 

Maintain  activity  of  motor  centres  by 
keeping   patient   moving,    and   by 
electric  shocks  :    tannin  :    zinc  sul- 
phate. 
Strychnine    hypodermically    sustains 

action  of  heart. 

Atropine  in  small  doses  subcutane- 
ously. 

v Artificial  respiration,  if  needful. 

f  Stimulants. 

-j  Alternate  hot  and  cold  douche. 

[Artificial  respiration. 

(Ergotin  :   atropine  subcutaneously. 

\Cold  to  head. 

f  Copper  sulphate  :   emetics  :   charcoal. 

-[  Oil  of  turpentine,  old  and  oxidised. 

[Avoid  fats,  fatty  oils,  and  alkalies. 

Picrotoxine  :    Coccu-1™,      ,  .  ., 

,      T    ,.  ^Chloral :  potassium  bromide, 

lus  Indicus  .  J 

Pilocarpine  :  Jaborandi.  Atropine. 

JTannic  or  gallic  acid  :   coffee. 
| Stimulants  :   artificial  respiration. 
J  Epsom  salt :    demulcents  :    ethereal 
|     stimulants. 

Ligature  limb  :     excise   wound,   and 
sear    with    hot    iron :     antivenin  : 
potassium    permanganate    applied 
after  lancing  wound. 
Alcoholic  stimulants  :  ammonia. 
Artificial  respiration. 
Chloroform  :    chloral :    tobacco  infu- 
sion :   apomorphine  for  dogs. 
Potassium  bromide  :    tannin  :    paral- 
dehyde. 


Nitro-Benzol   . 
Amyl-Nitrite   . 

Nitro-Glycerine 
Phosphorus 


Quinine 


Savin 


Snake-bite 


Strychnine  :  Brucine 
Nux  vomica 


POISONS    AND   ANTIDOTES 


151 


Tobacco 

Turpentine  Oil 
Veratrine— 

While  Hellebore 

Yew        H      ... 
Zinc  Salts 


Warm  stimulants. 

Tannin  :      strychnine  :      solution     of 
iodine. 

Demulcents  :  Epsom  salt. 
[Stimulants  :   warm  coffee  :   emetics. 
(Perfect  quiet  :   opium  :   tannin. 
[Stimulants  :      laxatives  :      ammonia 

acetate. 
[Demulcents. 

j  White  of  egg  :    acetate  of  ammonia 
I      emetics. 


SECTION    II 

Inorganic  Materia  Medica 

WATER 
AQUA.     Hydrogen  Oxide  or  Monoxide.     H20. 

WATER  exists  in  the  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  forms.  It  is 
transparent,  neutral,  colourless,  odourless,  and  tasteless.  A 
minim  weighs  *91  grain  ;  a  fluid  ounce,  437*5  grains.  It  is 
the  standard  of  comparison  for  specific  gravities  of  liquids, 
its  specific  gravity  being  represented  as  1  or  1000.  It  solidi- 
fies, freezes,  or  crystallises  at  32°  Fahr.,  expanding  and  giving 
out  latent  heat ;  it  reaches  its  greatest  density  at  390<2  Fahr.; 
it  slowly  volatises  at  all  temperatures  ;  at  212°  Fahr.  it 
boils,  rising  in  steam,  and  increasing  in  bulk  1700  times.  A 
cubic  inch  of  water  becomes  a  cubic  foot  of  steam.  When 
the  solid  ice  melts,  heat  is  absorbed  or  becomes  latent ;  when 
the  liquid  water  boils,  or  gives  off  gas,  still  more  heat  is 
absorbed.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  on  conversion  into  steam 
renders  latent  900  units  of  heat.  The  melting  ice  and 
evaporating  water,  thus  abstracting  heat  from  bodies  in 
contact  with  them,  are  valuable  refrigerants. 

Water  is  almost  a  universal  solvent ;  it  readily  dissolves 
many  mineral  matters,  gases,  and  organic  substances. 
From  soils  and  rocks  through  which  it  passes  it  takes  up 
salts,  especially  of  calcium,  magnesium,  and  sodium,  and 
occasionally  of  lead.  It  absorbs  atmospheric  air,  carbonic 
acid,  and  other  gases,  some  adding  to  its  sparkling,  refresh- 
ing, and  palatable  qualities,  others  rendering  it  disagreeable 
and  unwholesome.  Gases  are  more  soluble  in  cold  than  in 
hot  water  ;  solids,  conversely,  are  generally  more  quickly 
and  freely  dissolved  by  hot  than  by  cold  water.  Organic 
matters  are  present,  especially  in  river  and  marsh  waters, 
causing  them  to  spoil  rapidly  when  kept,  and  sometimes  to 

152 


HARD    AND   SOFT   WATERS  153 

produce  diarrhoea  and  dysentery  in  animals  drinking  them. 
Surface  drainage  and  sewage  are  apt  to  contain  vegetable 
and  animal  parasites,  bacteria,  spores  and  ova,  which  give 
rise  to  dangerous  diseases  in  animals  as  well  as  in  man. 

Even  in  potable  waters  the  nature  and  proportion  of  the 
solid  constituents  differ  materially.  Glasgow  derives  from 
Loch  Katrine  the  purest  water  supply  of  any  large  city 
in  the  world,  containing  only  three-fourths  of  a  grain  of 
organic  and  one  and  a  half  grains  of  inorganic  matters  to 
the  gallon.  The  water  of  the  Thames,  supplied  to  part  of 
London,  contains  about  three  grains  of  organic  and  sixteen 
grains  of  inorganic  matters  to  the  gallon.  When  the  mineral 
constituents,  consisting  of  salts  of  calcium  and  magnesium, 
exceed  -5  <j\^)th  part,  the  water  is  said  to  be  hard,  and  is  un- 
suitable for  many  pharmaceutic  and  domestic  purposes  ;  it 
curdles  or  precipitates  soap,  instead  of  forming  with  it  a 
froth  or  lather  ;  it  forms  a  brown  encrustation  on  the  kettles 
or  furnaces  in  which  it  is  boiled  ;  it  is  not  so  well  liked  by 
animals,  and  is  apt  to  cause  diarrhoea  and  other  digestive 
derangements,  especially  in  subjects  unaccustomed  to  it. 
When  the  salts  do  not  amount  to  ^-^th  Par^  ^he  water  is 
considered  soft. 

The  presence  of  the  more  dangerous  organic  and  organised 
impurities  is  discovered  by  several  simple  tests — (1)  Half  a 
pint  of  the  water  is  well  shaken  in  a  clean,  wide-mouthed 
bottle  ;  when  sewage  is  present  an  offensive  smell  will  be 
discovered  on  removal  of  the  stopper  or  cork.  (2)  In  a 
tumbler  of  water  two  or  three  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  are 
placed,  and  sufficient  potassium  permanganate  to  render 
the  water  pink.  When  allowed  to  stand  for  fifteen  minutes, 
the  water,  if  containing  organic  impurity,  will  have  become 
colourless.  (3)  Sewage  contaminated  water  usually  con- 
tains common  salt,  which  may  be  discovered  by  silver 
nitrate  producing  milkiness  (AgCl),  which  is  not  removed 
by  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid. 

For  purifying  water  various  methods  are  adopted.  Sub- 
sidence and  decantation  get  rid  of  grosser  mechanical  par- 
ticles. Filtration  through  sand,  charcoal,  gravel,  or  spongy 
iron  removes  coarse  and  organic  impurities,  but  filters  may 
become  infected,  and  are  not  usually  proof  against  bacteria. 


154  WATER 

Alum,  even  in  minute  amount,  clears  turbid  water.  Oxida- 
tion gradually  destroys  disagreeable  or  dangerous  foulness  ; 
hence  a  running  stream,  contaminated  even  by  sewage 
several  hundred  yards  higher  up,  may  again  become  clear 
and  wholesome.  Alkaline  permanganates,  by  similar  oxida- 
tion, promptly  destroy  organic  contamination.  Boiling 
destroys  most  noxious  living  vegetable  and  animal  matters, 
drives  off  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  thus  throws  down  calcium 
carbonate,  the  cause  of  temporary  hardness.  Sodium  car- 
bonate, or  lime,  as  in  Clarke's  process,  diffused  through  hard 
water,  which  is  then  allowed  to  settle,  abstracts  carbonic 
acid  gas,  and  causes  subsidence  of  calcium  and  magnesium 
carbonates,  and  also  reduces  the  permanent  hardness  pro- 
duced by  calcium  sulphate.  For  chemical  and  pharma- 
ceutical purposes,  aqua  destillata  is  requisite,  and  distillation 
leaves  behind  all  impurities  except  a  trace  of  organic 
matters,  and  one  to  two  per  cent,  per  volume  of  air.  Such 
distilled  or  other  pure  water  is  understood  to  be  used  when 
*  water  '  is  ordered  in  prescriptions. 

Mineral  waters  are  unfit  for  general  use  on  account  of 
their  undue  proportion  of  mineral  matters  or  gases,  or  from 
their  being  at  a  higher  temperature  than  that  of  the  locality 
in  which  they  are  found.  The  most  common  mineral  waters 
are  those  containing  iron  and  salines.  Sea  water  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  1027  ;  i,n  imperial  pint  contains  about 
312  grains  of  solid  matters,  of  \vhich  about  240  grains  are 
common  salt. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Water  is  nutrient,  diluent,  anti- 
pyretic, diuretic,  and  detergent.  Introduced  into  the  body 
in  excess  of  its  requirements,  it  is  removed  usually  within 
six  hours,  chiefly  by  the  kidneys,  and  in  less  amount  by  the 
skin  and  bowels.  When  given  cold,  the  kidneys  perform 
the  main  excretory  office  ;  but  when  used  hot,  water  is  an 
adjuvant  diaphoretic,  cathartic,  and  (warm)  in  dogs  and 
other  carnivora,  an  emetic.  Water  applied  topically,  as  in 
the  form  of  hot  fomentation,  or  the  familiar  warm-compress, 
is  emollient  and  anodyne,  abates  congestion  of  circum- 
scribed inflammation  and  wounds,  and  its  beneficial  effects 
are  also  reflexly  propagated  to  adjacent  parts.  At  high 
temperatures  water  is  an  irritant,  but  dry  steam  mixed  with 


NUTRIENT,    DILUENT,   AND    ANTIPYRETIC        155 

air  is  emollient  and  soothing.  Cold  water  is  refrigerant 
and  tonic.  Ice  is  a  prompt  and  effective  refrigerant ;  it 
controls  congestion  and  inflammation,  and  arrests  haemor- 
rhage from  the  stomach,  lungs,  and  other  parts.  Baths  are 
used  not  only  for  comfort  and  cleanliness,  but  for  the  cure 
of  disease. 

Water  constitutes  from  fifty-five  to  eighty  per  cent,  of  the 
weight  of  the  higher  animals,  and  is  essential  for  digestion, 
absorption,  secretion,  excretion,  and  indeed  for  every  vital 
process.  It  is  largely  present  in  every  kind  of  food,  facili- 
tating its  digestion  and  assimilation,  and  replacing  the  loss 
of  fluid  constantly  taking  place  by  the  skin,  lungs,  and 
kidneys.  Insufficient  and  excessive  supplies  are  alike  in- 
jurious ;  but  animals  in  health,  and  with  constant  free  access 
to  water,  rarely  take  more  than  is  good  for  them.  Excepting 
for  a  few  hours  previous  to  any  great  exertion,  and  when 
hungry,  overheated,  and  prostrated,  the  horse  in  health 
should  not  be  restricted  in  his  water  supply.  Indeed,  in 
many  well-managed  modern  stables  a  limited  amount  of 
water  is  constantly  at  the  horse's  head,  and  the  daily  quan- 
tity thus  drunk  is  actually  less  than  when  the  animal  is 
allowed  to  slake  his  thirst  three  or  four  times  daily. 
Although  a  moderate  amount  of  water  is  essential  for 
digestion,  an  excessive  quantity  injuriously  dilutes  the 
intestinal  contents,  and  favours  acid  fermentation. 

Horses,  especially  if  tired  and  hungry,  before  having  a 
little  hay — which,  being  eaten  slowly,  is  in  such  circum- 
stances preferable  to  grain — should  receive  some  water,  or, 
better  still,  a  gallon  of  gruel.  In  some  cab  and  carrying 
establishments,  each  hard- worked  horse,  on  his  return  to  the 
stable,  is  provided  with  a  supply  of  oatmeal  gruel,  which  is 
found  not  only  to  help  condition,  but  to  diminish  attacks 
of  colic  and  other  gastro-intestinal  derangements .  A  copious 
draught  of  water,  taken  immediately  after  a  rapidly-eaten 
meal,  hurries  the  imperfectly  digested  food  too  rapidly  into 
the  intestines,  where  it  is  apt  to  set  up  colic  and  inflamma- 
tion. Very  cold  water,  freely  drunk,  especially  by  hungry, 
exhausted  horses,  is  a  frequent  cause  of  gastro-intestinal 
disorder  ;  and  in  many  establishments  throughout  winter 
steam  or  hot  water  is  introduced  into  the  horse- troughs,  or 


156  WATER 

the  buckets  are  filled  and  brought  into  the  stable  several 
hours  before  they  are  required  for  use. 

Water,  judiciously  used,  is  a  valuable  diluent,  febrifuge, 
and  evacuant,  serviceable  in  febrile  and  inflammatory 
diseases.  When  given  moderately  cold,  it  is  more  palatable 
and  satisfying  than  in  the  tepid  state  in  which  it  is  some- 
times presented  to  sick  horses.  Rendered  feebly  bitter  with 
a  little  cascarilla  or  quassia  infusion,  secretion  is  encouraged 
and  thirst  is  more  effectually  quenched.  Small  portions  of 
ice  placed  in  the  mouth  are  sucked  by  most  animals,  and 
promote  secretion,  abate  thirst,  and  also  relieve  congestion 
and  irritation.  Horses  greedy  of  water,  and  especially  those 
with  defective  wind  or  liability  to  acidity  or  diarrhoea,  should 
be  supplied  frequently  with  small  quantities,  while,  further  to 
relieve  thirst,  the  food  should  be  damped.  After  a  cathartic 
dose,  and  until  the  physic  has  ceased  to  operate,  even 
moderate  draughts  of  cold  water  in  many  horses  may  be 
followed  by  griping.  Calves  and  lambs,  feverish  and 
purging,  sometimes  die  if  they  have  free  access  to  water. 

As  a  diluent,  water  mechanically  relieves  choking  and 
coughing  ;  dilutes  corrosive  and  irritant  poisons  ;  assists  the 
action  of  diaphoretics,  diuretics,  and  purgatives.  Tepid 
water  is  a  convenient  auxiliary  emetic  for  dogs  and  pigs. 
Injected  into  the  rectum,  warm  water  allays  irritability  of 
the  bowels,  and  urino-genital  organs,  and  promotes  the 
action  of  the  bowels.  Water,  whether  cold  or  hot,  checks 
bleeding  ;  but  is  most  effectual  at  a  temperature  of  about 
120°  Fahr.  A  good  scrubbing  with  tepid  water  and  soap 
is  a  very  essential  preliminary  to  the  successful  treatment 
of  mange  or  scab.  It  removes  scales  and  dirt,  abounding 
especially  in  inveterate  cases,  and  hence  facilitates  access 
of  the  special  dressings  to  the  burrows  of  the  parasites. 

Hot  fomentations  moisten,  soften,  and  relax  dry  and 
irritable  textures,  and  relieve  tension,  tenderness,  and  pain. 
Applied  early,  and  continued  for  several  hours,  they  control 
or  relieve  congestion  and  inflammation  of  strains  and 
contused  wounds.  Their  external  application,  by  reflex 
action,  often  soothes  irritated  or  inflamed  internal  parts.  In 
this  way  fomentations  allay  the  pain  of  colic  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bowels.  Steaming  the  head  and  throat  in  like 


EMOLLIENT   AND    COUNTER-IRRITANT  157 

manner  often  relieves  catarrh,  sore- throat,  and  strangles. 
Williams  insisted  on  the  value  of  steaming,  and  hot  fomenta- 
tions in  laryngitis  and  bronchitis,  and  preferred  fomenta- 
tions to  counter-irritants  in  pneumonia  and  pleurisy. 

Soothing  watery  vapour,  medicated,  if  need  be,  is  readily 
evolved  from  a  steam-kettle,  from  a  well-made  bran-mash 
placed  in  a  roomy  nose-bag,  or  from  a  bucket  containing 
freshly-steamed  hay. 

Water-dressings,  or  compresses,  consisting  of  several  folds 
of  lint  or  tow,  saturated  with  hot  water,  and  covered  with 
oiled  skin  or  mackintosh  cloth  to  retard  evaporation,  or  a 
sheet  of  well-soaked  spongio-piline,  are  frequently  substi- 
tuted for  poultices,  and  are  usually  preferable,  on  account 
of  their  lightness  and  cleanliness. 

Cold  water  is  a  useful  refrigerant.  When  the  acute  con- 
gestion, heat,  and  tenderness  of  bruises,  strains,  and  wounds 
have  been  so  far  abated  by  hot  applications,  cold  exerts 
wholesome,  refrigerant,  tonic,  and  constringing  effects. 
Linen  bandages,  constantly  wetted,  relieve  chronic  strains, 
jars,  and  windgalls  of  the  legs  of  horses.  Cold  water  is  also 
serviceable,  after  disinfection,  in  broken  knees,  synovitis  and 
arthritis,  open  or  closed,  and  other  injuries  of  the  limbs. 
Continuous  irrigation  is  readily  effected  through  a  small 
indiarubber  pipe,  connected  with  a  water  tap,  or  brought 
from  a  supply  tank  on  a  higher  level.  (See  Irrigation.)  Cold 
water  similarly  supplied  keeps  at  low  temperature  the  swabs 
around  the  coronets  and  feet  of  horses  suffering  from 
laminitis.  Rugs  dipped  in  cold  water  and  applied  to  the 
chest  walls,  are  successfully  employed  in  acute  congestion  of 
the  lungs,  brought  on  by  over-exertion,  and  especially  in 
hot  weather. 

Cold  affusion  to  the  head  and  neck  is  a  powerful  stimu- 
lant, serviceable  in  megrims,  sunstroke,  phrenitis,  con- 
vulsions, syncope,  and  the  comatose  stage  of  parturient 
toxaemia  in  cattle,  as  well  as  in  poisoning  with  alcohol, 
chloroform,  opium,  and  prussic  acid.  The  shock  is  increased 
when  very  cold  water  is  used,  and  when  it  falls  on  the  patient 
from  a  height  of  two  or  three  feet.  Such  cold  affusion 
must  not,  however,  be  long  continued,  as  it  quickly  abstracts 
animal  heat.  Equally  effectual  results  are  more  safely 


158  WATER — ICE 

attained   by    alternately  douching  with   cold   and   warm 
water. 

Ice  in  small  pieces,  placed  in  the  mouth,  is  readily  sucked 
by  most  animals,  and  often  relieves  congestion  of  the  throat, 
and  irritability  of  the  stomach,  especially  in  dogs.  Applied 
usually  in  a  bag  or  bladder,  it  is  serviceable  in  inflamed  and 
prolapsed  uterus  and  rectum,  hernise,  in  the  early  treatment 
of  flexor  strains  and  wrenched  joints,  in  haemorrhage,  which 
sometimes  occurs  shortly  after  parturition,  as  well  as  in 
parturient  coma  in  cows.  Two  parts  of  ice  mixed  with  one 
of  salt  form  a  powerful  freezing  mixture  of  the  temperature 
of  4°  Pahr.  Snow  or  ice  is  applied  to  retard  the  sudden  rise 
of  temperature  and  consequent  gangrene  in  frost-bite,  to 
arrest  circumscribed  congestion  and  inflammation,  to  check 
bleeding  and  convulsions.  Ice  maintained  in  contact  with 
the  skin  for  six  or  eight  minutes  diminishes  sensation,  and 
facilitates  the  performance  of  a  few  minor  operations  ;  but 
for  inducing  local  anaesthesia,  cocaine  is  preferable. 

OXYGEN 

Oxygen  is  a  colourless,  odourless  gas,  slightly  heavier  than 
atmospheric  air,  and  forming  about  one-fifth  of  its  volume. 
Twenty-five  volumes  of  water  dissolve  one  volume  of  oxygen. 
It  has  wide  chemical  activity. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Oxygen  has  slight  effect  on  the 
unbroken  skin,  but  stimulates  denuded  skin  and  mucous 
surfaces.  Oxygenated  solutions  have  been  applied  to  atonic 
wounds  and  ulcers.  Such  solutions,  when  swallowed,  aid 
oxidation  of  waste  products  in  the  alimentary  canal.  The 
inhalation  of  oxygen  has  been  recommended  in  dyspnoea 
arising  from  asthma,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  other 
respiratory  diseases,  as  well  as  in  cardiac  failure.  In  im- 
peded respiration  with  stagnation  of  air  in  the  alveoli  the 
inhalation  of  oxygen  by  promoting  diffusion,  may  be  bene- 
ficial. Only  limited  quantities  can  be  retained  by  the  blood  ; 
the  serum,  when  saturated,  retains  one-fifteenth  of  the 
amount  the  red  globules  can  take  up,  and  Durig  has  shown 
that  in  rest  oxygen  exerts  no  influence  on  metabolism. 
Oxygen  is  largely  used  as  an  insufflation  for  the  udder  in 


OZONE  159 

parturient  toxaemia  (milk  fever)  of  cows,  for  which  it  is 
regarded  as  a  specific. 

OZONE. — When  electric  sparks  are  passed  through  air,  the 
molecules  of  oxygen,  represented  by  two  atoms  (02),  are  split 
up,  and  rearranged  in  triatomic  molecules,  constituting 
ozone  (03).  It  is  also  produced  by  the  slow  oxidation  of 
phosphorus  in  the  presence  of  water,  and  by  the  action  of 
protoplasm.  It  is  unstable,  being  readily  converted  into 
oxygen.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  peculiar  smell,  and  by  its 
decomposing  potassium  iodide  solution,  and  when  mixed 
with  damp  starch,  producing  the  blue  starch  iodide. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Ozone  oxidises  more  actively  than  oxy- 
gen, destroys  the  coagulability  of  albumin,  decomposes  many 
organic  substances,  and  kills  micro-organisms.  In  virtue  of 
its  chemical  actions  it  is  a  powerful  irritant.  When  inhaled 
it  induces  excitement,  succeeded  by  exhaustion  and  some- 
times by  convulsions.  It  has  been  used  for  most  of  the 
cases  in  which  oxygen  has  been  given,  notably  for  the 
destruction  of  bacteria  in  diphtheria  and  other  similar 
diseases  (Brunton). 


HYDROGEN   PEROXIDE 

LIQUOR  HYDROGENII  PEROXIDI — HYDROGEN  PEROXIDE 
SOLUTION.  An  aqueous  solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide, 
H202,  prepared  by  the  interaction  of  water,  barium 
peroxide,  and  a  dilute  mineral  acid  at  a  temperature 
below  50°  Fahr.  ;  containing  nine  to  eleven  volumes  of 
oxygen  (B.P.). 

Peroxide  of  hydrogen  is  a  clear,  odourless  liquid,  with  a 
bitter  taste.  It  renders  the  saliva  frothy,  mixes  with  water 
in  any  proportion,  and  when  heated  it  decomposes  into 
water  and  oxygen.  Commercial  peroxide  of  hydrogen  tends 
to  become  acid  on  keeping,  but  Merck's  Perhydrol,  containing 
thirty  per  cent,  of  oxygen,  keeps  well  in  the  original  bottles. 
Samples  of  peroxide  that  have  become  acid  may  be  neutral- 
ised by  the  addition  of  sodium  bicarbonate,  or  borax. 
Hydrogen  peroxide  is  &  |  ovorful  nonpoisonous  germicide, 
deodorant,  and  haemostatic.  .'  pplied  locally  it  bleaches  the 


160  HYDROGEN    PEROXIDE 

skin  and  mucous  surfaces  ;  injected  under  the  skin  it 
decomposes,  with  liberation  of  oxygen,  producing  subcutane- 
ous emphysema.  Intravenous  injections  are  said  to  be 
anaesthetic.  It  has  no  action  on  soluble  ferments,  but  it 
destroys  organised  ferments.  It  is  of  great  value  in  the 
treatment  of  suppurating  wounds,  abscesses,  fistulae  or 
sinuses.  In  contact  with  blood  or  pus  it  decomposes  with 
effervescence,  a  reaction  that  is  sometimes  useful  in  diagnosis. 
Injections  of  three  per  cent,  solution  of  perhydrol  may  be 
employed  in  retention  of  foetal  membranes,  in  vaginitis  and 
metritis,  and  impaction  of  the  facial  sinuses.  Peroxide 
solution  is  also  used  as  a  disinfectant  for  abscess  cavities  and 
to  facilitate  the  removal  of  clinging  wound  dressings.  As  a 
haemostatic,  undiluted  commercial  peroxide  or  a  solution  of 
one  part  perhydrol  in  ten  parts  of  physiological  salt  solution 
may  be  used.  Perhydrol  diluted  with  nine  times  its  weight  of 
boiled  water  has  been  employed  as  a  substitute  for  a  1:1000 
mercuric  chloride  solution  in  the  treatment  of  suppurating 
joints,  tendon  sheaths,  and  compound  fractures.  A  solu- 
tion (one  to  three  per  cent.)  may  be  used  as  an  udder  injec- 
tion, an  ounce  for  each  quarter,  in  parturient  toxaemia  and 
contagious  mammitis,  and  as  a  spray  for  keratitis  and  corneal 
ulcer. 

Internally,  solutions  of  peroxide  (one  or  two  per  cent.)  have 
been  administered  in  dyspepsia,  diarrhoea,  and  gastro- 
intestinal catarrh.  Peroxide  is  incompatible  with  perman- 
ganates, charcoal,  chromic  acid,  and  mercuric  chloride. 
Caution  is  required  in  injecting  peroxide  in  quantity  into 
large  wounds,  serous  and  other  cavities,  as  it  is  quickly 
decomposed  ;  and  '  if  more  oxygen  is  formed  than  the  blood 
can  dispose  of,  gas  emboli  are  produced,  and  these  lodging  in 
the  lungs  or  brain  may  cause  death.5  (Hale  White.) 

Doses  (hydrogen  peroxide  10  vols.  per  cent.). — Horses  and 
cattle,  gj.  to  gij.  ;  dogs,  3j.  to  3ij. 

SALT   ACTION-THE    IONIC   THEORY 

OSMOSIS. — If  two  solutions  of  a  salt  of  different  strengths, 
say  sodium  chloride,  are  separated  by  an  animal  membrane, 
water  will  pass  through  the  membrane  from  the  less  con- 


OSMOSIS  161 

centrated  solution  to  dilute  the  stronger  one,  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  salt  will  pass  from  the  more  concentrated  to  the 
weaker  solution,  until,  as  a  result  of  both  these  processes, 
the  two  solutions  on  opposite  sides  of  the  membrane  become 
of  one  uniform  strength,  i.e.  each  contains  the  same  number 
of  molecules  in  the  same  volume. 

Not  only  does  this  occur  when  the  solutions  contain  the 
same  salt,  but  two  solutions  of  different  salts  will  also  tend 
to  diffuse  so  that  there  are  the  same  number  of  molecules  of 
each  on  either  side  of  the  membrane.  The  rate  at  which 
osmosis  takes  place  is  proportional  to  the  difference  in  mole- 
cular concentration  of  the  two  solutions. 

Consider  the  effect  of  a  membrane  allowing  the  passage  of 
water  but  holding  back  the  molecules  of  the  dissolved 
substance.  Any  membrane  will  do  this  for  substances 
known  as  colloids,  such  as  albumin,  gum,  or  starch,  and  when 
tested  with  these  it  is  said  to  be  semi-permeable.  There  are, 
moreover,  membranes  which  prevent  the  passage  of,  or  are 
semi-permeable  for,  salts,  and  in  fact  the  cell  walls  and  cell 
membranes  in  plants  and  animals  often  possess  this  property. 
A  cell  thus  surrounded  and  containing  some  small  amount 
of  salt  in  solution  in  its  contents,  will,  if  immersed  in  a  very 
weak  salt  solution  or  in  pure  water,  take  up  water  to  dilute 
the  salt  solution  inside  it  and  become  tense  and  turgid. 
A  plant,  for  example,  when  immersed  in  water  or  a  very 
dilute  salt  solution  takes  up  water,  its  stems  stiffen  and 
become  firm  because  of  the  osmotic  pressure  in  its  cells 
drawing  the  water  in.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cell  be 
immersed  in  a  concentrated  solution  of  a  salt,  water  now 
leaves  the  cell  to  dilute  the  salt  solution  round  about  it,  and 
the  cell  shrinks.  If  the  solution  outside  has  the  same 
molecular  concentration  as  the  cell  contents  then  no  ap- 
parent diffusion  of  water  either  in  or  out  will  take  place. 
Such  solutions  in  equilibrium  (because  equimolecular)  are 
called  isotonic,  the  more  concentrated  of  two  is  called 
hypertonic,  and  the  less  concentrated  hypotonic.  As  used  in 
pharmacology  the  word  isotonic  signifies  a  solution  of  equal 
osmotic  pressure  to  that  of  the  blood.  Thus,  '  normal  saline 
solution  '  is  a  solution  of  sodium  chloride  isotonic  with  the 
blood.  When  red  blood  corpuscles  are  placed  in  such  a 

L 


162  OSMOTIC    PRESSURE 

solution  no  change  is  apparent,  but  if  placed  in  a  concen- 
trated salt  solution  (hypertonic)  water  diffuses  out  of  the 
red  cells  and  they  become  crenated  or  shrunken.  If  the  salt 
solution  is  very  dilute  or  if  water  is  used  (hypotonic)  the  cells 
take  up  water,  swell  up  and  burst,  the  haemoglobin  being  set 
free  into  the  plasma.  In  the  case  of  red  corpuscles  then, 
it  is  understood  that  the  outer  layer  or  envelope  of  the 
corpuscle  is  semi-permeable,  and  that  it  will  allow  water  to 
pass  in  or  out,  but  not  salts.  This  is  not  quite  true,  because 
the  cell  envelope  has  a  vital  selective  power,  and  is  permeable 
for  certain  substances.  Thus  urea  in  solution  can  pass 
through  the  membrane,  and  so  also  can  free  acids,  alkalies, 
and  ammonium  salts.  With  these  exceptions,  however,  the 
corpuscles  are  semi-permeable.  The  osmotic  pressure  of  the 
blood  varies  in  different  animals  to  a  slight  extent  and  so 
4  normal  saline  solution  '  should  be  varied  for  the  particular 
species.  In  mammals,  however,  sufficient  accuracy  is 
obtained  by  using  a  solution  containing  0'9%  of  common  salt 
as  being  isotonic  with  the  blood. 

The  osmotic  pressure  of  the  blood  varies  a  little  at  different 
times,  and  reaches  a  maximum  shortly  after  a  full  meal. 
The  variation  is,  however,  very  slight,  for  the  kidneys  at  once 
proceed  to  correct  it,  by  excreting  urine  more  concentrated 
or  less  concentrated,  to  suit  the  case.  Thus  the  salt  content, 
and  therefore  the  osmotic  pressure,  of  the  urine,  varies  con- 
siderably at  different  times  during  the  day. 

Normal  saline  solution  is  the  ideal  fluid  for  saline  in- 
jections, for  irrigation  of  the  body  cavities,  the  abdomen,  the 
stomach,  etc.,  for  the  reason  that,  being  isotonic,  it  does  not 
damage  cells.  The  toxic  action  of  distilled  water  when  drunk 
is  simply  due  to  the  fact  that,  being  hypotonic,  it  is  taken  up 
by  the  cells  of  the  stomach  mucous  membrane  which  swell 
up,  die,  and  may  be  cast  off,  so  causing  catarrh.  Water  got 
from  melted  snow  or  ice  containing  no  dissolved  salts  has 
the  same  harmful  effect. 

When  a  hypertonic  solution  of  a  salt  is  given  by  the 
mouth  and  absorbed  into  the  blood,  or  if  such  a  solution  is 
injected  directly  into  the  blood  stream,  the  effects  on  the 
corpuscles  would  be  to  produce  crenation  and  destruction, 
but  for  the  fact  that  the  tissues  are  at  once  drawn  upon  for 


THE   IONIC   THEORY  163 

water  to  dilute  this  salt  in  the  blood  plasma,  and  thus  a 
condition  of  hydraemia,  i.e.  excess  of  water  in  the  blood,  is 
brought  about.  This  stimulates  the  kidneys  and  there  is 
accelerated  excretion  of  dilute  urine.  Such  salts  are  there- 
fore used  as  saline  diuretics. 

Other  salts  taken  by  the  mouth  in  concentrated  solutions 
do  not  cause  diuresis  for  the  reason  that  little  of  the  salt  is 
absorbed  into  the  blood.  In  other  words,  the  intestinal  wall 
has  a  vital  selective  power  and  whilst  it  allows  the  passage  of 
many  salts  (e.g.  the  saline  diuretics)  it  resists  the  passage  of 
others.  These  latter  remain  in  the  intestine,  the  wall  of 
which  acts  as  a  semi-permeable  membrane,  water  is  drawn 
out  from  the  blood  and  in  turn  from  the  tissues,  and  so  the 
intestinal  contents  become  very  liquid.  These  salts,  there- 
fore, are  used  as  saline  purgatives. 

THE  IONIC  THEORY. — In  the  succeeding  pages  frequent 
references  will  be  found  to  the  action  of  ions,  and  the 
actions  of  many  drugs  are  only  explainable  by  an  under- 
standing of  the  theory  of  ionisation. 

When  a  salt,  such  as  sodium  chloride,  is  in  watery  solution 
of  a  known  strength  the  osmotic  pressure  of  that  solution 
can  be  theoretically  calculated  from  its  molecular  concentra- 
tion. It  is  found  experimentally,  however,  that  the  osmotic 
pressure  is  higher  than  this  theoretical  result,  and  from 
analogies  between  the  behaviour  of  gaseous  compounds  and 
solutions  of  salts  it  is  believed  that  the  increase  of  pressure  is 
due  to  dissociation  of  the  salt,  into  chlorine  and  sodium  ions. 
The  whole  of  the  molecules  of  the  salt  are  not  dissociated, 
but  a  large  number  are,  and  thus  the  solution  contains 
NaCl  molecules  and  Cl  and  Na  ions,  and  since  for  the  pur- 
poses of  osmosis  these  ions  are  just  as  effective  as  molecules, 
the  osmotic  pressure  of  the  solution  rises.  Acids,  bases,  and 
salts  all  undergo  dissociation  in  solution  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  and  depending  on  the  degree  of  dissociation  the 
osmotic  pressure  of  the  solution  is  higher  than  if  no  ionisation 
occurred.  The  ions  are  not  present  in  the  solution  just  in 
the  form  of  sodium  and  chlorine,  for  they  have  none  of  the 
specific  characters  of  these  elements.  They  are  believed  to 
be  held  bound  by  being  charged  with  electricity,  the  metallic 
ion  having  a  positive  or  +  charge,  the  acid  ion  a  negative  or 


164  THE    IONIC   THEORY 

—  charge.  Distilled  water  will  not  convey  an  electric  current, 
but  if  an  acid  or  a  salt  is  added  to  it  the  current  will  flow, 
from  the  positive  to  the  negative  pole.  This  current  is 
conveyed  by  the  ions,  the  positively  charged  metallic  or 
basic  ones  being  attracted  to  the  negative  pole,  and  vice 
versa.  In  the  case  of  sodium  chloride,  the  sodium  ions  are 
attracted  to,  and  liberated  at  the  negative  electrode  and  at 
once  react  with  the  water  forming  NaOH  sodium  hydroxide, 
making  the  water  alkaline  in  reaction,  and  setting  free  bubbles 
of  hydrogen  gas.  If  copper  sulphate  is  used  copper  is  de- 
posited on  the  negative  electrode,  whilst  the  S04  ion  reacts 
with  water  to  form  sulphuric  acid  at  the  other.  These 
substances  of  which  sodium  chloride  and  copper  sulphate  are 
examples,  are  called  electrolytes  because  they  promote  the 
electrolysis  of  water  when  a  current  is  passed  through  their 
solution.  On  the  other  hand,  cane  sugar  added  to  water  has 
no  such  property,  for  it  does  not  undergo  dissociation. 
Alcohol  and  chloroform  are  similarly  devoid  of  action  as 
electrolytes  because  they  are  not  ionised. 

The  importance  of  this  theory  is  that  it  is  the  ions  of  a  salt 
and  not  the  molecules  as  a  whole  which  act  on  the  cells  and 
tissues  of  the  body.  Thus  KOH  and  NaOH  both  dissociate 
in  solution  and  both  possess  strong  caustic  action.  This 
action  is  not  due  to  the  potassium,  K,  or  the  sodium, 
Na,  but  to  the  OH  group  in  each.  Alcohol,  on  the  other 
hand,  C2H5OH,  does  not  dissociate  and  therefore  has 
no  free  OH  group  and  no  caustic  action.  Again,  whilst 
HCN  or  KCN  are  both  extremely  toxic  by  dissociation 
with  liberation  of  the  CN  ion,  potassium  ferrocyanide  is 
but  slightly  toxic  since  no  free  CN  ion  is  found  in  its 
solution. 

The  rate  of  absorption  of  different  acid  or  basic  ions  is 
greatly  different  and  this  has  a  profound  effect  on  the  action 
of  the  drug  containing  them.  Thus  the  intestinal  wall  resists 
the  passage  of  magnesium,  Mg,  ions,  whilst  sodium,  Na,  and 
potassium,  K,  are  readily  absorbed.  Again,  whilst  Cl  and 
N03  ions  are  readily  allowed  to  pass  through,  the  S04  group 
is  not  absorbed  to  any  extent.  Thus  we  can  premise  at  once 
that  sulphates  will  be  more  effectual  saline  purgatives  than 
chlorides,  and  that  magnesium  sulphate  will  be  more  efficient 


AMMONIUM  SALTS  165 

than  sodium  sulphate,  and  this  is  found  to  be  the  case  in 
practice. 

From  what  has  been  said  above  it  will  be  obvious  that  it 
is  not  possible  to  describe  the  actions  of  all  the  compounds  of, 
say,  a  metal  under  one  head,  for  the  acid  ion  may  be  the 
predominant  partner,  as  for  example,  in  the  cases  of  potas- 
sium cyanide  and  potassium  bromide.  Again  the  physical 
behaviour  of  a  compound  is  often  of  as  great  importance  as 
its  chemical  constitution.  Thus  a  strict  chemical  classifica- 
tion of  drugs  is  not  of  any  value  as  a  guide  to  their  actions. 
The  chemical  and  the  physical  properties  of  the  drug  and  the 
vital  reaction  of  the  body  towards  it  constitute  the  specific 
action  of  that  agent  and  this  must  be  determined  for  each 
individual  agent  and  to  some  extent  for  each  kind  of 
animal. 


AMMONIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL   COMPOUNDS 

AMMONII   CHLORIDUM.     Sal-ammoniac.     Chloride   of  Am- 
monium.    NH4  Cl. 

This  salt,  from  which  most  ammonium  compounds  are 
derived,  may  be  formed  by  neutralising  crude  solution  of 
ammonia  or  ammonium  carbonate  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  purifying  the  product  (B.P.).  The  salt  thus  prepared 
occurs  in  inodorous  colourless  crystals,  or  in  translucent, 
tough,  fibrous  masses.  It  has  a  saline,  acid  taste,  a  slightly 
acid  reaction  ;  is  soluble  in  one  part  boiling,  or  three  of  cold 
water,  and  in  60  parts  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  During  solu- 
tion it  abstracts  much  heat,  and  is  consequently  an  ingred- 
ient of  many  freezing  mixtures.  Heated  it  sublimes  un- 
changed. Mixed  with  lime  or  potash  it  evolves  ammonia. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Expectorant,  diuretic  and  refriger- 
ant. Large  doses,  injected  intravenously  or  subcutaneously, 
exhibit  the  stimulant  and  subsequent  paralysing  effects  of 
ammonium  salts.  Given  by  the  mouth,  two  ounces  admin- 
istered to  a  horse  caused  muco-enteritis  (Moiroud)  ;  two 
drachms  destroyed  a  small  dog  in  an  hour.  The  alimentary 
mucous  membrane  was  found  congested  and  swollen  (Orfila). 
The  symptoms  described  as  occurring  in  dogs  are  muscular 


166  LIQUOR   AMMONITE 

weakness,  slow  breathing,  violent  action  of  the  heart,  and 
tetanic  spasms  '  (Christison). 

MEDICINAL  DOSES  stimulate  the  alimentary  and  respira- 
tory mucous  membranes,  promote  their  secretions,  and  relieve 
gastric  as  well  as  bronchial  catarrh,  especially  in  patients 
where  pyrexia  has  not  been  serious,  or  has  abated.  They 
were  recommended  for  torpidity  of  the  liver  and  for  rheu- 
matism, but  have  proved  of  little  benefit. 

DOSES. — Horses,  3ij-  *°  3Jv-j  cattle,  3JV-  to  SJ-  5  sheep 
and  pigs,  grs.  xxx.  to  3J-  >  dogs,  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  x.  ;  cats, 
gr.  i.  to  grs.  v.  In  bolus,  pill  or  drench. 

One  part  of  chloride  dissolved  in  ten  to  twenty  parts  of 
water  is  used  as  a  stimulant  gargle,  and  five  parts  sal- 
ammoniac,  eight  parts  sodium  sulphate,  and  five  parts 
potassium  nitrate  in  sixteen  parts  of  water,  form  a  refrigerant 
lotion  for  inflammatory  swellings,  bruises,  and  sprains.  A 
cooling  mixture,  stated  to  lower  the  thermometer  from  50° 
to  10°  Fahr.,  is  made  with  four  ounces  each  of  sal-ammoniac 
and  nitre,  dissolved  in  eight  ounces  of  water  ;  but  for 
ordinary  refrigerant  purposes,  six  or  eight  times  this  amount 
of  water  may  be  used. 

LIQUOR  AMMONITE  FORTIS.    Strong  Solution  of  Ammonia. 
Caustic  Ammonia.     Hartshorn. 

An  aqueous  solution  containing  32' 5  per  cent,  by  weight 
of  ammonia,  NH3.  It  may  be  obtained  by  heating  a 
mixture  of  ammonium  chloride  and  slaked  lime,  and 
passing  the  resulting  ammonia  into  distilled  water  (B.P.). 

Traces  of  ammonia  exist  in  the  air,  and  in  rain.  It  occurs 
in  the  excretions  of  living  animals,  and  is  evolved  from  the 
putrefaction  and  destructive  distillation  alike  of  vegetable 
and  animal  matters.  But  the  coal  beds  are  the  great  com- 
mercial source  of  ammonia  and  its  compounds.  Coal,  when 
distilled  in  the  making  of  gas,  leaves  a  waste  liquor,  which 
if  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  yields  ammonium  chloride 
or  sal-ammoniac. 

PROPERTIES. — The  liquor  ammoniae  fortis  is  colourless, 
pungent,  and  caustic.  Specific  gravity  0-891.  One  fluid 
drachm  contains  15*83  grains  of  gaseous  ammonia.  Purity 


ACTIONS    AND    USES    OF   AMMONIA  167 

is  ensured  when  the  sample,  diluted  with  four  times  its 
volume  of  distilled  water,  gives  no  precipitate  with  solution 
of  lime,  or  ammonium  sulphide,  and,  when  treated  with 
an  excess  of  nitric  acid,  it  is  not  rendered  turbid  by 
silver  nitrate  or  barium  chloride.  It  is  very  strongly 
alkaline,  and  unites  with  fats  and  oils,  forming  soaps  and 
liniments. 

For  most  medicinal  and  pharmaceutical  purposes  the 
liquor  ammonise  fortis  is  too  concentrated,  and  a  diluted 
solution  is  made  by  adding  to  one  volume  of  liq.  ammon. 
fortis,  two  volumes  of  distilled  water.  This  medicinal  solu- 
tion is  entitled  liquor  ammonise,  contains  10  per  cent,  by 
weight  of  ammonia  NH3,  and  has  the  specific  gravity  0*959. 

A  spirit  of  ammonia  of  corresponding  strength,  contain- 
ing 10  per  cent,  of  gas  in  rectified  spirit,  is  recognised  by 
the  U.S.P. 

Aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia,  popularly  known  as  sal- 
volatile,  is  a  solution  of  liquor  ammoniae  fortis  and  am- 
monium carbonate  in  rectified  spirit  and  water,  flavoured 
with  oil  of  nutmeg  and  lemon. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES  OF  AMMONIA. — Unlike  caustic  potash 
and  soda,  liquor  ammonise  does  not  dissolve  the  epidermis, 
and  consequently  does  not  cauterise,  but  if  evaporation  be 
prevented,  it  passes  through  the  epidermis,  irritates  the 
dermis  and  vesicates.  Ammonia  causes  topical  irritation. 
Tolerably  concentrated  solutions  abstract  water  from  the 
tissues,  liquefy  their  albumin,  and  saponify  their  fats.  They 
hence  act  as  corrosives.  Ammonia  gas  entering  the  air- 
passages  is  irrespirable,  and  causes  suffocation  by  par- 
alysis of  the  glottis.  Strong  solutions  swallowed  produce 
gastro-enteritis,  while,  from  absorption,  paralysis  of  the 
brain  centres  and  coma  may  ensue.  Reflexly,  when 
applied  to  the  nostrils  or  stomach,  it  stimulates  the  vaso- 
motor  centre,  raises  blood-pressure,  stimulates  the  circu- 
latory and  respiratory  nerve-centres,  and  promotes  secretion 
alike  from  the  mucous  surface  and  skin.  It  is  administered 
as  an  antacid,  diffusible  stimulant,  and  antispasmodic,  and 
used  externally  as  a  stimulant  and  counter-irritant. 

TOXIC  EFFECTS.— Hertwig  found  that  half  an  ounce  of  the 
strong  solution,  given  diluted,  had  no  bad  effects  on  horses, 


168  MEDICINAL   USES 

but  that  one  ounce  proved  fatal  in  sixteen  hours,  and  three 
ounces  in  fifty  minutes,  the  latter  quantity  causing  violent 
cramps  and  difficult  breathing.  Half  a  drachm  introduced 
into  the  stomach,  and  retained  by  tying  the  oesophagus, 
destroyed  a  dog  in  twenty-four  hours,  causing  much  uneasi- 
ness, agitation,  and  stupor,  and  leaving  after  death  slight 
redness  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  (Orfila). 
These  effects  are  caused  partly  by  the  corrosive  irritant 
action  in  the  stomach,  and  also  partly  by  the  passage  of 
some  of  the  vapour  into  the  air  passages  with  resulting 
asphyxia.  The  most  effectual  antidotes  are  vinegar  and 
diluted  acids,  with  diluents  and  demulcents. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Its  antacid  and  stimulant  properties 
recommend  ammonia  in  indigestion,  tympanites,  and  spas- 
modic colic  in  ruminants.  Stimulating  the  vaso-motor  and 
respiratory  centres,  it  is  valuable  in  antagonising  syncope  in 
influenza  and  similar  complaints.  As  in  human  practice, 
ammonia  fumes  are  occasionally  used  to  rouse  animals  from 
shock,  collapse,  or  chloroform  intoxication,  but  must  be  used 
cautiously  lest  excessive  irritation  of  the  respiratory  mucous 
membrane  be  produced.  It  is  a  promptly-acting  antidote  in 
poisoning  by  opium,  aconite,  digitalis,  and  other  narcotic  and 
sedative  drugs.  It  may  be  administered  much  diluted  in  the 
usual  way,  injected  subcutaneously  and  intravenously,  and 
also  applied  externally  in  the  treatment  of  snake-bites  ;  but 
its  success  is  uncertain,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  cobra  and 
other  venomous  snakes.  On  account  of  its  promoting  bron- 
chial secretion,  and  assisting  in  its  expulsion,  ammonia  is 
serviceable  as  a  stimulating  expectorant.  To  develop  its 
more  general  effects,  it  is  frequently  prescribed  with  alcoholic 
stimulants,  as  in  the  convenient  form  of  aromatic  spirit  of 
ammonia. 

EXTERNAL  USES. — In  the  form  of  liniment  of  ammonia,  or 
of  compound  liniment  of  camphor,  ammonia  proves  a  useful 
counter-irritant  for  muscular  strains  and  rheumatism,  for 
stiff  joints,  for  sore  throat  and  bronchitis,  and  for  preventing 
the  rapid  chilling  of  fomented  surfaces.  A  pledget  of  lint 
saturated  with  ammonia,  applied  to  the  skin  and  covered 
with  oiled  silk  quickly  vesicates.  It  relieves  the  irritation 
caused  by  nettles,  and  by  bites  and  stings  of  insects. 


AMMONIUM   CARBONATE  169 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  liquor  ammonia  as  a  diffusible  stimulant 
and  antispasmodic,  horses  take  f  Jij .  to  f  3iv. ;  cattle,  f  3iv.  to 
f  §i.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  f3Ji-  J  and  dogs,  H\v.  to  H\x.  The 
aromatic  spirit  is  given  in  proportionally  larger  doses.  In 
order  to  sustain  their  transient  effects  they  require  to  be 
repeated  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours.  On  account  of 
their  pungency,  they  must  be  largely  diluted  with  water,  or, 
better  still,  with  cold  gruel  or  mucilage.  A  useful  stimulant 
draught,  either  for  horses  or  cattle,  is  made  with  half  an 
ounce  each  of  liquor  ammoniae,  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  and 
tincture  of  gentian,  given  in  a  quart  of  ale  or  of  cold  gruel. 
For  external  application  the  liquor  ammonise  is  generally 
used,  mixed  with  five  to  ten  parts  of  oil.  A  convenient 
stimulating  liniment  is  made  with  one  part  each  of  medicinal 
solution  of  ammonia,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  water,  mixed 
with  four  to  six  parts  of  linseed  oil.  A  drachm  of  liquor 
ammonise  fortis,  with  half  a  pint  of  soap  liniment,  makes  a 
useful  stimulant  embrocation  for  sore  throat.  The  B.P. 
liniment  of  ammonia  consists  of  one  part  solution  of 
ammonia  (10  per  cent.),  one  part  of  almond  oil,  and  two 
parts  of  olive  oil.  The  popular  '  White  Oil '  is  made  with 
one  ounce  of  camphor,  four  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  a  pint 
of  olive  oil,  and  two  ounces  solution  of  ammonia. 

AMMONII  CARBON  AS.     Carbonate  of  Ammonia.    Ammonium 
Carbonate. 

A  variable  mixture  of  Ammonium  hydrogen  carbonate, 
NH4HC03,  with  ammonium  carbamate,  NH4  NH2  C02,  pro- 
duced on  heating  ammonium  sulphate  with  calcium 
carbonate  (B.P.). 

It  occurs  in  colourless,  translucent,  fibrous,  crystalline 
masses,  with  a  pungent  alkaline  taste,  and  a  strong  am- 
moniacal  odour.  Soluble  in  four  parts  of  cold  water  ;  rather 
less  of  tepid  water  ;  in  two  hundred  of  alcohol ;  and  in  five 
of  glycerin.  Decomposes  in  boiling  water,  with  evolution  of 
ammonia  and  carbonic  acid  ;  sublimes  when  heated,  and 
when  exposed  to  the  air  becomes  opaque,  friable,  and 
covered  with  a  white  efflorescence. 

ACTIONS    AND    USES. — The    carbonate    closely    resembles 


170  MEDICINAL  USES   AND   DOSES 

' 
liquor  ammoniae,  but  is  less  volatile,  less  powerful,  and  rather 

more  permanent  in  its  effects.  Orfila  records  that  two  and 
a  half  drachms  given  to  a  dog  caused  gastric  inflammation, 
tetanic  convulsions,  and  death. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — It  is  given  to  all  animals  in  atonic 
dyspepsia  ;  conjoins  the  actions  of  an  antacid  and  diffusible 
stimulant ;  in  small  doses  promotes  secretion  of  gastric 
juice,  and  in  larger  relieves  flatulence  and  spasm.  It  is 
prescribed  with  nux  vomica  to  stimulate  the  neuro-muscular 
apparatus  in  obstruction  of  the  bowel.  A  few  doses 
materially  help  the  extra  rug,  warm  bran  mash,  and  other 
hygienic  remedies  in  combating  chill,  blowing,  and  other 
premonitory  symptoms  of  disease  of  the  air-passages  in  hard- 
worked  horses.  It  stimulates  both  cardiac  and  respiratory 
functions,  and  hence  is  prescribed  in  influenza,  and  in  the 
later  stages  of  various  acute  debilitating  inflammatory  com- 
plaints, in  many  of  which  it  may  be  substituted  for  or 
conjoined  with  alcoholic  stimulants.  In  respiratory  disease, 
while  sustaining  the  action  of  the  heart,  it  promotes  secretion 
and  expectoration,  and  hence  relieves  bronchial  congestion, 
being  especially  serviceable  when  the  lower  bronchi  are 
choked  with  tough  mucus,  and  cardiac  action  is  weak.  It  is 
sometimes  given  to  dogs  as  a  stimulant  emetic  ;  acts  without 
nausea,  and  usually  promptly  ;  but  as  it  is  somewhat  un- 
certain is  best  used  in  conjunction  with  ipecacuanha,  or 
other  emetic.  It  sometimes  averts  epileptic  fits  in  weakly 
dogs.  It  neutralises  the  poisons  of  wasp  stings  and  insect 
bites.  A  useful  dressing  for  removing  the  scales  of  psoriasis 
is  made  by  adding  one  part  to  ten  of  unguentum  simplex. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  3ij-  to  3iv. ;  cattle,  3iij-  to  3VJ-  5 
sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  Ix.  ;  dogs,  grs.  iij.  to  grs.  viij. 
It  is  given  either  in  bolus  with  linseed  meal,  or  dissolved  in 
gruel,  which,  to  prevent  coughing  from  liberation  of 
ammonia,  must  be  used  cold.  Where  prompt  stimulant 
effects  are  required,  ammonium  carbonate  is  conjoined  with 
alcohol  or  ether  ;  where  febrifuge  and  expectorant  effects 
are  sought,  it  is  prescribed  with  spirit  of  nitrous  ether, 
potassium  chlorate,  and  camphor  ;  while  in  chronic  gastric 
derangements  it  is  given  with  gentian,  ginger,  or  cinchona 
bark. 


AMMONIUM    ACETATE  171 

Smelling  salts  are  prepared  by  adding  to  the  carbonate 
half  its  weight  of  solution  of  ammonia,  and  mixing  some 
bergamot,  lavender,  or  other  aromatic  oil. 

LIQUOR  AMMONII  ACETATIS.     Solution  of  Ammonium  Ace- 
tate.    Mindererus  Spirit. 

Is  prepared  by  dissolving  one  ounce  of  ammonium  car- 
bonate in  ten  times  its  weight  of  distilled  water,  neutralising 
with  acetic  acid,  and  adding  sufficient  distilled  water  to  pro- 
duce one  pint  of  the  solution  (B.P.).  It  is  clear,  colourless, 
and  nearly  odourless,  but  has  a  mawkish,  unpleasant  taste. 
Incompatibles,  potash,  soda,  and  their  carbonates,  acids, 
lead  and  silver  salts,  and  lime  water. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Ammonium  acetate,  although  not  so 
powerful  a  stimulant  as  liquor  ammonise  or  the  carbonate,  is 
a  valuable  diaphoretic  and  antipyretic,  and  a  mild  diuretic 
and  expectorant.  It  is  much  used  in  febrile  and  inflamma- 
tory attacks,  especially  affecting  the  respiratory  organs — 
catarrh,  bronchitis,  and  pneumonia,  and  in  influenza, 
strangles,  and  purpura.  In  these  and  other  cases  it  abates 
fever,  promotes  cutaneous  and  bronchial  secretion,  and 
helps  to  clean  the  tongue  and  improve  the  appetite.  In 
the  onset  of  local  inflammation  in  horses,  when  pyrexia  is 
considerable,  two  to  four  ounces  of  liquor  ammonii  acetatis 
are  given,  with  a  drachm  of  potassium  nitrate  or  chlorate 
three  to  four  times  daily.  When  the  bowels  are  confined 
and  the  urine  high-coloured,  two  to  three  ounces  of  Epsom 
salt  are  added  to  the  febrifuge  mixture.  When  bronchial 
secretion  is  scanty  the  acetate  is  conjoined  with  ipecacuanha, 
or  potassium  iodide,  and  its  beneficial  effects  may  be  in- 
creased by  inhalations  of  moist  warm  air  and  by  hot  applica- 
tions to  the  chest.  When  the  smaller  bronchial  tubes  are 
choked  with  mucus,  balsams,  turpentine,  and  squill  are 
useful  additions,  along  with  moderate  external  stimulation. 
When  there  is  sore  throat  and  cough,  belladonna  extract 
and  camphor  are  serviceable  adjuncts.  In  convalescence, 
when  the  appetite  is  indifferent,  powdered  gentian  or 
cinchona  bark  may  be  combined  or  alternated  with  acetate 
and  salines.  When  the  patient  is  weak  and  exhausted, 
alcohol  and  ether  are  fitting  additions. 


172  AMMONIUM  ACETATE   SOLUTION 

For  cattle  similar  prescriptions  are  suitable,  given  usually 
in  somewhat  larger  doses.  In  dogs,  the  diuretic  action  of 
ammonium  acetate  is  more  notable  than  the  diaphoretic.  A 
convenient  antipyretic  and  expectorant  is  made  with  liquor 
ammonii  acetatis  f§iv.  ;  spiritus  setheris  nitrosi  f§ij.  ; 
spiritus  camphorae  f§i.  For  large  dogs  the  dose  is  half 
a  fluid  ounce  ;  for  small  animals  a  fluid  drachm,  in  either 
case  given  diluted  with  five  or  six  parts  of  water.  This 
mixture  is  adapted  for  special  canine  cases  by  additions 
similar  to  those  indicated  for  horses. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses  and  cattle  the  dose  of  liquor 
ammonii  acetatis  is  f  §ij.  to  f  §iv.  ;  for  dogs,  f3ij-  to  f3iv-, 
given  in  five  or  six  parts  of  water,  diluted  spirit,  or  linseed 
tea.  Many  horses  and  cattle  readily  take  it  in  their  drinking 
water.  Like  the  chloride,  the  solution  of  the  acetate  is 
sometimes  used  externally  as  a  refrigerant  discutient. 

GENERAL  ACTION  OF  AMMONIUM  SALTS. — They  resemble 
potassium  and  sodium  salts,  but  being  more  volatile  are 
more  prompt  and  powerful.  '  Ammonium  is  considerably 
modified  by  the  acid  radicle  with  which  it  is  combined. 
All  the  ammonium  salts  have  an  action  on  the  spinal  cord, 
motor  nerves,  and  muscles,  and,  in  advanced  poisoning, 
paralyse  these  structures.  They  do  not,  however,  affect 
all  these  structures  with  equal  readiness.  The  organ  first 
affected,  and  consequently  the  symptoms  of  poisoning,  vary 
with  the  salt  employed.  Some  salts  affect  the  spinal  cord 
first,  others  the  motor  nerves.  They  appear  to  form  a 
series,  at  one  end  of  which  the  members  stimulate  the  spinal 
cord,  and  have  no  marked  paralysing  action  on  the  motor 
nerves  ;  while  those  at  the  other  end  have  no  marked 
stimulating  action  on  the  cord,  but,  on  the  contrary,  have  t 
a  marked  paralysing  action  both  on  the  cord  and  on  motor  ; 
nerves.  At  the  stimulating  end  of  this  series  are  ammonia 
and  ammonium  chloride,  and  at  the  paralysing  end  ammon-  | 
ium  iodide  ;  whilst  the  bromide,  phosphate,  and  sulphate 
lie  between  '  (Brunton). 

To  determine  the  true  action  of  the  ammonium  radicle 
(NH4)  a  salt  must  be  used  in  which,  as  in  ammonium  chloride, 
the  acid  radicle  effects  can  be  neglected.     If  such  a  salt  be  <. 
injected  subcutaneously,  the  chief  effect  of  ammonium  is 


POTASSIUM   AND    ITS    MEDICINAL   COMPOUNDS       173 

seen  to  be  on  the  central  nervous  system.  The  spinal  cord 
is  markedly  stimulated,  reflex  irritability  is  increased,  and 
tetanic  convulsions  may  be  caused.  Blood  pressure  rises 
and  respiration  becomes  accelerated,  whilst  the  heart  may 
be  slowed  from  stimulation  of  the  vagus  (inhibitory  centre). 
With  excessive  doses  paralysis  of  the  central  nervous  system 
results,  and  the  animal  dies  of  asphyxia.  Given  by  the 
mouth  ammonium  salts  are  more  readily  absorbed  than  the 
same  salts  of  potassium  or  sodium,  but  they  do  not  become 
sufficiently  concentrated  in  the  blood  to  cause  convulsions, 
or  even  marked  effects  on  the  central  nervous  system. 
Moreover,  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  lungs  is  impermeable 
to  ammonium,  so  that  ammonia  vapour  inhaled  only  affects 
the  nervous  system  reflexly  through  its  local  action. 

In  their  primary  stimulation  and  secondary  paresis, 
ammonium  salts  resemble  the  mono-hydric  alcohols  and 
ethers  ;  but  they  act  more  markedly  on  the  cord  and  motor 
centres,  and  less  on  the  higher  cerebral  centres.  Ammonium 
salts  increase  the  secretion  of  the  bronchial  and  intestinal 
glands,  and  also  of  the  sweat  glands  and  kidneys,  <by  which 
they  are  mainly  excreted.  In  the  blood  of  mammals 
ammonia  is  converted  almost  entirely  into  urea,  in  the  blood 
of  birds  into  uric  acid. 


POTASSIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 

Potassium  salts  are  obtained  from  (1)  carnallite,  a  chloride 
of  potassium  and  magnesium  (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O)  overlying 
the  rock-salt  in  the  mines  of  Stassfurt  in  Saxony  ;  (2)  from 
the  crude  potashes  got  from  wood  ashes  ;  and  (3)  from  the 
argol  deposited  during  the  fermentation  of  wine  (p.  188). 
Most  are  soluble  in  water.  They  are  identified  in  solution 
by  their  negative  reaction  with  the  several  group  tests  for 
the  metals,  while  moderately  strong  neutral  solutions  rather 
slowly  form,  with  sodium  hydrogen  tartrate,  a  white  crystal- 
line precipitate  (KHC4H406),  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid 
and  in  caustic  potash.  Evaporated  to  dryness,  and  ignited 
with  alcohol,  they  produce  a  distinctive  violet-coloured 
flame,  which  gives  on  the  spectrum  two  lines — one  intense 
on  the  red,  the  other  transient  on  the  violet. 


174  POTASSIUM    SALTS 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  alkalies  comprise  salts  of  potas- 
sium, sodium,  lithium,  and  ammonium.  They  are  the 
chemical  opposites  of  the  acids.  They  neutralise  acids, 
dissolve  albumin,  and  saponify  fats,  and  in  virtue  of  these 
properties  are  irritant  and  caustic.  They  are  destitute  of 
astringency,  and  in  dilute  solution  relax  and  soothe  the 
tissues  with  which  they  come  into  contact.  They  are  also 
used  to  neutralise  excessive  acidity  developed  from  undue 
fermentation,  in  which  case  being  administered  an  hour  after 
eating.  They  promote  elimination  of  lactic  acid  in  rheumat- 
ism, and  to  some  extent  prevent  the  precipitation  of  uric 
acid  in  the  bladder.  The  alkalies  and  their  salts  in  solution 
exert  osmotic  effects  in  contact  with  animal  membranes,  and 
hence  promote  both  catharsis  and  diuresis.  When  absorbed, 
they  increase  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood  and  urine,  encourage 
oxidation  processes,  and  promote  other  alterative  effects. 

Potassium  salts  are  protoplasmic  poisons  when  applied 
directly  to  the  tissues,  and  in  sufficiently  strong  solution  for 
a  sufficient  time  they  destroy  muscles,  nerves,  and  nerve- 
centres.  They  are  more  soluble,  more  readily  absorbed  and 
diffused,  and  more  quickly  excreted  than  sodium  salts,  but 
less  rapidly  than  those  of  ammonium.  When  a  salt,  such  as 
potassium  chloride,  in  which  the  acid  ion  has  little  action,  is 
injected  intravenously  or  subcutaneously  the  characteristic 
action  of  potassium  is  produced.  It  attacks  especially  the 
heart,  causing  paralysis  of  that  organ,  depresses  the  whole 
central  nervous  system  and  paralyses  the  reflex  centres  of 
the  cord.  Large  doses  cause  a  rapid  fall  of  blood  pressure 
and  pulse  rate  ;  whilst  general  symptoms  are  great  depres- 
sion, muscular  weakness,  and  quick  breathing. 

Given  by  the  mouth  these  actions  are  not  produced,  for 
the  drug  is  excreted  as  fast  or  faster  than  it  is  absorbed. 
Thus  potassium  salts  given  per  os  exert  only  '  salt  action  ' 
(q.v.),  except  where  the  acid  ion — as  in  the  case  of  the  bro- 
mide or  iodide — is  itself  physiologically  active. 

They  occur  in  plants  and  animals,  and  are  essential  con- 
stituents of  the  food  of  both.  Their  removal  from  the  food 
of  dogs  impairs  nutrition  and  growth  more  decidedly  than 
deprivation  of  the  corresponding  sodium  salts.  In  animal 
bodies  potash  salts  occur  chiefly  in  the  solid  textures,  notably 


CLASSIFIED    IN   THREE    GROUPS  175 

in  the  muscles ;  sodium  salts  in  the  nutrient  fluids. 
Ringer  teaches  that  potash  salts  have  a  high  diffusive  power, 
rapidly  enter  the  blood,  increase  its  alkalinity,  promote 
oxidation  and  tissue  metamorphosis,  are  solvents  of  albu- 
minoids, and  in  one  or  another  of  these  ways  help  to  abate 
febrile  and  inflammatory  attacks.  They  are  alteratives,  and 
antidotes  to  poisoning  by  barium  salts.  They  are  quickly 
excreted,  mainly  by  the  kidneys ;  increase  chiefly  the 
watery  parts  of  the  urine,  neutralise  its  acidity,  and  often 
exert  soothing  effects  on  the  urino-genital  mucous  surfaces. 
In  febrile  complaints  they  are  eliminated  in  amounts  three 
or  four  times  larger  than  in  health,  and  in  larger  proportion 
than  the  soda  salts,  which  are  excreted  more  largely  during 
convalescence. 

Recollection  of  the  uses  of  the  several  potassium  salts  is 
facilitated  by  dividing  them  into  three  groups.  First :  Salts 
which  are  corrosive,  antacid,  antilithic,  and  alterative — such 
as  the  hydrate  and  carbonates.  The  salts  of  the  weaker 
vegetable  acids — tartrates  and  citrates — in  their  passage 
through  the  body  are  decomposed  into  carbonates,  rendering 
the  urine  alkaline.  Second  :  Salts  which  are  cathartic, 
diuretic,  alterative,  febrifuge,  and  refrigerant  on  account  of 
their  salt  action — such  as  the  sulphate,  acetate,  tartrate, 
nitrate,  chlorate,  and  permanganate.  Third  :  Salts  which 
exhibit  prominently  the  actions  of  their  acid  ion  or  salt 
radical  constituent — such  as  potassium  sulphide,  iodide, 
bromide,  bichromate,  and  cyanide. 

POTASSIUM   HYDROXIDE.     Potassa   Caustica.     Hydrate   of 

Potash.     Caustic  Potash.     KOH. 
POTASSIUM  HYDRATE  SOLUTION.     Liquor  Potassse.     Caustic 

Potash  Solution. 

When  impure  potassium  carbonate  is  boiled  with  calcium 
hydrate,  calcium  carbonate  (CaC03)  is  precipitated,  and 
potassium  hydrate  (KOH)  remains  in  solution,  twenty-seven 
grains  being  present  in  the  fluid  ounce  of  the  liquor  potassae. 
This  is  a  dense,  oily-like  fluid,  of  specific  gravity  T058, 
colourless  and  odourless,  with  an  intensely  acrid,  alkaline, 
soapy  taste,  and  an  alkaline  reaction.  Boiled  with  oils  and 


176  POTASSIUM    HYDRATE 

fats,  it  forms  soaps  ;  mixed  with  acids,  it  forms  neutral, 
soluble,  crystallisable  salts.  It  softens  and  dissolves  soft 
animal  and  vegetable  tissues.  Although  little  used  in 
medicine,  it  is  of  much  importance  in  chemistry  and  phar- 
macy. When  boiled  until  a  drop  removed  on  a  stirrer 
becomes  hard  on  cooling,  and  poured  into  pencil-like  moulds, 
there  are  formed  the  grey  or  white  deliquescent,  hard, 
crystalline  sticks  of  caustic  potash.  This  agent  may  be 
taken  as  the  representative  of  the  caustic  alkalies — other 
members  of  the  group  being  sodium  and  lithium  hydrates — 
and  in  a  less  degree  the  carbonates  and  bicarbonates  of 
these  metals.  All  these  act  by  virtue  of  their  OH  (hydroxyl) 
ion  produced  on  dissociation  in  solution,  and  not  by  reason 
of  the  metal  ion.  Thus  KOH  =  K — OH  and  the  degree  of 
dissociation  determines  the  severity  of  the  action.  With 
the  bicarbonate  KHCO3  =  KOH  +  C02  and  the  KOH  again 
becomes  K — OH.  The  carbonates  and  bicarbonates,  how- 
ever, dissociate  less  readily  than  the  hydroxides  and  hence 
are  milder  and  less  caustic  in  action.  (See  Salt  Action.) 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Full  doses  of  potassium  hydrate  are 
actively  dehydrating,  irritant,  and  corrosive.  Medicinal 
doses  are  antacid  and  diuretic.  Externally,  potassium 
hydrate,  whether  in  substance  or  in  concentrated  solution, 
is  a  penetrating  caustic.  The  corrosive  and  caustic  action 
is  due  to  the  power  caustic  potash  has  of  dissolving  albumin, 
and  to  its  great  affinity  for  water. 

Toxic    EFFECTS. — Large  doses,   when   swallowed,   soften, 
corrode,  and  inflame  the  oesophagus  and  stomach,  some- 
times so   severely  as   to   cause  perforation  ;    while   great 
depression,  and  often  collapse,  accompanies  the  local  lesions.  { 
Hertwig  records  that  two  drachms,  dissolved  in  six  ounces  \ 
of  water,  killed  a  horse,  with  symptoms  of  colic,  in  thirty- 
two  hours.      Orfila  gave  a  dog  thirty- two  grains,  which 
caused  violent  vomiting,  restlessness,  and  death  in  three  i 
days.     Post-mortem  discovered  the   mucous   coat   of   the 
oesophagus  and  stomach  red  and  black  from  extravasation 
of  blood,  with  a  perforation  measuring  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  near  the  pylorus,   surrounded  by  a  hard  thickened 
margin  (Christison).     The  blood  is  dark-coloured  and  gener- 
ally fluid,  owing  to  the  solvent  action  of  the  alkali.     Smaller 


CARBONATE    OF   POTASSIUM  177 

or  more  diluted  doses  gradually  impair  digestion  and  assimi- 
lation, and  destroy  life  by  inanition.  The  antidotes  are 
diluted  acids  which  form  mild  salts,  and  oils  which  produce 
soaps — the  latter  serving  as  demulcents,  and  in  men  and 
dogs  as  auxiliary  emetics.  Irritation  is  also  relieved  by  milk 
and  gruel. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Diluted  solution  of  caustic  potash  has 
been  used  both  internally  and  externally  as  an  antidote  for 
the  poison  of  snakes.  Half  a  drachm,  repeated  twice  daily, 
has  been  prescribed  for  sheep  affected  with  vesical  and 
urethral  calculi ;  but  the  carbonate  is  milder  and  equally 
effectual.  It  is  occasionally  added  to  cough  mixtures  when 
bronchial  secretion  is  scanty  and  tenacious. 

Caustic  potash  is  used  for  eradicating  warts  and  fungous 
growths,  and  cauterising  poisoned  wounds.  On  account  of 
its  deliquescence  and  liability  to  spread,  it  must,  however, 
be  applied  cautiously,  and  any  excess  of  alkali  neutralised 
by  subsequent  washing  with  a  weak  acid.  Mixed  with  one- 
third  lime,  and  moistened  with  alcohol,  constituting  Vienna 
paste,  it  is  less  deliquescent  and  more  manageable. 

POTASSIUM  CARBONATE.     Potassii  Carbonas.     Carbonate  of 

Potash.     K2C03. 
POTASSIUM  BICARBONATE.    Potassii  Bicarbonas.    Potassium 

Hydrogen  Carbonate.     KHCO3. 

Potassium  carbonates  are  got  by  several  processes — (1)  the 
American  pot  or  wood  ashes,  in  their  partially  purified 
condition  of  pearl  ashes,  contain  about  eighty  per  cent, 
of  potassium  carbonate,  with  twenty  per  cent,  of  potassium 
sulphate  and  chloride,  wrhich,  being  less  soluble,  are  got 
rid  of  by  dissolving  the  pearl  ashes,  with  brisk  agitation, 
in  an  equal  weight  of  water,  pouring  off  the  solution,  and 
evaporating  it  to  dryness.  (2)  From  the  sulphate  they 
are  obtained  by  a  process  similar  to  that  followed  in  making 
sodium  carbonate.  (3)  A  pure  carbonate  is  got  by  burning 
potassium  tartrate  with  charcoal. 

The  carbonate  occurs  in  crystals,  as  a  crystalline  powder, 
but  more  generally  in  grains.  It  is  white,  opaque,  and 
inodorous,  with  a  strong  alkaline  taste,  and  an  alkaline 

M 


178  POTASSIUM  BICARBONATE 

reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  its  own  weight  of  water  at  60° 
Fahr.,  deliquesces  rapidly  in  the  air  ;  but  as  it  gradually 
absorbs  carbonic  acid,  it  again  slowly  dries  up.  Exposed 
to  a  red  heat,  it  loses  water  of  crystallisation  to  the  amount 
of  sixteen  per  cent. 

Potassium  bicarbonate,  or  acid  carbonate  of  potash,  is 
prepared  by  passing  carbonic  anhydride  into  a  strong 
aqueous  solution  of  the  neutral  carbonate.  It  occurs  in 
transparent,  colourless,  right  rhombic  prisms  ;  has  a  mild, 
saline,  and  slightly  alkaline  taste  ;  dissolves  in  about  four 
times  its  weight  of  water  at  60°  Fahr.  ;  when  heated  to 
redness,  it  gives  off  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  is  con- 
verted into  the  neutral  carbonate.  It  is  distinguished  from 
the  neutral  carbonate  by  its  milder,  non-acrid  taste,  its  less 
solubility  in  water,  its  more  abundant  effervescence  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  its  not  deliquescing  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  and  by  giving,  in  diluted  solution,  no  precipitate 
with  Epsom  salt  or  corrosive  sublimate. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  two  carbonates  have  the  soluble 
alkali  group  actions  and  differ  only  in  degree.  Both  resemble 
the  hydrate,  but  have  their  activity  tempered  and  diminished 
by  combination  with  carbonic  acid,  which  partly  neutralises 
the  caustic  OH  group  set  free  by  dissociation.  The  neutral 
carbonate,  in  concentrated  solution,  has  much  of  the  cor- 
rosiveness  of  the  hydrate.  Two  drachms  given  to  a  dog 
caused  vomiting,  great  agony,  and  death  in  twenty-five 
minutes  (Orfila).  Three  ounces  are  said  to  be  fatal  to  horses 
or  cattle  (Kaufmann).  Its  antidotes  are  the  same  as  those 
of  caustic  potash.  The  bicarbonate  has  virtually  no  irritant 
or  corrosive  action,  and  so  is  often  preferable  as  an  antacid, 
and,  in  virtue  of  its  liberating  carbonic  acid,  exerts  soothing 
effects  on  the  irritable  gastric  membrane.  It  is  less  of  an 
alkali  and  more  of  a  pure  saline.  Both  carbonates  are 
antacid  antidotes  for  overdoses  of  acids,  and  are  alterative 
and  diuretic. 

MEDICINAL  USES — Potassium  bicarbonate  is  occasionally 
substituted  for  sodium  bicarbonate  to  aid  the  emulsifying 
of  fats,  and,  on  account  of  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid,  to 
soothe  the  irritable  stomach.  Given  before  meals,  it  was 
thought  to  increase  gastric  secretion.  The  experiments  of 


POTASSIUM    CARBONATES  179 

Pawlow  on  dogs  have,  however,  shown  conclusively  that 
alkalies  lessen  the  secretion  of  gastric  juices.  In  many 
cases  of  indigestion  there  is  an  irritated  mucous  membrane 
which  continues  to  secrete  a  weak  slimy  juice.  By  inhibiting 
this  useless  secretion,  and  allowing  the  gastric  glands  a  rest- 
ing interval,  alkalies  do  greatly  benefit  these  cases.  They 
should  be  given  one  or  two  hours  before  a  meal.  Given 
after  meals,  they  neutralise  excess  of  acid,  resulting  from 
undue  secretion  of  gastric  fluid,  or  from  such  acid  fermenta- 
tion of  starch,  sugar,  or  fats  as  occurs  among  carelessly  fed 
calves.  In  rheumatism,  small  repeated  doses  of  alkaline 
bicarbonates  sometimes  prove  beneficial,  apparently  by 
neutralising  excess  of  sarco-lactic  acid,  and  encouraging 
the  action  of  the  kidneys.  In  such  cases  they  are  con- 
joined, according  to  circumstances,  with  oil  of  turpentine, 
salicylic  acid,  quinine,  or  potassium  iodide.  Similar  antacid 
treatment  is  also  successful  in  nettle-rash,  and  occasionally 
in  eczema,  a  diluted  solution  being  also  applied  externally 
to  raw,  weeping,  painful,  or  itching  surfaces.  Potassium 
carbonates  are  specially  suitable  for  preventing  uric  acid 
deposits,  which  occasionally  occur  in  dogs  ;  they  render  the 
urine  less  acid,  and  since  hyperacidity  is  the  chief  factor  in' 
the  deposition  of  uric  acid  crystals,  they  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  calculi.  The  potassium  salt  is  much  more  soluble 
than  the  sodium  urate.  Calculi  and  deposits  occur  in  the 
bladder  and  urethra  of  highly-fed  rams  and  wethers.  In  the 
treatment  of  these  cases,  Litt  recommends  castor  oil,  f§ij. 
to  fgviij.,  with  belladonna  extract,  grs.  viij.  to  grs.  xvj., 
followed  by  potassium  bicarbonate,  3SS-  to  3J->  freely 
dissolved  in  water  or  other  diluent.  As  diuretics,  the 
carbonates  are  less  certain  than  the  nitrate  or  acetate. 

Externally,  the  carbonates  are  applied  as  stimulants  and 
detergents.  Used  with  soap  and  hot  water,  they  soften  and 
remove  skin  incrustation,  whether  consisting  of  sebaceous 
matters,  thickened  scales,  abnormal  discharges,  or  dirt. 
Diluted  with  100  to  200  parts  of  water,  along  with  a  little 
glycerin,  the  carbonate  forms  a  soothing  dressing  for  the 
earlier  weeping  stages  of  eczema,  especially  in  dogs.  The 
itching  parts  should  be  kept  continually  wetted,  while,  to 
prevent  evaporation,  the  wet  lint  should  be  covered  with 


180      ANTACIDS,    DIURETICS,    AND    DETERGENTS 

gutta-percha  tissue.  Cases  of  itching  which  are  not  relieved 
by  alkaline  lotions  should  be  dressed  with  a  dilute  acid,  and 
such  alternation  is  sometimes  successful,  when  neither  the 
alkaline  nor  acid  treatment  alone  succeeds.  The  bicarbon- 
ate proves  a  serviceable  injection  in  leucorrhoea  in  all 
patients.  In  Cape  Colony  a  ley  made  from  wood  ashes 
has  been  used  successfully  as  a  remedy  for  sheep  scab,  either 
alone  or  mixed  with  sulphur. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  either  carbonate,  horses  and  cattle  take 
3ij-  to  §J-  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  3ss.  to  3J-  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  xxx.,  repeated  several  times  a  day,  liberally  diluted 
with  water.  For  improving  gastric  secretion  they  are  given 
about  an  hour  before  eating  ;  but  in  most  dyspeptic  cases 
acids  are  more  permanently  effectual. 

POT  ASS  A  SULPHURATA. — Sulphurated  Potash.  Potassium 
Sulphide.  A  mixture  of  salts  of  potassium,  of  which 
the  chief  are  sulphides.  (B.P.) 

One  part  of  sulphur  and  two  of  potassium  carbonate  are 
mixed  and  heated  until  fusion  occurs,  poured  on  a  stone 
•slab  and  cooled.  There  is  produced  a  liver-brown,  bitter, 
acrid,  alkaline  substance  which  is  odourless  when  dry,  but 
when  moistened  smells  of  hydrogen  sulphide.  It  readily 
dissolves  in  water,  forming  a  yellow  solution. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  conjoins  the  action  of  a  sulphide 
and  a  potassium  salt.  Large  doses  are  irritant  and  narcotic. 
Medicinal  doses  are  laxative,  and,  like  other  sulphides, 
stimulate  the  secretions  of  the  skin  and  respiratory  mucous 
membrane,  and  are  alterative.  Externally,  it  is  occasion- 
ally applied  as  a  substitute  for  sulphur  in  the  treatment 
of  chronic  skin  diseases,  and  as  a  rubefacient,  resolvent,  and 
antiparasitic. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Two  ounces  are  stated  to  have  destroyed 
a  horse  (Bouchardat)  ;  six  drachms  and  a  half,  introduced 
into  the  stomach  of  a  dog,  and  retained  by  ligature  on  the 
oesophagus,  occasioned  death  with  tetanic  symptoms  in  seven 
minutes  ;  a  drachm  and  a  half  in  small  fragments,  intro- 
duced into  the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue  of  dogs,  caused 
extensive  inflammation,  coma,  and  death  in  thirteen  hours 


POTASSIUM    SULPHATE  181 

(Christison).  It  appears  to  act  much  in  the  same  manner 
as  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  decomposing  the  haemoglobin  of 
the  blood,  and  causing  nervous  and  muscular  paralysis. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — It  has  been  used  in  chronic  cough, 
rheumatism,  and  skin  diseases,  in  doses  of  3*-  *o  3ii]->  f°r 
horses  and  cattle,  and  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  x.  for  dogs.  Once  a 
panacea  for  all  kinds  of  poisoning,  it  is  now  used  only  in 
poisoning  by  lead,  which  it  converts  into  a  black,  insoluble, 
and  almost  inert  sulphide. 

POTASSIUM    SULPHATE.      Potassii    Sulphas.      Sulphate    of 

Potash.     K2S04. 
POTASSIUM  BISULPHATE.     Bisulphate  of  Potash.     KHS04. 

Potassium  sulphate  is  got  from  certain  salt  mines,  and 
from  the  mineral  kainite,  which  is  a  double  sulphate  of 
potassium  and  magnesium.  It  occurs  in  transparent,  colour- 
less, rhombic  prisms,  which  have  a  sharp,  saline,  bitter  taste, 
are  hard  and  difficult  to  powder,  and  dissolve  in  ten  parts  of 
cold  water,  and  in  four  parts  of  boiling  water. 

The  bisulphate  is  the  residue  in  the  preparation  of  nitric 
acid  from  nitre  and  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  colourless,  crystal- 
line, and  soluble,  with  an  acid  taste,  and  an  acid  reaction. 
It  is  distinguished  from  the  neutral  sulphate  by  its  small 
flat  prisms,  its  greater  fusibility  and  solubility  in  water,  its 
acid  taste  and  reaction,  and  its  decomposing  carbonates  with 
effervescence — a  property  which  has  led  to  its  being  occa- 
sionally substituted  for  tartaric  acid  in  making  effervescent 
powders. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — They  are  cathartic,  cholagogue,  and 
diuretic.  As  cathartics  they  cause  both  hydragogue  and 
peristaltic  actions,  while  as  diuretics  they  are  less  certain 
than  the  nitrate  or  acetate.  On  account  of  its  hardness  and 
inaptness  to  absorb  moisture,  potassium  sulphate  is  used 
for  facilitating  trituration  of  such  tough  vegetable  substances 
as  opium,  ipecacuanha,  and  jalap. 

POTASSIUM   IODIDE.     Potassii  lodidum  KI.      (See  Iodine 
and  Iodides.) 

POTASSIUM    BROMIDE.      Potassii    Bromidum.     KBr.     (See 
Bromine  and  Bromides.) 


182  POTASSIUM    NITRATE 

POTASSIUM  NITRATE.     Potassii  Nitras.     Nitrate  of  Potash. 
Nitre.     Saltpetre.     KN03. 

In  the  East  Indies,  Persia,  Egypt,  Spain,  and  other  dry 
climates,  a  brown  incrustation,  consisting  largely  of  nitre, 
covers  considerable  tracts  of  country.  It  is  dissolved  in 
water,  mixed  with  impure  potassium  carbonate,  and  purified 
by  repeated  solution  and  crystallisation.  By  decomposing 
sodium  nitrate  with  potassium  chloride,  nitre  is  also  pre- 
pared. 

PROPERTIES. — White,  opaque,  crystalline  masses,  or  trans- 
parent, colourless,  anhydrous,  slender,  six-sided  prisms,  with 
a  sharp,  cooling,  saline  taste,  undergoing  no  alteration  in  the 
air,  deflagrating  when  thrown  on  flame.  It  is  soluble  in 
3J  parts  of  cold  water,  and  one-third  of  its  weight  of  boiling 
water  ;  during  solution  much  heat  is  abstracted  ;  it  is  in- 
soluble in  alcohol.  Warmed  in  a  test-tube,  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  copper  filings,  it  evolves  ruddy  fumes  of  nitric 
peroxide  ;  heated  to  fusion,  the  melted  mass  forms,  on 
cooling,  the  hard,  white,  fibrous  sal-prunelle.  None  of  its 
common  impurities  interfere  with  its  medicinal  actions. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Nitrates  show  very  similar  '  salt 
action  '  to  that  of  the  chlorides,  but  are  more  irritant.  Large 
doses  of  potassium  nitrate  irritate  both  the  bowels  and 
kidneys.  Medicinal  doses  are  diuretic,  diaphoretic,  and 
feebly  cathartic,  and  therefore  alterative  and  febrifuge.  It 
is  excreted  by  the  bronchial  membrane,  the  skin  and  kidneys, 
increasing  the  secretions  of  these  organs.  Used  externally, 
it  acts  like  other  simple  salts  in  solution,  and  is  slightly 
stimulant  and  refrigerant. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Large  doses  cause,  in  man  and  carnivora, 
fatal  gastro-enteritis,  with  vomiting,  weakness,  and  arrest 
of  circulation,  partly  depending  on  reflex  action,  partly  on 
direct  action  on  the  heart  (Brunton.)  Guttmann,  experi- 
menting, chiefly  upon  dogs,  states  that,  in  common  with 
other  potash  salts,  poisonous  doses,  besides  in-contact 
irritation,  paralyse  the  spinal  cord,  cause  dyspnoea,  and 
occasionally  convulsions  and  muscular  weakness,  first  over- 
taking the  hind  extremities,  and  lessen  the  frequency  and 
force  of  the  heart-beat,  which  in  fatal  cases  ceases  in  diastole. 


POTASSIUM   NITRATE  183 

This  toxic  effect  of  potassium  is  not  likely  to  occur  except 
when  the  drug  is  given  intravenously  or  hypodermically. 
Given  by  the  mouth,  only  the  irritant  effects  of  the  salt  are 
produced.  Although  an  ounce  has  proved  fatal  in  human 
patients,  two  ounces  have  no  permanent  injurious  effect  on 
horses  or  cattle.  Morton,  indeed,  gave  a  healthy  horse 
2  pounds,  dissolved  in  6  pounds  water,  and  found  that  it 
acted  both  on  the  kidneys  and  bowels,  but  that  its  effects 
ceased  in  twenty-four  hours.  Moiroud,  however,  found 
that  half  a  pound  given  to  horses,  and  two  or  three  drachms 
to  dogs,  inflame  the  alimentary  canal  and  urinary  organs, 
causing  depression  and  death,  usually  within  twenty-four 
hours.  Kaufmann  states  six  ounces  as  the  toxic  dose  for 
horses  and  cattle,  six  drachms  for  sheep,  and  seventy-five 
grains  for  dogs. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — It  is  soluble,  diffusible,  and  quickly 
absorbed.  It  promotes  bronchial,  cutaneous,  and  urinary 
secretion,  and  is  especially  used  as  a  diuretic.  Clinical  ex- 
perience accords  it  notable  alterative  and  febrifuge  properties. 
In  conjunction  with  ammonium  acetate  solution,  it  is  pre- 
scribed in  catarrhal  disorders,  in  which  it  has  the  twofold 
advantage  of  promoting  discharge  from  the  dry  respiratory 
membrane  and  abating  fever.  American  practitioners  use 
nitre  freely  in  laminitis,  which,  owing  to  careless  feeding 
and  long  fasts,  is  still  common  in  America  ;  they  give  two 
ounces,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  repeated  frequently, 
and  state  that  fever  and  pain  are  abated  and  exudation 
controlled.  One  fourth  of  this  dose  would  be  safer,  and  per- 
haps equally  effectual.  Repeated  doses,  conjoined  with 
quinine,  have  been  given  in  purpura.  It  is  serviceable  in 
rheumatism,  being  frequently  prescribed  with  the  carbonate 
or  iodide,  or  with  salicylic  acid. 

Nitre,  when  dissolving  in  water,  abstracts  heat,  and  is 
hence  sometimes  used  externally  as  a  refrigerant ;  its  cooling 
effects  are  increased  by  admixture  with  sal-ammoniac.  Five 
ounces  each  of  nitre  and  sal-ammoniac,  dissolved  in  sixteen 
of  water,  reduce  the  temperature  from  50°  to  10°  Fahr. 
For  such  purposes  ice,  however,  is  cheaper,  and  more 
convenient. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  a  diuretic,  horses  take  gss.  to  gj.  ;  cattle, 


184  FEBRIFUGE    PRESCRIPTIONS 

gj.  to  gij.  ;  sheep,  3j.  to  3ij  ;  pigs,  Jss.  to  3j  ;  dogs,  grs. 
v.  to  grs.  xx.  Soap,  resin,  with  other  diuretics,  and  free 
solution  in  water,  hasten  and  increase  the  action  of  nitre  on 
the  kidneys. 

A  diuretic  mass  is  thus  made  :— Take  soap  and  nitre,  of 
each  Ibs.  ij.  ;  resin,  Ibs.  iij.  ;  Venice  turpentine,  Ibs.  ij.  ;  oil 
of  turpentine,  f§viij.  Melt  the  soap  and  resin  over  a  slow 
fire  ;  remove  the  mixture  from  the  heat,  and  when  it  has 
somewhat  cooled  stir  in  the  other  constituents.  The  dose 
of  this  mass  is  §ij.  The  balls  are  made  up  with  a  little 
linseed  meal  or  flour. 

As  an  alterative  and  febrifuge  nitre  is  given  in  about  half 
the  doses  used  to  cause  diuresis,  is  repeated  several  times 
a  day,  and  is  generally  conjoined  with  other  medicines.  A 
febrifuge  and  laxative  ball  for  the  horse  is  prepared  with  an 
ounce  of  nitre,  a  drachm  of  aloes,  and  twenty  grains  of 
calomel.  For  a  horse  with  catarrh  and  impaired  appetite, 
a  useful  draught  is  made  with  Epsom  salt  two  ounces,  and 
nitre  and  ammonia  acetate  solution,  of  each  an  ounce, 
dissolved  in  gruel  or  ale.  Catarrhal  symptoms  and  sore- 
throat  are  relieved  by  four  drachms  nitre  and  one  drachm 
each  of  ipecacuanha,  camphor,  and  belladonna  extract, 
made  into  bolus,  and  repeated  every  four  or  six  hours.  An 
ounce  each  of  potassium  nitrate  and  carbonate,  with  two 
drachms  iodide,  are  useful  in  rheumatism.  For  cattle 
similar  combinations  are  serviceable.  For  them  a  con- 
venient alterative  is  made  with  two  ounces  each  of  nitre, 
sulphur,  and  ginger,  given  in  treacle  and  water,  or  in  ale. 

For  the  dog  a  good  febrifuge  consists  of  five  grains  each 
of  nitre  and  Dover's  powder,  and  one  grain  calomel,  placed 
upon  the  tongue,  or  bolted  in  a  piece  of  meat,  or  made  into 
a  pill.  Cats  take  about  half  the  dose  requisite  for  dogs. 

POTASSIUM    CHLORATE.      Potassii    Chloras.      Chlorate    of 
Potash.     KC103. 

Chlorine  gas  is  passed  rapidly  into  a  strong  solution  of 
potassium  carbonate  and  calcium  hydrate.  The  hypo- 
chlorite  first  formed  is  decomposed  by  the  heat  evolved. 
The  mass,  when  charged  with  chlorine,  as  indicated  by  its 


POTASSIUM   CHLORATE  185 

acquiring  a  pink  colour,  is  boiled,  and  the  crystals  formed  in 
cooling  are  purified  by  re-solution  in  boiling  water.  They 
are  colourless  rhomboidal  plates,  have  a  cool  saline  taste,  are 
soluble  in  sixteen  parts  of  cold  water,  and  in  two  parts  at 
212°  Fahr.  The  salt  readily  parts  with  its  oxygen  ;  thrown 
on  red-hot  coal  it  deflagrates  ;  triturated  with  sulphur  or 
phosphorus  it  explodes.  Explosive  gases  are  also  evolved 
when  it  is  heated  with  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Potassium  chlorate  is  antiseptic, 
sialagogue,  and  diuretic  ;  used  externally,  it  is  antiseptic, 
mildly  stimulant,  and  refrigerant.  It  is  less  soluble  than 
sodium  chlorate,  which  it  closely  resembles. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — The  chlorate  was  formerly  thought  to 
act  by  liberating  oxygen  in  the  tissues  and  blood.  That 
this  is  erroneous  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  ninety  per  cent, 
of  the  drug  can  be  recovered  in  the  urine.  At  the  same 
time  chlorates  are  slowly  reduced  with  liberation  of  oxygen 
in  the  presence  of  putrid  decomposing  organic  matter.  The 
salt  after  absorption  is  excreted  in  the  saliva,  from  mucous 
surfaces,  and  by  the  kidneys,  and  if  putrefaction  is  going 
on  in  these  situations  the  oxidising  and  antiseptic  effects  of 
the  drug  are  produced.  Poisonous  doses  highly  oxidise  the 
haemoglobin  of  the  blood,  converting  it  into  methaemoglobin, 
which  holds  oxygen  firmly,  and  thus  interferes  with  aeration 
of  blood  in  the  remote  capillaries.  Respiration  accordingly 
is  impaired,  blood-pressure  falls,  haematuria  and  asphyxial 
convulsions  precede  death.  A  small  quantity  mixed  with 
recently-drawn  blood  causes  it  to  assume  a  chocolate  colour 
and  to  give  the  spectrum  of  methaemoglobin,  and  many  red 
cells  are  destroyed.  Used  as  a  wash  or  gargle,  it  stimulates 
the  salivary  and  buccal  glands,  moistening  the  dry,  parched 
mouth.  It  soothes  and  heals  aphthous  eruptions  and  ulcera- 
tions  of  the  mouth  and  throat ;  while  in  catarrh,  sore- 
throat,  and  bronchitis  it  thins  the  secretions  and  promotes 
expectoration. 

It  is  readily  absorbed,  and  in  febrile  and  blood-poisoning 
cases  has  been  believed  to  exert  antiseptic  effects,  depending 
upon  its  saline  properties,  and  on  its  readily  parting  with 
oxygen  and  chloric  acid.  But  this  explanation  is  not 
altogether  satisfactory,  for,  as  alreadv  stated,  it  is  excreted 


186  PERMANGANATE    OF   POTASH 

in  great  part  unchanged,  small  doses  being  removed  by  the 
kidneys,  and  larger  by  the  bowels.  Like  other  salines,  in 
febrile  and  inflammatory  cases,  whether  in  horses  or  cattle, 
it  is  believed  to  lower  pulse  and  temperature,  clean  the 
tongue,  improve  appetite,  gently  stimulate  the  bowels,  and 
render  the  evacuations  more  natural  and  less  coated  with 
mucus.  It  is  frequently  prescribed  with  Epsom  salt, 
gentian,  or  ether.  Hard-worked  horses,  overdone  or  suffer- 
ing from  catarrh,  are  usually  benefited  by  half  an  ounce, 
given  night  and  morning,  with  gentian  and  ether.  In 
influenza  of  horses,  it  may  be  given  with  sweet  spirit  of 
nitre  and  camphor.  In  the  treatment  of  purpura,  Williams 
prescribed  it  with  iron  salts,  in  the  belief  that  it  increased — 
as  it  does  outside  the  body — the  coagulability  of  blood.  He 
gave  an  ounce  daily,  divided  into  two  or  three  doses,  but 
after  the  second  day  found  that  smaller  doses  sufficed.  It 
is  rapidly  eliminated  in  the  urine — rendering  it  acid  even  in 
herbivora — and  also  in  the  sweat,  bile,  milk,  and  saliva. 

Solutions  of  six  to  twenty  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water 
and  glycerin  are  used  as  antiseptic  washes  for  unhealthy 
wounds  of  the  mouth. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  3J-  to  Z^v-  J  cattle,  3ij-  to  3vj. ; 
sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  Ix.  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xv., 
repeated  two  or  three  times  daily,  given  in  either  bolus  or 
solution,  alone  or  conjoined  with  other  salines,  bitters,  tonics, 
or  stimulants.  Most  horses  of  their  own  accord  will  take  an 
ounce  daily,  dissolved  in  water  or  gruel.  As  a  soothing 
electuary  for  sore-throat  it  is  conjoined  with  camphor,  bella- 
donna, and  treacle. 

POTASSIUM      PERMANGANATE.       Potassii      Permanganas. 
(KMn04). 

Potassium  permanganate  is  obtained  by  the  interaction 
of  manganese  dioxide,  potassium  hydrate,  and  potassium 
chlorate,  occurs  in  dark  purple  crystals,  with  a  sweet,  astrin- 
gent, disagreeable  taste.  It  is  readily  soluble  in  cold  water, 
producing  a  deep-red  solution.  So  readily  does  it  part 
with  oxygen  that  when  mixed  with  such  easily  oxidised 
substances  as  sugar  and  glycerin  it  takes  fire  or  explodes 


POTASSIUM  PERMANGANATE  187 

spontaneously.     The  solution  also  readily  evolves  oxygen 
and  hence  is  an  effectual  bleacher  and  deodoriser. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  permanganates,  in  virtue  of  their 
power  of  oxidation,  are  deodorisers,  and  also  topical  stimu- 
lants. Strong  solutions  are  irritant  and  caustic.  Their 
power  of  breaking  up  various  unstable  organic  substances 
is  further  illustrated  when  they  are  mixed  with  the  cobra 
poison,  which,  thus  treated,  loses  its  deadly  power,  and  may 
with  impunity  be  injected  subcutaneously.  When  an  animal 
has  been  bitten  by  a  cobra,  fifteen  minims  of  a  one  per  cent, 
solution,  injected  round  the  bitten  part,  is  a  reliable  anti- 
dote. When  swallowed  it  does  not  seem  to  exert  the  alter- 
ative or  febrifuge  effects  of  the  nitrate  or  chlorate.  Concen- 
trated solutions  produce  gastro-enteritis.  It  is  an  antidote 
to  poisoning  by  opium. 

Potassium  permanganate,  although  it  has  not  the  anti- 
septic power  of  corrosive  sublimate,  effectually  destroys 
bacteria,  and  Koch  found  that  a  five  per  cent,  solution 
arrested  development  of  the  spores  of  anthrax  soaked  in  it 
for  one  day.  It  is  used  to  deodorise  and  disinfect  foetid 
wounds,  the  nostrils  in  ozaena,  the  mouth  in  aphtha,  the 
throat  when  ulcerated,  the  uterus  in  retention  of  the  foetal 
membranes,  and  also  to  cleanse  hands  and  instruments 
that  have  been  in  contact  with  offensive  or  contagious 
matters.  As  a  disinfectant  permanganate  fails  in  many 
cases,  because,  being  non- volatile,  it  cannot  penetrate  below 
the  surface. 

Permanganate  solutions  are  frequently  placed  in  shallow 
vessels  about  buildings  to  be  deodorised  :  or  cloths,  saturated 
with  one  part  of  the  fluid  to  fifty  or  sixty  of  water,  are  sus- 
pended. But  for  thorough  disinfection  such  a  non-volatile 
body  is  not  so  trustworthy  as  chlorine,  sulphurous  acid,  or 
the  volatile  tar  acids.  Effectual  results  are,  however, 
obtained  when  the  permanganates  are  brought  into  immedi- 
ate contact  with  the  injurious  organic  particles.  Thus,  four 
ounces  of  permanganate  added  to  100  gallons  of  stale- 
smelling,  unsightly  rain-water  left  in  a  foul  cistern,  usually 
precipitates  all  impurities,  and  after  some  hours  the  clarified 
water  becomes  sweet  and  fit  for  use.  The  rapidity  with 
which  a  known  quantity  of  the  permanganate  solution  parts 


188      POTASH,    ACETATE,    CITRATE,    AND    TARTRATE 

with  oxygen  and  loses  its  purple  or  pink  colour,  is  a  test  of 
the  amount  of  organic  contamination  in  water,  other  fluids, 
or  even  in  air.  Its  expense,  however,  precludes  its  general 
use  in  veterinary  practice. 

DOSES,  etc. — Potassium  permanganate  has  been  given  to 
horses  and  cattle  as  an  alterative  and  febrifuge  in  drachm 
doses  ;  but  observation  does  not  justify  its  preference  to  the 
nitrate  or  chlorate.  For  antiseptic  and  deodorant  purposes 
one  part  permanganate  is  dissolved  in  50  to  1000  parts  of 
water.  A  1  to  1200  solution  is  used  for  intra vaginal 
and  intrauterine  injection  after  difficult  parturition,  and  in 
cases  of  retention  of  the  foetal  membranes. 

POTASSIUM  ACETATE.     Potassii  Acetas.     Acetate  of  Potash. 

POTASSIUM  CITRATE.     Potassii  Citras.     Citrate  of  Potash. 

Potassium  acetate  is  prepared  by  fusing  the  product  of  the 
interaction  of  acetic  acid  and  potassium  carbonate.  It  occurs 
in  white,  foliaceous,  satiny  masses,  or  in  granular  particles, 
very  deliquescent,  and  freely  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 
In  their  actions  and  uses  the  acetate  and  citrate  closely 
resemble  the  nitrate.  Without  action  on  the  gastric  juice, 
they  render  the  urine  and  other  secretions  strongly  alkaline. 
Like  other  alkaline  salts  containing  a  vegetable  acid,  when 
they  enter  the  body  they  are  mainly  converted  into  the 
carbonate,  and  are  eliminated  in  the  urine,  producing 
diuresis.  The  acetate  and  citrate  of  potassium  are  the  in- 
organic diuretics  most  frequently  prescribed  in  human 
medicine.  Doses  for  horses  and  cattle,  3JV-  to  gj.  ;  sheep 
and  pigs,  grs.  xxx.  to  Jj.  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xxx. 

ACID   POTASSIUM  TARTRATE.        Potassii  Tartras  Acidus. 
Cream  of  Tartar.     KHC4H406. 

POTASSIUM  TARTRATE.     Potassii  Tartras.     K2C4H406.H20. 

The  crude  tartar  or  argol,  obtained  from  the  interior  of 
wine-casks,  when  purified  by  solution  and  crystallisation, 
occurs  in  white,  hard,  crystalline  masses,  with  a  sharp  acid 
taste.  When  administered  it  takes  up  water  with  avidity, 


SODIUM    SALTS  189 

and  is  slowly  absorbed  ;  although  it  does  not  cause  intestinal 
irritation  or  peristalsis,  doses  of  several  ounces  given  to 
horses  or  cattle  render  the  faeces  fluid,  and  are  mildly 
laxative.  Smaller  doses,  like  those  of  the  alkaline  salts  of 
most  organic  acids,  are  converted  in  the  body  into  the 
carbonate,  and  excreted  mostly  in  the  urine,  causing 
diuresis. 

The  normal  potassium  tartrate  is  obtained  by  neutral- 
ising acid  potassium  tartrate  with  potassium  carbonate.  It 
occurs  in  small,  colourless  four-  or  six-sided  prisms.  It 
resembles  the  acetate  and  nitrate  ;  in  small  doses  is  diu- 
retic, in  larger  purgative.  Robertson  used  to  recommend  it 
with  magnesium  or  sodium  sulphate  for  anaemic  young 
horses  affected  with  congested  liver.  Doses,  horses  and 
cattle  3JV-  to  3J.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  3Jv. ;  Dogs,  grs.  xxx.  to 
3J.  ;  cats,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xv. 

SODIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 

Sodium  salts  abound  in  the  ashes  of  marine  and  maritime 
plants.  They  occur  native  in  the  Chili  nitre  beds  and  in 
borax,  but  their  chief  commercial  source  is  the  chloride 
obtained  from  rock-salt  deposits,  or  from  the  evaporation  of 
sea-water.  They  are  soluble,  with  the  single  exception  of 
the  antimoniate,  which  separates  very  slowly  from  solution. 
They  are  distinguished  by  their  negative  reaction  with  the 
several  group  tests,  and  by  their  communicating  to  the  flame 
of  burning  alcohol  a  bright  yellow  colour. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Sodium  salts,  chiefly  as  albuminates, 
chlorides,  carbonates,  and  phosphates,  are  constituents  of  the 
blood,  bile,  serous  fluids,  and  indeed  of  all  animal  secretions 
and  textures.  The  more  readily  soluble  salts,  in  small  doses 
and  diluted  solution,  are  chiefly  excreted  by  the  kidneys  ; 
while  the  less  soluble,  in  larger  doses  and  more  concentrated 
solution,  are  removed  by  the  bowels. 

Like  potassium  salts,  they  may  be  grouped  as  follows  :— 

1.  The  hydrate,  carbonates,  and  salts  of  organic  acids, 
which  in  the  body  are  converted  into  carbonates,  are  antacid, 
alterative,  and  slightly  diuretic.  The  hydrate  and  carbonate 
are  caustics.  Sodium  ethylate  solution  contains  18  per  cent. 


190  SODIUM    CARBONATES 

of  the  solid  salt  (C2H5ONa),  is  a  colourless,  syrupy  liquid, 
becoming  brown  by  keeping,  and  is  used  as  a  caustic. 

2.  The  chloride,  sulphate,  and  nitrate  act  as  soluble  crys- 
talloids, are  mildly  antiseptic,  febrifuge,  and  refrigerant ; 
small  doses  are  slightly  diuretic,  while  large  doses  are  saline 
purgatives. 

3.  The  borate,  benzoate,  hyposulphite,  sulpho-carbolate, 
chlorate,   salicylate,   and   valerianate   resemble   their   acid 
radicle  rather  than  their  base. 

SODIUM  HYDROXIDE.       Sodium  Hydrate.       Caustic  Soda. 
NaHO. 

SODIUM  CARBONATE.     Sodii  Carbonas.     Carbonate  of  Soda. 
Na2C03.10Aq. 

SODIUM  BICARBONATE.     Sodii  Bicarbonas.     Bicarbonate  of 
Soda.     NaHC03. 

Sodium  hydrate  and  solution  of  caustic  soda  resemble  in 
their  preparation  and  general  properties  the  corresponding 
potassium  compounds,  but  are  little  used  in  veterinary 
practice. 

The  carbonate  was  formerly  obtained  by  lixiviating  the 
ashes  of  marine  plants,  and  from  the  native  sesqui-carbonate 
or  natron  found  as  an  efflorescence  on  the  margins  of  lakes 
in  warm  climates.  It  is  now  obtained  from  common  salt, 
by  heating  it  in  furnaces  with  sulphuric  acid  ;  the  sulphate 
thus  prepared  is  converted  into  sulphide,  and  thence  into 
carbonate,  by  roasting  with  coal  or  slack  and  limestone  ; 
lixiviating,  calcining,  and  crystallising.  From  a  saturated 
solution  of  this  soda  ash  there  separate  large  transparent, 
colourless,  laminar,  rhombic  crystals  of  hydrated  carbonate 
(Na2C03.10Aq.).  The  water  may  be  driven  off  by  heating 
to  120°  Fahr.,  when  the  dried  granular  sodium  carbonate 
remains.  The  carbonate  in  its  several  forms  is  alkaline  to 
taste  and  reagents,  efflorescent,  and  soluble  in  one  or  two 
parts  of  water. 

The  bicarbonate  produced  by  saturating  the  carbonate 
with  carbonic  anhydride  occurs  as  a  white  crystalline  powder, 
or  aggregation  of  irregular  opaque  scales,  has  a  saline,  slightly 


ANTACID    AND    ALTERATIVE  191 

alkaline,  not  unpleasant  taste,  is  soluble  in  about  ten  parts 
of  cold  water,  and  is  distinguished  from  the  carbonate  by  its 
feeble  alkalinity,  and  its  giving  a  colourless  instead  of  a 
coloured  precipitate  with  corrosive  sublimate.  Soda  water, 
as  ordinarily  sold,  is  simply  aerated  water,  but  it  should 
contain  in  every  pint  thirty  grains  of  bicarbonate,  and  be 
saturated  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  dissolved  under  pressure 
of  four  atmospheres. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Sodium  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  are 
antacids,  expectorants,  and  diuretics.  They  differ  only  in 
the  degree  of  their  action,  and  resemble  the  corresponding 
potassium  salts.  They  increase  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood, 
promote  secretion  of  bile,  assist  in  the  elimination  of  mucus, 
and  exert  a  slight  laxative  effect. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Small  doses  given  a  quarter  to  half  an 
hour  before  meals  improve  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice  in 
many  cases  of  dyspepsia.  (See  Potassium  Carbonate.) 
Given  with  or  after  food,  they  aid  the  emulsification  and 
digestion  of  fats,  and  neutralise  the  acid  of  the  gastric  juice, 
as  well  as  any  acid  produced  by  excessive  fermentation  of 
food.  They  are  hence  sometimes  serviceable  in  relieving 
indigestion  and  flatulence,  their  efficacy  being  increased  by 
administration  with  aromatics  or  stimulants.  Calves  fed 
on  stale  skim  milk,  and  suffering  from  atonic  dyspepsia,  are 
often  relieved  by  one  to  two  drachms  of  sodium  bicarbonate 
and  30  grains  of  bismuth  carbonate,  dissolved  in  each  meal 
of  milk.  Hsemoglobinuria  has  been  successfully  treated 
with  half  a  pound  to  a  pound  sodium  bicarbonate  daily 
given  in  doses  of  two  ounces  every  hour.  Normal  alkalinity 
of  blood  and  muscle  is  believed  to  be  secured,  and  further 
solution  of  haemoglobin  arrested  (Dieckerhoff).  They  are 
antidotes  in  poisoning  by  mineral  and  other  acids  ;  being 
less  irritant  than  the  corresponding  potassium  salts,  they 
are  preferred  for  improving  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice  and 
neutralising  acids  in  the  alimentary  canal,  while  potassium 
carbonates  are  more  effectual  antacids  in  rheumatism  or 
acidity  of  the  urine,  and  are  more  active  diuretics. 

Sodium  carbonate  solutions  applied  locally  lessen  irrita- 
tion of  urticaria,  lichen,  and  other  skin  eruptions,  but  are 
not  so  effectual  as  potassium  carbonates.  In  more  chronic 


192  SODIUM    BIBORATE 

cases  the  alkaline  dressings  are  alternated  with  tar,  or  oil 
of  cade.  Leucorrhcea  is  usually  arrested  by  two  or  three 
injections  of  diluted  sodium  bicarbonate.  A  stronger  solu- 
tion abates  the  pain  of  burns. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  carbonate,  horses  and  cattle  take  3JJ- 
to  §j.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xxx.  to  3ij-  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  xxx.  The  bicarbonate,  although  less  active  than  the 
carbonate,  is  more  convenient  for  general  use,  and  is  given 
in  double  these  doses,  either  in  bolus  or  solution.  It  is 
frequently  given  dissolved  in  the  drinking  water  to  dys- 
peptic, diabetic,  or  febrile  horses. 

BORAX.    Sodium  Biborate.    Sodium  Pyroborate.    Na2B407. 
lOAq. 

Borax  occurs  native  in  certain  Austrian  mineral  waters,  as 
an  incrustation  on  the  edges  of  various  lakes  in  Thibet  and 
Persia,  and  in  streams  in  Southern  California.  As  crude 
borax  or  tincal,  it  is  imported  from  Calcutta  in  greenish 
pieces,  moistened  with  oil  to  prevent  efflorescence.  It  is 
purified  by  calcining  and  recrystallising.  Borax  is  now  got 
by  calcining  together,  in  proper  proportions,  boric  acid  and 
sodium  carbonate. 

In  colourless  crystals,  with  a  saline,  cooling  taste,  soluble 
in  17  parts  of  cold  and  two  of  hot  water,  and  in  one  of 
glycerin  ;  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Heated,  it  melts  in  its  water 
of  crystallisation,  and  swells  into  the  porous  borax  usta  ; 
at  a  red-heat  it  becomes  the  transparent  glass  or  anhydrous 
borax  used  as  a  flux. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Borax  is  antiseptic,  parasiticide, 
diuretic,  and  alkaline,  and  is  used  to  relieve  irritation  of  the 
skin  and  mucous  membranes.  By  the  mouth  it  exerts  its 
antiseptic  and  antacid  effects  in  the  stomach,  but  larger  doses 
are  irritant  and  cause  vomiting  and  diarrhoea.  Injected  into 
the  blood  stream  toxic  doses  bring  about  muscular  weakness 
and  collapse. 

It  has  notable  antiseptic  powers  ;  one  part  in  100  of  water 
arrests  the  action  of  emulsin,  diastase,  and  ptyalin  ;  while 
one  part  in  1000  of  water  prevents  the  action  of  rennet ;  it 
requires,  however,  according  to  Koch,  one  part  in  forty-eight 


SODIUM   SULPHATE  193 

of  water  to  kill  developed  bacteria,  and  it  has  no  effect  on 
spores. 

It  has  been  prescribed  in  the  same  doses  as  the  bicarbonate 
in  gastric  irritation.  It  is  a  useful  antiseptic  in  aphthous  and 
ulcerated  conditions  of  the  mouth  and  fauces,  is  sometimes 
conjoined  with  potassium  chlorate,  and  applied  either  in 
powder  or  with  '  Sanitas,'  or  glycerin  and  water.  It  allays 
irritation  and  itching  in  many  cases  of  erythema,  eczema, 
and  psoriasis.  It  is  preferable  to  more  active  and 
poisonous  remedies  for  dogs,  which  are  apt  to  lick  their 
dressings.  In  acute  eczema  one  part  each  of  borax  and  alum 
is  used,  dissolved  in  fifty  parts  of  water.  It  is  an  effectual 
injection  for  leucorrhcea.  It  is  a  good  solvent  for  salicylic 
and  benzoic  acids.  Glycerin  of  borax  is  made  with  one  part 
of  borax  and  six  of  glycerin.  Mel  Boracis  is  composed  of 
2  parts  borax,  1  of  glycerin,  and  16  of  honey. 

DOSES. — Horses  and  cattle,  3n'j.  to  3vj.  ;  sheep  and  pigs, 
3J.  to  3iij-  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xxx. 

Sodium  Perborate,  prepared  by  the  action  of  boric  acid  on 
sodium  peroxide,  is  a  white  powder,  soluble  in  water,  and 
employed  as  a  substitute  for  hydrogen  peroxide  in  the 
dressing  of  wounds. 


SODIUM    SULPHATE.     Sodii    Sulphas.     Sulphate    of    Soda. 
Glauber's  Salt.     Na2SO4.10Aq. 

The  sulphate  effloresces  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  various 
parts  of  India,  occurs  in  masses  in  Spain,  and  is  a  constituent 
of  sea- water,  of  many  aperient  mineral  waters,  of  various 
plants,  and  of  several  animal  secretions.  When  two  parts 
sodium  chloride  are  heated  with  one  part  sulphuric  acid, 
hydrochloric  acid  is  evolved,  and  sodium  sulphate  crystallises 
from  the  solution.  It  occurs  in  colourless,  transparent, 
oblique  prisms,  which  effloresce  on  exposure  to  air,  have  a 
saline,  bitter  taste,  and  at  60°  Fahr.  are  soluble  in  less  than 
their  own  weight  of  water. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — According  to  the  dose  it  is  laxative 
or  cathartic,  slightly  diuretic,  febrifuge,  and  indirect 

olagogue.     Externally  it  is  refrigerant. 

Unlike  the  magnesium  sulphate,  it  has  no  toxic  effect  when 

N 


194  SODIUM   SULPHITES 

injected  into  the  circulation.  Like  other  saline  purgatives, 
it  has  a  low  diffusive  power,  for  the  S04  ion  is  absorbed  to  a 
very  slight  extent ;  it  impedes  absorption  of  fluids  present  in 
the  intestines,  draws  out  fluid  from  the  blood,  increases 
peristalsis,  and  thus  augments  the  quantity  and  fluidity  of 
the  dejections.  Bile  poured  into  the  intestine  is  hurried 
along  and  excreted,  its  reabsorption  being  prevented,  and 
the  same  occurs  with  sodium  phosphate.  While  large  doses 
of  Glauber  salts  are  removed  by  the  bowels,  small  doses,  freely 
diluted,  pass  off,  in  great  part  unchanged,  by  the  kidneys. 
Although  little  used  for  horses,  it  is  still  prescribed  for  cattle 
and  sheep,  for  the  same  purposes  as  Epsom  salt,  with  which 
it  is  sometimes  conjoined.  Catharsis  is  seldom,  however, 
produced  within  twenty-four  hours.  It  is  an  antidote  in 
poisoning  by  carbolic  acid  and  barium  chloride.  In  dogs  it 
acts  both  as  an  emetic  and  purgative. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  a  purgative  cattle  take  Ib.  j.  to  Ib.  jss.  ; 
sheep,  §ij.  to  §iv.,  given  with  ginger  and  treacle,  and  suc- 
ceeded by  liberal  supplies  of  chilled  water.  As  a  febrifuge 
for  horses  ^ij.  to  §jv.  may  be  given. 

SODIUM  SULPHITE.     Normal  sulphite.     Sodii  Sulphis.     Na2 
S03.7Aq. 

SODIUM  HYPOSULPHITE.     Hyposulphite  of  Soda.     Sodium 
Thiosulphate.     Sodii  Hyposulphis.     Na2S203.5Aq. 

Sodium  sulphite  may  be  obtained  by  the  interaction  of 
sulphurous  acid  and  sodium  carbonate.  In  colourless 
crystals,  efflorescent,  inodorous,  with  a  saline  taste. 

Sodium  hyposulphite  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving 
sulphur  in  a  boiling  solution  of  sodium  sulphite  and  crystal- 
lising. The  hyposulphite  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and  fusible. 
It  is  more  permanent  than  the  sulphite. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  sulphite  and  hyposulphite  are 
antiseptics,  deodorisers,  and  insecticides.  In  the  presence 
of  acids,  without  and  also  within  the  body,  they  give  off 
sulphurous  acid,  which  they  therefore  resemble.  They 
destroy  ferments  and  bacteria,  and  remove  offensive  smells 
by  abstracting  oxygen  from  organic  matter  to  become 
themselves  converted  into  sulphates.  These  bactericidal 


SODIUM   SULPHITE   SOLUTION  195 

and  deodorant  properties  are  greatly  increased  when  they 
are  used  along  with  the  tar  acids. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Sodium  sulphite  and  hyposulphite, 
when  given  by  the  mouth  are  antiseptic,  in  the  mouth  and 
stomach  they  limit  fermentation  and,  in  the  dog  and  cat, 
may  cause  emesis  from  the  sulphurous  acid  liberated  by  the 
gastric  juice.  They  are  slowly  absorbed  and,  if  in  excess, 
cause  depression  of  the  medulla  and  weakening  of  the  heart 
with  symptoms  of  dyspepsia,  muscular  debility,  and  restless- 
ness. They  are  excreted  mostly  as  sulphates  in  the  urine, 
although  a  considerable  amount  (30  per  cent.)  of  the  hypo- 
sulphite is  excreted  in  the  urine  unchanged.  Polli,  of  Milan, 
made  upwards  of  three  hundred  experiments  with  acid 
sulphite,  mostly  upon  dogs,  and  found  that  it  materially 
diminished  the  effects  of  animal  poisons.  He  gave  dogs 
225  grains  daily  for  a  fortnight ;  very  moderate  doses  were 
detectable  in  twenty-four  hours  in  the  blood,  liver,  and 
urine  ;  two  ounces  of  blood  drawn  from  dogs,  which  for 
five  days  had  received  daily  with  their  food  thirty  grains  of 
sulphite,  kept  fresh  for  three  weeks  ;  while  blood  taken  from 
dogs  similarly  fed,  but  receiving  no  sulphite,  became  putrid 
within  a  few  days.  Full  doses,  given  previous  to  death, 
retarded  or  prevented  putrefaction  of  the  body. 

Polli  injected  fifteen  grains  of  foetid  pus  from  an  abscess 
into  the  thighs  of  two  dogs,  and  next  day  repeated  the  injec- 
tion. Both  dogs  were  stupefied,  reeled,  and  tottered  when 
made  to  walk,  while  their  pulse  and  breathing  were  much 
quickened.  For  five  days  previously  both  dogs  had  been 
treated  exactly  alike,  with  this  difference  only,  that  one  had 
received  daily  thirty  grains  of  sodium  sulphite,  which  was 
continued  throughout  the  experiment.  In  four  days  after 
the  injection  this  dog  was  again  eating,  and  the  wound  in  his 
thigh  healing.  The  other,  receiving  no  sulphite,  daily 
became  worse,  gangrene  set  in,  and  in  ten  days  he  died, 
exhausted. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — These  experiments  held  out  great  hope 
that  septicaemia  might  be  prevented  or  cured  by  sulphites. 
But  repeated  careful  clinical  observation  has  not  justified 
the  high  expectations  formed  of  them,  and  their  adminis- 
tration does  not  appear  to  arrest  or  materially  alter  the 


196  SODIUM   HYPOSULPHITE   SOLUTION 

course  of  febrile,  contagious,  or  infectious  diseases.  Amongst 
horses  they  have  been  given  in  febrile  attacks,  and  in  such 
cases  many  American  practitioners  have  given  favourable 
reports  of  them.  They  relieve  acidity  and  flatulence  occur- 
ring in  badly-fed  young  calves.  The  sulphite,  mixed  with 
treacle  and  placed  within  the  lips,  diminishes  irritation, 
smell,  and  acrid  discharge  in  foot-and-mouth  disease.  Used 
alone,  and  occasionally  with  potassium  chlorate,  it  has  been 
given  to  young  cattle  to  prevent  attacks  of  black-leg,  half- 
ounce  or  ounce  doses  for  this  object  being  administered  with 
the  ordinary  food  for  three  or  four  days  consecutively  during 
every  fortnight.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  precise  value 
of  such  preventives,  adopted,  as  they  often  are,  hi  conjunc- 
tion with  more  careful  feeding  and  management.  In 
distemper  in  dogs,  ten  to  twenty  grains  of  sulphite,  or  hypo- 
sulphite, are  given  twice  daily  to  regulate  the  bowels  and 
abate  the  fever. 

A  solution  of  ten  grains  hyposulphite  to  the  ounce  of  water 
is  an  excellent  application  for  corneal  ulcers  and  recent 
opacities. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  sulphite,  horses  and  cattle  take  §ss.  to 
§ij.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  3SS-  to  3^-  J  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  39- 
Of  the  hyposulphite,  somewhat  smaller  doses  suffice.  Either 
drug  is  prescribed  in  powder  or  solution,  and  may  be  re- 
peated several  times  daily.  Having  little  taste,  they  may 
usually  be  taken  mixed  with  the  food  or  drinking  water. 
They  may  be  conjoined  with  ginger,  gentian,  camphor,  or 
ammonium  carbonate. 


SODIUM  CHLORIDE.     Sodii  chloridum.     Chloride  of  Sodium. 
Common  salt.     NaCl. 

Salt  is  found  in  extensive  rock  deposits  in  Poland,  Spain, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  this  country  in  Cheshire 
and  Worcestershire.  It  exists  in  variable  amount  in  every 
soil,  and  hence  in  every  water,  is  the  largest  saline  con- 
stituent of  the  ocean,  and  is  present  in  the  tissues  and  fluids 
of  plants  and  animals.  It  is  obtained  for  medicinal  and 
domestic  purposes  by  quarrying  the  solid  beds  of  rock-salt, 
or  by  evaporating  brine  springs  or  sea-water. 


SODIUM   CHLORIDE  197 

It  forms  crystals,  which  vary  in  size  according  to  the 
rapidity  of  their  formation.  When  pure,  it  occurs  in  small, 
white,  crystalline  grains,  or  transparent  cubical  crystals  free 
from  moisture,  and  has  a  purely  saline  taste.  From  the 
presence  of  magnesium  and  calcium  chlorides,  many  samples 
are  deliquescent.  It  is  soluble  in  about  two  and  three- 
quarter  parts  of  water,  and  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Salt  is  an  essential  article  of  food  ; 
small  doses  are  restorative,  stomachic,  and  antiseptic  ;  larger 
doses  are  irritant,  cathartic,  and  emetic  ;  it  is  used  externally 
as  a  stimulant,  antiseptic,  and  refrigerant. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — So  essential  is  the  regular  or  frequent 
use  of  salt  for  the  maintenance  of  health,  that  animals, 
especially  vegetable  feeders,  in  a  state  of  nature  instinctively 
travel  many  miles  to  saline  springs,  the  sea-shore,  or  incrus- 
tations or  beds  of  salt.  Boussingault,  experimenting  on 
its  dietetic  value,  selected  six  cattle,  as  equal  as  possible  in 
weight  and  appearance,  and  fed  them  in  exactly  the  same 
manner,  except  that  three  received  each  1'2  ounces  of  salt 
daily,  whilst  the  other  three  got  none.  In  about  six  months 
the  skin  and  hair  of  those  without  salt  became  rough,  dry, 
and  staring,  presenting  a  striking  contrast  to  the  smooth, 
shining  coats  of  the  others,  which,  although  little  heavier 
than  their  neighbours,  were  more  lively,  and  of  so  much 
better  appearance  that  they  brought  a  somewhat  higher 
price.  The  cattle  receiving  salt  exhibited  throughout  greater 
appetite  and  relish  for  their  food,  consumed  it  in  a  shorter 
time,  and  also  drank  larger  quantities  of  water. 

A  piece  of  rock  salt  should  constantly  He  in  the  horse's 
manger,  the  ox's  crib,  and  the  sheep's  trough.  It  is  specially 
necessary  when  the  diet  consists  largely  of  cooked  grains  or 
roots,  in  the  preparation  of  which  part  of  the  salt  is  apt  to 
be  dissolved  out.  The  condiment  not  only  gratifies  the 
palate,  but  also,  as  indicated,  serves  important  nutritive 
purposes.  It  increases  secretion  of  saliva  and  gastric  juice, 
furnishes  hydrochloric  acid  for  the  gastric  juice,  and  soda 
salts  for  the  bile  ;  alters  the  rate  of  diffusion  of  fluids  through 
membranes,  while  four  to  six  parts  per  1000  are  present  in 
the  blood  serum,  contributing  to  the  solution  of  the  globulins. 
During  convalescence  from  acute  disease  the  chloride  and 


198  SODIUM   CHLORIDE 

other  sodium  salts  are  removed  from  the  body  in  unusual 
amount,  and  most  animals  then  instinctively  take  salt  freely. 
Besides  furnishing  an  essential  constituent  of  the  animal 
fluids  and  solids,  it  appears  to  assist  in  the  assimilation  of 
nutritive  matters.  On  the  absorption  of  calcium  salts  it  has 
a  marked  effect,  for  when  withheld  from  dogs  with  fractured 
limbs  repair  and  union  are  tardy.  It  is  excreted  by  the 
kidneys,  skin,  and  mucous  membranes. 

In  common  with  cathartic  salines,  it  acts  chiefly  physically 
by  osmosis,  though  it  is  absorbed  much  more  readily  and  is 
therefore  a  less  effective  purgative  than  magnesium  sulphate. 
It  impedes  absorption  of  fluid  from  the  bowels,  which  thus 
become  mechanically  distended  with  fluid.  Their  contents 
are  softened  and  peristalsis  is  encouraged.  The  blood  not 
only  does  not  obtain  from  the  bowels  its  usual  supply  of 
fluid,  but  pours  serous  secretion  into  the  bowels.  Within  an 
hour  or  two  after  administration  of  a  saline  cathartic  the 
blood  becomes  concentrated,  and  thereafter  gradually 
recoups  itself  from  the  tissues,  thus  promoting  excretion  of 
fluid  and  waste  materials. 

On  horses  the  cathartic  action  of  common  salt  is  uncertain, 
often  violent,  and  usually  accompanied  by  considerable 
irritation  of  the  kidneys.  On  dogs  it  usually  operates  both 
as  an  emetic  and  cathartic.  Small  and  freely  diluted  doses 
increase  the  secretion  of  urine  and  the  proportion  of  urinary 
solids.  On  pigs  it  acts  as  a  purgative,  but  is  not  so  safe  or 
certain  as  oil,  jalap  and  calomel,  or  aloes. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Cases  are  recorded  of  pigs  eating  about  four 
and  a  half  ounces  daily  for  several  days.  They  suffered  from 
flatulence,  diarrhoea,  vertigo,  convulsions,  and  paralysis,  and 
died  in  eight  to  twenty-four  hours  after  showing  those  symp- 
toms. The  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  was 
found  after  death  highly  injected  and  inflamed.  Sir  Charles 
Cameron  reported  the  poisoning  of  thirty-one  pigs  conveyed 
by  rail  in  a  salt-truck,  from  the  sides  of  which  they  had 
licked  the  salt.  For  many  hours  they  had  been  deprived  of 
water.  They  appeared  in  a  state  of  asphyxia  ;  emetics  and 
subsequently  stimulants  were  ordered,  and  eleven  recovered. 
The  carcases  of  those  that  died  exhibited  '  signs  of  gastro- 
intestinal inflammation  ;  the  brain  was  greatly  congested, 


ESSENTIAL   TO   HEALTHY  NUTRITION  199 

and  there  was  considerable  extravasation  of  blood  in  the 
cerebellum  and  medulla  '  (Veterinarian,  1871).  Even  cattle 
and  sheep,  for  which  it  is  generally  a  suitable  cathartic, 
occasionally  suffer  from  overdoses.  Dangerous  effects  have 
been  produced  by  several  ounces  given  to  young  and  delicate 
calves,  for  which  oil  is  a  more  suitable  purge. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — For  vigorous  cattle  and  sheep  common 
salt  is  a  useful  purgative,  resembling  in  its  effects  Epsom 
and  Glauber  salts.  It  is,  however,  more  soluble,  moderate 
doses  are  more  quickly  absorbed,  and  hence  it  is  frequently 
desirable  to  conjoin  common  and  Epsom  salts.  Full  doses 
of  such  salines  cause  thirst,  induce  the  animal  to  drink  water 
or  other  bland  fluids  freely,  thus  softening  and  carrying 
onwards  the  hard,  dry,  impacted  food,  which  is  apt  to 
accumulate  in  the  first  and  third  stomachs  of  ruminants. 
For  such  patients  salt  is  .administered  to  unload  the  bowels 
in  impaction  of  the  rumen  and  omasum,  as  well  as  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  diarrhoea  depending  on  over-feeding,  or  kept 
up  by  the  presence  of  irritating  matters  in  the  canal.  It  is 
also  given  for  its  indirect  effects  on  general  metabolism  and 
nutrition,  for  it  not  only  beneficially  empties  the  stomachs 
and  bowels,  but  frees  the  blood  of  peccant  matters.  It  is 
indicated  in  the  later  stages  of  pleurisy,  peritonitis,  and 
pneumonia. 

SmaU  and  repeated  doses  are  stomachic,  are  prescribed  for 
all  animals  suffering  from  indigestion  and  irregular  appetite, 
and  may  be  conjoined  with  gentian,  ginger,  or  spirits  and 
water.  It  obviates  to  some  extent  the  effects  of  damp  and 
badly  kept  fodder,  and,  given  with  nutritive  dry  food,  pre- 
vents or  retards  the  progress  of  ascites  in  sheep  so  often 
caused  by  flukes  and  other  parasites.  Systematically  given, 
salt  lessens  the  liability  to  intestinal  worms,  and  an  enema 
of  two  or  three  ounces  to  a  pint  of  water  often  brings  away 
ascarides  from  the  rectum.  It  is  frequently  added  to  laxa- 
tive clysters.  A  solution  of  80  grains  pure  sodium  chloride 
in  20  ounces  of  boiled  water  cooled  to  blood  heat,  is  injected 
subcutaneously  into  the  peritoneal  cavity,  or  intravenously, 
in  collapse  from  haemorrhage,  serious  operation,  or  from 
exhausting  disease.  Injections  of  a  quart  or  more  may  be 
made  daily  with  marked  benefit  in  many  cases. 


200  SODIUM   CHLORIDE   SOLUTION 

Dissolved  in  ten  to  twenty  parts  of  water,  it  proves  a 
serviceable  antiseptic  and  stimulant  gargle  in  relaxed  and 
ulcerated  sore- throat  of  horses  and  other  patients.  Salt- 
water baths  exert  curative  effects  on  animals  as  well  as  on 
man.  For  stuping  or  cleansing  wounds,  a  one  per  cent, 
warm  watery  solution,  in  virtue  of  its  stimulant  and  anti- 
septic properties,  is  preferable  to  plain  water,  and  less  apt  to 
sodden  the  parts  or  weaken  their  vitality.  Salt  solutions  are 
applied  cold  as  stimulants  and  refrigerants  for  strains  and 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  joints  and  feet,  particularly 
amongst  cattle  and  sheep.  For  a  cooling  mixture,  one  part 
each  of  salt,  nitre,  and  sal  ammoniac  is  dissolved  in  thirty 
to  forty  parts  of  water  ;  or  one  part  of  salt  is  mixed  with  two 
of  pounded  ice.  Such  freezing  mixtures  require,  however, 
to  be  used  warily,  for  their  prolonged  application  dangerously 
lowers  vitality. 

For  preventing  and  arresting  putrefaction,  salt  is  cheap 
and  effectual.  For  antiseptic  purposes  it  is  advantageously 
conjoined  with  carbolic  acid.  To  disinfect  skins,  a  pound  of 
salt  and  two  ounces  of  carbolic  acid  are  used,  dissolved  in  a 
gallon  of  water.  Waste  chlorides  are  used  to  preserve  for 
manure  the  meat  seized  at  markets  as  unfit  for  human  food. 
Salt  alone  or  mixed  with  soot,  or  gaslime,  and  loam  forms  an 
excellent  top  dressing  for  pastures  infested  with  parasites. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  a  purgative  the  ox  or  cow  takes  Ib.  f  to 
Ib.  j. ;  sheep,  §  j.  to  §iij.  A  prompt  and  effectual  purgative 
consists  of  half  doses  of  common  and  Epsom  salts,  dissolved 
in  about  two  quarts  of  warm  water,  with  two  ounces  of 
powdered  ginger,  anise,  or  other  aromatic,  and  a  pound  of 
treacle.  Some  cattle  readily  drink  the  mixture  thus 
sweetened,  and  the  trouble  of  drenching  may  be  saved.  To 
hasten  and  increase  the  effects  of  salines  other  purgatives 
are  sometimes  added.  Along  with  half  a  pound  each  of 
common  and  Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  water  with  aromatics 
and  treacle,  may  be  given  ten  or  twenty  croton  beans  in 
powder  ;  or  gamboge,  §ss.  to  §i.  Where  such  a  dose  fails 
to  act  in  twenty  or  twenty-four  hours,  it  may  be  repeated,  or 
a  pint  or  two  of  linseed  oil  may  be  substituted  for  the  salts. 
But  large  doses  of  drastic  physic  are,  however,  to  be  avoided, 
for  they  induce  nausea  and  depression,  which  prevent  purga- 


SODIUM   NITRATE  201 

tion.  When  a  patient  has  had  two  full  doses  without  effect, 
clysters  should  be  tried,  with  a  free  allowance  of  water 
containing  salt  and  treacle. 

As  a  stomachic  and  alterative  for  horses  or  cattle,  two 
or  three  ounces  of  salt  are  given,  usually  with  aromatics, 
bitters,  or  vegetable  tonics.  As  an  emetic  for  the  dog,  the 
dose  varies  from  one  to  four  drachms,  dissolved  in  tepid 
water.  A  still  more  effectual,  readily  obtained  emetic  for 
a  medium-sized  dog  consists  of  a  tablespoonful  of  salt  and 
half  a  teaspoonful  of  mustard  flour,  dissolved  in  three  or 
four  ounces  of  water.  More  prompt  results  are  secured  by 
adding  a  few  grains  of  zinc  or  copper  sulphate,  or  of  tartar 
emetic. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  much  used  as  a  manure,  has  irritant  and 
cathartic  properties,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  common 
salt,  but  also  showing  typical  irritant  nitrate  action.  It  has 
sometimes  killed  both  horses  and  cattle  that  have  licked  it, 
or  eaten  grass  strongly  saturated  by  a  large,  recently  applied 
dressing. 

A  number  of  cattle  died  rather  suddenly  on  a  farm  in 
South  Lincolnshire,  and  an  inquiry  into  the  circumstances 
of  the  case  left  no  doubt  that  death  arose  from  nitrate  of 
soda  which  the  animals  obtained  from  bags  which  had  been 
used  in  conveying  this  fertiliser  into  the  field,  and  had  after- 
wards been  left  lying  about.  On  a  farm  in  Massachusetts, 
eleven  cows  out  of  a  herd  of  fifteen  died  as  a  result  of  having 
had  given  to  them  nitrate  of  soda  in  mistake  for  common 
salt.  The  fifteen  cows  had  been  out  at  grass  all  day,  and 
were  driven  to  the  stalls  in  the  evening,  when  an  attendant 
gave  to  all  except  two  what  he  supposed  to  be  common  salt, 
thoroughly  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  wheat  bran. 
Apparently,  all  the  animals  ate  heartily.  Two  hours  later 
the  cows  attracted  notice  by  the  noise  they  were  making,  and 
when  examined  they  were  found  to  be  uneasy  and  evidently 
in  pain,  and  several  died  within  an  hour  or  two.  The  only 
skilled  advice  obtainable  was  that  of  a  medical  practitioner 
who,  thinking  the  case  was  one  of  arsenic  poisoning,  pre- 
scribed accordingly,  but  before  morning  eleven  of  the  cows 
were  dead.  An  examination  of  samples  of  material  collected 
from  the  mangers  revealed  the  presence  of  large  quantities  of 


202  LIQUOR   SODJE   CHLORINATE 

nitrate  of  soda,  but  no  common  salt.  An  analysis  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  failed  to  discover  any  trace  of  arsenic, 
lead,  or  other  mineral  poison.  Similar  cases  have  been 
recorded  in  the  Archives  Veterinaires.  A  horse  had  drunk 
freely  of  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  exhibited  many  of 
the  symptoms  that  were  subsequently  noticed  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts cattle  ;  the  administration  of  strong  infusions  of 
coffee  and  alcohol  and  irritant  clysters  relieved  the  animal, 
which  in  a  few  days  completely  recovered.  In  another  case 
four  bags  of  nitrate  of  soda  had  been  placed  on  a  grass  field 
and  allowed  to  remain  some  five  hours  before  being  applied. 
Meanwhile,  some  of  the  nitrate  had  become  washed  by  rain 
from  the  bags  upon  the  ground.  Three  days  later  cows  were 
turned  into  the  pasture  and  obtained  the  salt  by  licking  it 
from  the  herbage.  They  showed  symptoms  of  poisoning, 
but  ultimately  recovered.  One  other  case  worth  noticing  is 
that  in  which  two  hundred  bags  which  had  contained  nitrate 
of  soda  were  washed  in  large  tubs  of  water  close  to  which  the 
cattle  passed  on  their  way  to  the  pasture.  A  few  hours 
afterwards  many  of  the  cows  were  seen  to  be  ill,  and  within 
eight  hours  two  of  them  had  died.  These  proved  to  be  the 
first  two  that  had  left  the  stalls,  and  consequently  had  time 
to  drink  more  of  the  solution  than  the  others. 

. 

LIQUOR  SODE  CHLORINATE.     Solution  of  Chlorinated  Soda. 
Solution  of  Sodium  Hypochlorite.     NaCl,  NaClO. 

Admixture  and  subsequent  filtration  of  solutions  of  sodium 
carbonate  and  chlorinated  lime  produce  the  B.P.  liquor  sodse 
chlorinatse,  known  also  as  Labarraque's  disinfecting  fluid.  It 
is  a  colourless  alkaline  liquid,  with  an  astringent  taste,  and  a 
feeble  odour  of  chlorine.  Like  the  analogous  solution  of 
bleaching  powder,  it  contains  chlorides,  and  hypochlorites, 
and,  acted  on  by  air  or  acids,  gives  off  chlorine  and  chlorine 
compounds. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  antiseptic,  stimulant,  and  ant-  . 
acid,  and  is  also  used  as  a  disinfectant  and  deodorant.     It  is 
applicable  to  the  same  purposes  as  solution  of  chlorinated 
lime  and  liquor  chlori. 

It  arrests  the  action  of  yeast  and  other  ferments,  and  kills 


FLUORIDE   OF   SODIUM  203 

bacteria.  When  administered  internally,  it  has  been 
credited  with  the  power  of  oxidising  urea  and  other  products 
of  tissue  metamorphosis,  and  of  hastening  their  excretion. 
It  has  been  prescribed  as  an  antiseptic  in  fever  and  purpura 
in  horses,  and  as  an  antidote  in  poisoning  by  hydrogen 
sulphide,  the  hydro-sulphides,  and  prussic  acid.  It  is  to  be 
remembered,  however,  that  chlorine  is  much  more  poisonous 
to  the  higher  animals  than  to  bacteria  so  that  its  internal  use 
should  be  restricted  or  avoided. 

It  is  chiefly  serviceable  as  an  external  antiseptic  for 
stimulating  and  deodorising  foul  wounds  and  ulcers,  check- 
ing excessive  noisome  discharges  from  the  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces,  controlling  the  earlier  stages  of  eczema,  and  for 
douching  from  an  atomiser  relaxed  and  irritable  sore-throat. 
As  an  antiseptic,  although  more  expensive,  it  is  for  some 
purposes  preferable  to  chlorinated  lime,  inasmuch  as,  upon 
exposure,  it  becomes  converted  into  common  salt — itself  a 
valuable  antiseptic,  and  more  permanent  and  convenient 
than  the  deliquescent,  moist  calcium  chloride,  which  remains 
when  bleaching  powder  is  used. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  B.P.  solution,  which  contains  about  2J 
per  cent,  of  available  chlorine,  horses  and  cattle  take  f§j. 
to  f  §ij.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  f  3J-  to  f  3ij-  ;  dogs,  Tl\xv.  to  Tl\xxx., 
dissolved  in  water. 

Fluoride  of  sodium,  obtained  by  saturating  hydrofluoric 
acid  in  water  with  sodium  carbonate,  has  been  used  to 
liquefy  the  exudate  and  other  deposits  in  cystitis  and 
mammitis.  It  is  antiseptic.  For  contagious  mammitis,  an 
ounce  of  a  solution  of  one  part  sodium  fluoride  in  a  thousand 
parts  of  boiled  water,  is  injected,  three  or  four  times  daily, 
into  the  affected  quarter,  after  drawing  the  teat.  Later,  or 
in  a  week  from  the  first  injection,  a  solution  of  1  to  500 
may  be  used  until  recovery  is  well  established.  Injections  of 
sodium  fluoride  may  be  alternated  with  injections  of  solution 
of  sodium  iodate  (5  per  cent.),  or  boric  acid  (4  per  cent.). 

CALCIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 

Calcium  belongs  to  the  group  of  alkaline  earths,  which 
includes  also  barium  and  strontium.  Its  salts  resemble 


204  MEDICINAL   SALTS 

chemically  and  physiologically  those  of  magnesium.  Carbon- 
ate of  lime  is  the  great  source  of  the  calcium  salts.  They 
are  detectable  in  solution  by  their  yielding  no  precipitate 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  hydrogen  sulphide,  or  ammonium 
hydro-sulphide ;  a  white  precipitate  with  an  alkaline 
carbonate  ;  an  immediate  and  abundant  white  precipitate 
with  oxalic  acid,  insoluble  in  acetic  but  soluble  in  hydro- 
chloric and  nitric  acids  ;  but  no  precipitate  with  ammonia, 
which  precipitates  the  compounds  of  aluminium  and  mag- 
nesium. Calcium  salts  give  a  reddish-yellow  tinge  to  flame. 
Calcium  compounds  have  little  affinity  for  animal  textures, 
and  are  slowly  absorbed  and  diffused.  As  with  other  metals, 
the  oxide  and  carbonate  nearly  resemble  each  other,  and 
are  antacid  and  desiccant.  The  phosphate,  or  glyeero- 
phosphate  is  prescribed  as  a  restorative  and  tonic  in  many 
forms  of  malnutrition.  The  hypophosphite  is  recommended 
in  anaemia  and  debility.  The  chloride  has  been  given, 
though  seldom  with  success,  to  reduce  enlarged  lymphatic 
glands,  and  to  promote  the  healing  of  ulcers.  The  presence 
of  calcium  is  necessary  to  the  coagulation  of  milk  by  rennet, 
and  also  to  the  clotting  of  blood.  For  this  reason  the 
chloride  is  often  given  for  a  few  days  to  increase  the  plasticity 
of  the  blood  and  thus  lessen  risk  from  haemorrhage  in 
operations.  Calx  chlorinata  is  irritant,  disinfectant,  and 
deodorant,  owing  to  its  chlorine  content.  Calx  sulphurata, 
consisting  of  calcium  sulphide  with  calcium  sulphate  and 
carbon,  has  been  credited  with  the  power  of  checking  forma- 
tion of  carbuncles,  boils,  and  acne  pustules.  Calcium  sul- 
phate rendered  nearly  anhydrous  by  heat,  is  employed  in 
making  plaster  bandages  for  fractures. 

CALCIUM  OXIDE.     Lime.     Quick-lime.     Calx.     CaO. 

When  limestone,  chalk,  marble,  or  other  form  of  calcium 
carbonate  is  mixed  with  coal  and  thoroughly  burned,  its 
carbonic  acid  is  driven  off,  and  the  metallic  oxide  or  quick- 
lime is  left.  It  occurs  in  greyish- white  irregular  masses, 
has  an  alkaline,  caustic  taste,  and  great  affinity  for  water. 
It  combines  with  about  24  per  cent,  of  water,  giving  off 
much  heat,  and  forming  calcium  hydroxide,  or  slaked  lime, 


LIME    WATER  205 

Ca  (OH)2.  A  pint  of  water  at  32°  Fahr.  dissolves  13-25 
grains  of  lime  ;  a  pint  at  69°  Fahr.,  11-6  grains  ;  a  pint  at 
212°  Fahr.,  6s 7  grains.  The  presence  of  sugar  increases 
fully  twelve  times  the  solubility  of  lime  in  water.  Lime- 
water  (aqua  Calcis)  is  prepared  by  adding  two  ounces  of 
washed  Calcium  hydroxide  to  one  gallon  of  distilled  water, 
agitating  briskly,  allowing  undissolved  matters  to  subside, 
and,  after  a  few  hours,  syphoning  off  the  clear  solution. 
As  it  readily  absorbs  carbonic  acid,  it  should  be  kept  in 
closely-stoppered  bottles. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Lime  is  irritant,  astringent  by  contact, 
antacid,  and  sedative.  It  is  a  natural  constituent  of  the 
animal  textures,  in  which  it  occurs  mainly  in  combination 
with  phosphoric  and  carbonic  acids  ;  but,  being  present  in 
most  articles  of  food,  extra  supplies  are  seldom  required. 
When  swallowed,  there  is  probably  deposited  on  the  gastric 
mucous  membrane  a  film  of  carbonate,  which  is  dissolved  by 
hydrochloric  or  lactic  acid,  slowly  absorbed  as  chloride  or 
lactate,  reconverted  in  the  blood  into  carbonate,  held  in 
solution  by  the  free  carbonic  acid,  and  ultimately  excreted 
by  the  kidneys,  increasing  the  alkalinity  of  the  urine, 
diminishing  its  irritant  qualities,  and  perhaps  exerting 
astringent  effects  on  the  urinary  mucous  membrane.  Lime, 
especially  when  unslaked,  and  in  contact  with  mucous  and 
abraded  skin  surfaces,  attracts  water,  forms  a  coating  of 
carbonate,  and  possibly  combines  with  albumin,  and,  in 
considerable  amount,  it  irritates  and  superficially  corrodes. 
Orfila  mentions  that  1J  drachms  administered  to  a  small 
dog  caused  vomiting  and  considerable  irritation,  which 
lasted  for  about  a  day  ;  and  that  three  drachms  caused 
vomiting,  pain,  languor,  and  death  in  five  days. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Lime-water  is  used  as  an  antacid  and 
sedative  in  indigestion  and  diarrhrea  in  all  classes  of  patients. 
Young  animals,  with  which  undiluted  milk  happens  to  dis- 
agree, are  usually  benefited  by  mixing  the  milk  with  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  of  lime-water,  which  prevents  acidity  and 
coagulation  of  the  casein  in  large  tough  masses.  Lime- 
water  is  appropriate  for  gastric  derangement,  while  the  less 
soluble  chalk,  retaining  longer  its  antacid  and  desiccant 
properties,  is  better  adapted  for  intestinal  acidity.  When 


206  ANTACID    AND    SEDATIVE 

acidity  concurs  with  constipation,  sodium  bicarbonate  is 
preferable  in  the  proportion  of  a  drachm  to  the  pint  of 
milk.  Lime-water  is  occasionally  given  as  an  antidote  in 
poisoning  by  the  mineral  acids  and  by  carbolic  and  oxalic 
acids.  In  the  form  of  enema,  it  brings  away  ascarides 
lodged  in  the  lower  bowel.  Mixed  with  oil,  glycerin,  or 
vaseline,  with  a  little  boric  or  carbolic  acid,  it  is-  applied 
in  aphtha  and  is  occasionally  substituted  for  zinc  oxide  in 
cases  of  eczema.  Scalds  and  burns  are  often  treated  with 
Carron  oil  which  consists  of  lime-water  mixed  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  linseed  oil.  The  more  recent  treatment  consists 
in  the  immediate  application  of  layers  of  cotton  wadding 
with  gentle  and  equable  pressure.  Lime  in  solution  (lime- 
wash)  is  used  for  cleansing  and  deodorising  stables,  cow- 
houses, and  piggeries. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  quicklime,  horses  and  cattle  take  £1.  to 
3ij.  ;  sheep,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx. 
Of  lime-water  the  larger  patients  take  f  §iv.  to  f  §v.  ;  and 
the  smaller,  f3ij-  to  f§i.,  given  alone,  or  with  glycerin,  oil, 
or  milk.  Two  ounces  each  of  lime-water  and  gentian  in- 
fusion, repeated  twice  or  thrice  daily,  often  checks  diarrhoea 
in  feeble  calves  ;  half  the  dose  answers  for  sheep.  For 
calves  and  dogs,  saeeharated  lime-water  is  used  as  an  antacid 
and  stomachic.  It  is  made  by  rubbing  an  ounce  of  slaked 
lime  with  two  ounces  of  sugar,  transferring  the  mixture  to  a 
bottle  containing  a  pint  of  water,  shaking,  and  separating 
the  clear  solution  with  a  syphon.  It  conveniently  renders 
the  milk  alkaline,  without  diluting  it  as  does  lime-water. 

CALCIUM  CARBONATE  .    Calcii  Carbonas .    Carbonate  of  Lime . 
Chalk.     CaC03. 

Calcium  carbonate  occurs  in  the  several  forms  of  limestone, 
marble,  calcareous  spar,  and  chalk.  When  chalk  is  triturated 
with  a  little  water,  agitated  with  a  larger  quantity  of  water, 
and  the  mixture  allowed  to  stand,  the  coarser  fragments 
and  foreign  matters  subside.  The  clear  liquid  is  poured  or 
syphoned  off,  and  slowly  deposits  an  impalpable  powder, 
which,  when  dried  in  blocks,  constitutes  whiting,  and  when 
in  smaller  conical  rolls  is  ereta  praeparata.  Precipitated 


CALCIUM   CARBONATE  207 

chalk  is  obtained  by  the  interaction  of  calcium  chloride 
and  sodium  carbonate.  It  is  a  dull-white,  micro-crystalline, 
tasteless  powder,  adheres  to  the  tongue,  owing  to  its  porosity 
and  its  affinity  for  water,  and  effervesces  with  acids.  Calcium 
carbonate  is  a  constituent  of  the  bones  of  animals,  of  shells, 
and  of  corals.  It  is  the  common  source  of  hardness  in  drink- 
ing water,  which,  when  pure,  holds  about  two  grains  dissolved 
in  the  gallon  ;  but  carbonic  acid  increases  the  solvent  power 
of  the  water.  Sixteen  grains  are  sometimes  taken  up,  and 
in  chalk  districts  much  more  ;  but  when  such  hard  waters 
are  boiled,  the  carbonic  anhydride  is  driven  off,  and  calcium 
carbonate  is  deposited  in  the  kettles  and  boilers. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Chalk  is  a  cheap  and  convenient 
antacid,  much  used  for  the  domesticated  animals  in  the 
treatment  of  indigestion  and  chronic  diarrhoea.  It  resembles 
lime,  but  is  less  irritant,  and  its  effects  extend  beyond  the 
stomach,  throughout  the  intestines,  neutralising  acidity,  and 
leaving  a  protecting  film  of  carbonate,  thus  acting  much  in 
the  same  way  as  the  bismuth  salts.  It  is  an  antidote  for 
oxalic,  carbolic,  and  the  mineral  acids.  In  a  dry  and  finely- 
divided  state  it  is  used  as  a  desiccant  and  astringent  for 
abraded  skin  surfaces,  burns  and  ulcers. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses,  §i.  to  §ij.  ;  for  cattle,  §ij.  to 
§iv.  ;  for  sheep,  3ij.  to  3iv.  ;  for  pigs,  3i.  to  3ij.  ;  for  dogs, 
grs.  viij.  to  grs.  xxx.  It  is  conveniently  given  in  bolus,  or 
suspended  in  milk,  gruel,  or  mucilage.  When  administered 
in  large  or  frequently-repeated  doses  the  bowels  should  be 
kept  open,  in  order  to  prevent  its  accumulation  in  the  in- 
testines. It  is  frequently  conjoined  with  catechu,  kino,  and 
other  vegetable  astringents  to  arrest  excessive  discharges  ; 
with  ginger  and  other  carminatives,  to  control  indigestion 
and  diarrhoea  ;  with  opium  or  belladonna,  to  diminish 
irritability  or  pain  ;  and  with  salicylic  acid,  or  bismuth,  in 
diarrhoea  and  hsemorrhagic  gastritis  in  dogs.  The  following 
formulae  prove  serviceable  as  antacids,  carminatives,  and  mild 
astringents: — For  horses,  half  an  ounce  each  of  chalk, 
gentian,  and  ginger  is  made  up  in  the  usual  way  with  linseed 
meal  and  treacle,  or  with  glycerin  ;  or  chalk  §i.,  opium  3i«, 
and  creosote  TT\x.,  are  made  into  bolus  ;  or  again,  half  an 
ounce  each  of  chalk,  catechu,  and  ginger  are  conjoined  with 


208  CALCIUM   PHOSPHATE 

one  drachm  of  opium.  For  cattle,  similar  prescriptions  are 
given,  frequently  in  draught.  For  sheep,  the  like  combina- 
tions are  used,  in  about  one-fourth  the  dose.  For  dogs,  a 
convenient  pill  is  made  with  chalk  and  ginger,  of  each  grs.  x. 
with  opium,  grs.  ij.  ;  and  aromatic  confection,  q.s.  A 
draught  of  similar  action  is  made  with  chalk,  grs.  x.,  lauda- 
num and  ether,  of  each  TT[xv.,  given  in  a  little  milk  or  soup. 
Any  of  these  prescriptions  may  be  repeated  several  times 
daily.  Where  it  is  sought  to  act  chiefly  upon  the  stomach, 
such  medicines  are  fittingly  given  dissolved  in  starch  solu- 
tion as  prepared  by  the  laundress,  or  in  spirits  and  water, 
administered,  according  to  circumstances,  either  hot  or  cold. 
Where  the  effects  are  to  be  extended  throughout  the  intes- 
tines, the  drugs  are  generally  given  in  the  solid  form.  For 
dyspeptic  and  diabetic  horses  suffering  from  acidity,  a  piece 
of  chalk  should  be  placed  in  the  rack  or  manger,  or  in  the 
drinking  water. 

CALCIUM  PHOSPHATE.      Calcii  Phosphas.      Phosphate    of 
Lime.     Ca3(P04)2. 

Calcium  phosphate  is  prepared  by  roasting  bone  ash  until 
animal  and  carbonaceous  matters  are  removed,  dissolving 
the  residue  in  diluted  hydrochloric  acid,  precipitating  the 
phosphates  by  ammonia  solution,  and  washing.  Thus  puri- 
fied, it  is  a  light,  tasteless,  white,  amorphous  powder,  in- 
soluble in  water,  but  soluble  without  effervescence  in  hydro- 
chloric and  nitric  acids. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Calcium  phosphate  is  present  in  bones, 
nerves,  and  other  animal  textures  ;  occurs  abundantly  in  the 
intercellular  fluid,  and  wherever  cell-growth  is  most  active  ; 
and  is  hence  an  essential  constituent  of  food.  Its  absence 
in  the  dietary  is  shown  by  Chossat  to  induce  softening  of  the 
bones  and  general  wasting  ;  it  is  deficient  in  the  bones  of 
pregnant  animals.  Milne-Edwards  found  that,  when  sup- 
plied to  dogs  whose  bones  had  been  intentionally  fractured, 
more  rapid  union  occurred. 

From  its  local  salt-action,  and  the  soothing  effect  of  the 
deposition  of  an  insoluble  calcium  salt,  it  is  specially  useful 
in  chronic  diarrhoea,  anaemia,  and  other  forms  of  mal- 


CHLORINATED    LIME  209 

nutrition,  especially  in  young  animals.  It  is  frequently 
given  to  rapidly-growing,  rickety  subjects,  and  conjoined 
with  iron,  for  anaemic,  badly-nourished,  scouring  animals, 
beneficially  restoring  the  phosphates,  which  in  such  cases 
are  sometimes  too  freely  removed.  For  pregnant  animals 
in  a  weakly  state  it  is  also  prescribed.  This  treatment  is 
suggested  by  the  known  effects  of  phosphorus  on  metabolism 
and  nutrition,  but  for  this  purpose  the  hypophosphites,  or 
glycerophosphates,  which  are  easily  absorbed  are  better 
than  the  phosphates,  whilst  preparations  of  free  phosphorus 
are  the  most  reliable.  Bran  and  bruised  oats  owe  in  part 
their  notable  dietetic  value  for  young  stock  to  the  large 
amount  of  calcium  phosphate  which  they  contain. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  39-  to  3iy-  5  cattle,  ^iv.  to 
gij.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  3j.  to  3ij.  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x. 
Small  doses  are  preferable  to  large,  which  sometimes  derange 
the  bowels.  They  are  conveniently  given  mixed  with  food, 
and  in  combination  with  an  iron  salt. 


CALX    CHLORINATA.     Chlorinated    Lime.     Calcium    Hypo- 
chlorite.     Bleaching  Powder.     CaCl202,  CaCl2. 

It  is  obtained  by  exposing  slaked  lime  to  the  action  of 
chlorine  gas  until  absorption  ceases. 

PROPERTIES. — It  is  a  dull- white  powder,  with  a  charac- 
teristic smell,  and  an  acrid  taste.  When  exposed  to  the  air 
it  becomes  moist  and  gradually  decomposes.  When  heated 
or  mixed  with  an  acid,  chlorine  is  rapidly  given  off.  It  is 
partially  soluble  in  water,  a  portion  of  the  lime  remaining 
undissolved.  The  solution  evolves  chlorine  copiously  upon 
the  addition  of  an  acid.  The  intensity  of  its  odour  and  the 
degree  of  its  solubility  are  simple  approximative  tests  of  its 
strength  and  purity,  and  a  good  specimen  yields  at  least 
33  per  cent,  of  chlorine. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Bleaching  powder  is  irritant,  stimu- 
lant, astringent,  antiseptic,  and  alterative  ;  it  is  seldom 
given  internally,  but  externally  it  is  stimulant,  antiseptic, 
deodorant,  disinfectant,  and  parasiticide,  and  owes  its 
several  actions  mainly  to  the  hypochlorous  acid  and  chlorine 
it  so  readily  evolves. 

o 


210      STIMULANT,    ANTISEPTIC,    AND    DISINFECTANT 

TOXIC  EFFECTS. — Hertwig  gave  horses  and  cattle  one  ounce 
to  two  pounds  ;  sheep  and  goats  one  to  eight  drachms  ;  and 
dogs  half  a  drachm  to  four  drachms.  The  smaller  quantities 
produced  scarcely  any  effect ;  the  larger,  besides  local 
irritation,  caused  acceleration  of  the  pulse,  difficult  breath- 
ing, increased  warmth  in  the  mouth,  weeping  eyes,  abundant 
secretion  of  urine,  having  a  curious  odour  of  chlorine  or 
prussic  acid,  and  a  white  sediment,  frequent  copious  alvine 
discharges,  and  in  dogs,  vomiting.  In  horses  the  effects 
usually  began  in  twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  and  lasted  two 
to  five  hours.  Considerable  doses,  given  repeatedly,  did  not 
impair  appetite,  but  caused  thirst  and  gradual  emaciation. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Youatt  recommended  bleaching  powder 
for  hoven  in  cattle,  and  tympanites  in  horses,  in  doses  vary- 
ing from  two  to  four  drachms,  and  ascribed  its  supposed 
good  effects  to  its  decomposing  the  gases  evolved  in  the 
alimentary  canal.  But  repeated  careful  trials  made  at  the 
Edinburgh  Veterinary  College  indicate  that  it  is  of  little,  if 
any,  service  in  the  majority  of  cases  of  hoven  or  tympanites, 
whether  in  cattle  or  horses.  It  is  an  antidote  in  poisoning 
by  hydrogen  sulphide  and  ammonium  hydrosulphide  ;  and, 
with  a  respirator  filled  with  bleaching  powder,  Roberts 
explored  in  safety  the  sewers  of  the  Bastille,  which  had  not 
been  opened  for  thirty-seven  years,  and  were  full  of  hydrogen 
sulphide  and  other  noxious  gases. 

Externally,  it  is  irritant  and  antiseptic,  and  is  used  as  a 
stimulant  and  deodorant  for  unhealthy  wounds,  for  removing 
the  f oetor  of  foul  discharges,  and  for  destroying  the  fungus  of 
ringworm,  the  parasites  of  mange,  and  for  grease.  Diluted 
solutions  have  been  recommended  for  checking  conjunctival 
ophthalmia,  and  other  circumscribed  and  superficial  in- 
flammations ;  but  are  not  so  effectual  as  lead  or  zinc  lotion. 
Although  it  does  not  arrest  the  action  of  enzymes,  or  prevent 
the  reproduction  of  developed  bacteria  or  their  spores  as 
promptly  and  effectually  as  corrosive  sublimate,  it  is  superior 
as  an  antiseptic  to  sulphurous  acid,  bromine,  iodine,  salicylic 
acid,  and  the  permanganates  (Wernitz  and  Koch).  Its 
active  gaseous  products,  moreover,  readily  attack  and  break 
up  the  products  of  putrefaction,  and  it  hence  proves  an 
effectual  deodoriser. 


CALCIUM   CHLORIDE  211 

Chlorinated  lime,  in  powder  or  in  10  per  cent,  solution,  is 
spread  about  cow-houses  and  premises  where  contagious  or 
epizootic  diseases  prevail.  When  free  and  rapid  evolution  of 
the  hypochlorous  and  chlorine  gases  is  desired,  vessels  con- 
taining the  powder  are  set  about,  and  sulphuric  acid  poured 
over  them  ;  a  more  gradual  evolution  is  effected  when  cloths 
saturated  with  a  strong  solution  are  suspended  inside  the 
infected  dwellings.  Solutions  varying  from  one  to  ten  per 
cent,  are  employed  for  disinfecting  hides,  flesh,  or  excreta  of 
diseased  animals.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  a  sickly  smell, 
which  is  disliked  both  by  horses  and  cattle  ;  it  is  gradually 
converted  into  calcium  chloride,  which,  having  great  affinity 
for  water,  leaves  the  floors,  walls,  and  other  surfaces  to  which 
the  deodoriser  has  been  applied  in  a  very  moist  state  ;  while 
its  property  of  decomposing  ammonia,  urea,  and  such  other 
unstable  nitrogen  compounds,  greatly  diminishes  the  agricul- 
tural value  of  any  manure  to  which  it  is  added.  Scattered 
about  stables  or  cow-houses,  it  drives  away  flies  ;  while 
neither  rats  nor  mice  frequent  places  where  it  is  sprinkled, 
especially  when  mixed  with  sulphur. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  £iv.  to  §j.  ;  cattle,  3VJ-  to 
§ij.  ;  sheep,  3SS-  to  3*-  5  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  xv.,  given 
either  in  bolus,  or  with  cold  gruel,  mucilage,  or  milk. 

CALCIUM  CHLOEIDE.     CALCII  CHLORIDUM.     CaCl2  2H2O. 

Chloride  of  calcium,  the  salt  formed  by  neutralising 
hydrochloric  acid  with  calcium  carbonate,  carefully  desic- 
cated at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  392°  Fahr.  (B.P.). 
It  occurs  in  white  odourless  scales  or  masses,  with  a  saline 
taste  ;  deliquescent ;  soluble  in  an  equal  weight  of  water, 
and  in  three  parts  alcohol.  Calcium  chloride  is  believed  to 
increase  the  coagulability  of  the  blood  and  is  sometimes 
administered  as  a  haemostatic  in  haemorrhage  from  the  lungs, 
or  stomach,  and,  with  or  without  addition  of  sterilised 
solution  .of  gelatin,  a  few  days  before  operations  in  which 
bleeding  may  be  profuse.  It  is  also  employed  externally  as  a 
styptic. 

DOSES. — Horses  and  cattle,  3JV-  to  §j.  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  xxx. 


212  MAGNESIUM   CARBONATES 

MAGNESIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 

Magnesium  salts  are  obtained  from  dolomite  or  magnesian 
limestone  ;  magnesite,  a  native  carbonate  ;  talc,  meerschaum 
and  other  silicates,  and  from  sea-water. 

Magnesium  salts  when  swallowed  are  not  rapidly  absorbed, 
and  do  not  cause  any  toxic  effects.  The  oxides  and  carbon- 
ates are  antacid  and  laxative  ;  the  sulphate  is  purgative  and 
febrifuge. 

MAGNESIUM  OXIDES.  Magnesia.     Calcined  Magnesia.  MgO. 

LIGHT  CALCINED  MAGNESIA.     Magnesia  levis. 

HEAVY  CALCINED  MAGNESIA.     Magnesia  ponderosa.     (B.P.) 

Light  Magnesium  Oxide,  MgO,  is  prepared  by  exposing 
light  magnesium  carbonate  to  a  dull-red  heat.  Heavy 
magnesium  oxide,  MgO,  is  prepared  by  exposing  heavy 
magnesium  carbonate  to  a  dull-red  heat.  Magnesium  oxide 
is  a  bulky  white  powder  differing  from  heavy  magnesia  only 
in  its  greater  lightness,  the  volumes  corresponding  to  the 
same  weight  being  to  each  other  in  the  ratio  of  three  and  a 
half  to  one  (B.P.).  Magnesia  is  odourless,  with  a  slightly 
earthy  taste  ;  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  dissolved  by 
acids. 

MAGNESIUM  CARBONATES.     3(MgC03),  Mg(HO)2,  4H20. 
LIGHT  MAGNESIUM  CARBONATE.     Magnesii  Carbonas  levis. 
HEAVY  MAGNESIUM  CARBONATE.     Magnesii  Carbonas  pon- 
derosus. 

When  sodium  carbonate  is  mixed  with-  a  solution  of  mag- 
nesium sulphate,  magnesium  carbonate  and  magnesium 
hydrate  are  precipitated.  The  manner  of  preparation  affects 
the  weight,  but  not  the  other  properties.  Diluted  solutions, 
boiled,  yield  the  light  carbonate.  Tolerably  concentrated 
solutions,  mixed  without  heat,  yield  the  heavy  carbonate, 
which  is  three  and  a  half  times  heavier  than  the  other,  more 
dense,  loose,  and  granular ;  and,  under  the  microscope,  is 
found  to  be  partly  amorphous,  with  intermixture  of  numer- 
ous slender  prisms.  Both  varieties  are  white,  odourless,  and 
tasteless,  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  readily  dissolve  in 


MAGNESIUM   SULPHATE  213 

dilute  mineral  acids.  Fluid  magnesia  usually  contains  in 
every  ounce  ten  grains  of  carbonate,  dissolved  in  water 
charged  with  carbonic  acid  gas. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Magnesia  is  antacid  and  laxative.  The 
oxide  and  carbonate  are  sparingly  absorbed,  chiefly  as 
chlorides.  Thus  they  combine  the  action  of  the  saline 
laxatives  with  that  of  the  very  mild  alkalies.  Their  laxative 
effect  and  absence  of  causticity  distinguish  them  from 
corresponding  lime  salts. 

Magnesia  does  not  purge  either  horses  or  cattle,  but  is  a 
gentle  laxative  for  dogs  and  cats,  to  which  it  is  occasionally 
prescribed  with  calomel,  jalap,  or  buckthorn.  Its  laxative 
effects  are  increased  when  the  bowels  contain  acid  secretions. 
For  foals  and  calves  suffering  from  acidity  and  flatulence, 
acids  and  bitters  are  usually  the  appropriate  treatment ; 
magnesia,  however,  is  sometimes  prescribed,  but  must  not  be 
too  freely  or  continuously  used,  as  it  is  apt  to  concrete  and 
accumulate  in  the  bowels.  It  is  an  antidote  in  poisoning  by 
oxalic  and  the  mineral  acids.  It  removes  arsenic  from 
solution,  and  for  this  purpose  is  most  effective  in  the  form  of 
the  gelatinous  hydrate  made  by  adding  caustic  potash  to  a 
solution  of  the  sulphate.  It  is  occasionally  applied  as  a 
desiccant. 

DOSES,  etc. — Foals  and  calves  three  or  four  months  old 
take,  as  an  antacid,  3SS-  to  3i-  5  dogs  and  cats,  grs.  v.  to  3J- 
It  is  given  suspended  in  milk  or  gruel,  and  conjoined  with 
carminatives. 

Magnesium  peroxide,  a  white  powder,  insoluble  in  water, 
alcohol  and  ether,  and  containing  about  thirty  per  cent,  of 
magnesium  peroxide  (Mg  02),  or  about  ten  per  cent,  of 
active  oxygen,  has  been  found  serviceable  in  affections  of  the 
stomach  and  intestine  associated  with  much  fermentation. 

DOSES. — Small  dogs,  grs.  jss.  to  grs.  v. ;  large  dogs,  grs.  vj. 
to  grs.  xv.,  in  milk. 

MAGNESIUM  SULPHATE.     Magnesii  Sulphas.     Epsom  Salt. 
MgS04.7H20. 

Magnesium  sulphate  is  present  in  various  rocks  and  soils, 
in  the  proportion  of  fifteen  to  twenty  grains  in  the  pint  of 


214      PURGATIVE,   ALTERATIVE,   AND    FEBRIFUGE 

sea-water,  and  in  some  mineral  springs.  It  derives  its  ver- 
nacular name  from  the  mineral  springs  of  Epsom.  It  may 
be  prepared  by  the  interaction  of  the  native  magnesium 
carbonate  and  diluted  sulphuric  acid  ;  or  by  purifying  the 
native  sulphate  (B.P.). 

PROPERTIES. — Epsom  salt  occurs  in  transparent,  colour- 
less, minute,  rhombic  prisms.  It  has  a  cooling,  saline, 
nauseous,  bitter  taste  ;  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  but  soluble  in 
its  own  weight  of  water.  It  resembles  zinc  sulphate,  from 
which,  however,  it  is  distinguished  by  its  saline,  bitter  taste, 
by  absence  of  metallic  astringency,  and  by  its  neutral  solu- 
tion giving  no  precipitate  with  hydrogen  sulphide.  Epsom 
salt  is  distinguished  from  Glauber  salt  by  its  neither  effloresc- 
ing when  exposed  to  air,  nor  communicating  any  yellow 
colour  to  the  flame  of  alcohol.  From  oxalic  acid  (for  which 
it  has  been  sometimes  mistaken)  it  is  distinguished  by  its 
finer  and  more  needle-like  crystals,  its  bitter  taste,  devoid  of 
acidity,  and  its  precipitating  alkaline  carbonates  without 
effervescence. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Epsom  salt  is  purgative,  alterative, 
and  febrifuge,  and  is  also  feebly  diuretic  and  diaphoretic. 
As  a  purgative  it  resembles  common  and  Glauber  salts,  and 
is  more  active  than  potassium  bitartrate  or  sodium  phos- 
phate. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — When  swallowed,  it  causes  outpour- 
ing of  fluid  from  the  walls  of  the  small  intestines,  most 
quickly  produced,  and  abundant  when  the  bowels  have  been 
partially  emptied  by  several  hours'  fasting.  Neither  pan- 
creatic fluid  nor  bile  is  materially  increased.  But  Epsom 
salt,  like  other  salts  in  solution,  becomes  dissociated  into  its 
basic  and  acid  ions,  namely  Mg  and  S04,  and  experiment 
shows  that  both  these  penetrate  the  intestinal  mucous 
membrane  very  slowly  and  with  difficulty.  As  a  conse- 
quence, when  a  strong  solution  (hypertonic)  of  magnesium 
sulphate  is  introduced  into  the  intestine  the  salt  remains 
there,  both  ions  exerting  their  osmotic  pressure  and  drawing 
fluid  from  the  blood  to  dilute  the  solution  in  the  bowel. 
Thus  by  the  osmotic  action  of  magnesium  sulphate  the 
fluid  contents  of  the  bowels  are  increased,  producing  more  or 
less  mechanical  distension,  and  provoking,  like  other  salines, 


EPSOM   SALT  215 

.< 

slight  peristalsis.  There  is  a  tendency  to  cause  griping, 
which  is  relieved  by  conjoining  carminatives  ;  while  effectual 
removal  of  the  intestinal  fluids  is  attained  by  using  with  the 
saline  some  aloes,  oil,  or  calomel.  Meanwhile,  a  certain 
amount  of  the  salt  undergoes  slow  and  gradual  absorption  ; 
but  this  is  checked  when  purgation  occurs.  After  several 
hours  the  absorbed  salt  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys,  but  not 
before  it  has  produced  some  amount  of  hydraemia  by  draining 
water  from  the  tissues  ;  thus  more  or  less  diuresis  ensues. 

Free  outpouring  of  fluid  from  the  intestinal  walls,  and  the 
subsequent  more  limited  excretion  from  the  kidneys,  neces- 
sarily remove  both  fluid  and  saline  matters  from  the  blood, 
and  within  a  few  hours  this  loss  is  in  great  part  made  good  by 
absorption  of  fluid  from  the  tissues.  Mainly  in  this  manner 
result  the  febrifuge  and  alterative  effects  of  salines,  in  reduc- 
ing abnormal  temperature,  and  removing  dropsical  effusions. 

Sir  Lauder  Brunton  demonstrated,  experimentally,  the 
effect  of  Epsom  salt  in  causing  outpouring  of  mucous  fluid 
from  the  intestinal  walls.  He  placed  four  ligatures  round 
the  intestines  of  a  cat,  so  as  to  make  three  separate  closed 
sacs  from  five  to  seven  inches  long.  Into  the  two  outside 
sacs  water  alone  was  introduced  ;  into  the  central  one  were 
injected  seven  grains  Epsom  salt,  dissolved  in  105  minims 
of  water.  The  cat  was  killed  four  hours  later,  and  although 
the  two  outside  sacs  were  quite  empty,  the  middle  one,  into 
which  the  purgative  had  been  injected,  contained  320  minims 
of  pale  amber  fluid,  of  the  nature  of  a  secretion  rather  than 
an  albuminous  exudation.  In  two  similar  experiments,  425 
and  250  minims  of  fluid  were  found,  four  and  five  hours  after 
injection  of  85  and  90  minims  of  saturated  solution  of  Epsom 
salt.  No  congestion  or  inflammation  was  noticed.  The  loops 
on  either  side,  which  had  been  filled  with  the  same  quantity 
of  water,  were  empty.  Croton  oil,  elaterium,  and  gamboge, 
tested  by  like  experiment,  all  caused  an  effusion  of  liquid, 
but  none  so  abundant  as  Epsom  salt,  which  yielded  42  to  56 
minims  per  square  inch  of  intestine  acted  on  by  the  purgative. 
Again,  in  the  case  of  the  vegetable  purgatives  the  fluid  was 
more  of  an  inflammatory  nature,  and  the  mucous  membrane 
was  congested  and  inflamed. 

W.  Rutherford's  experiments  on  dogs  demonstrate  that 


216  MAGNESIUM   SULPHATE 

magnesium  sulphate  has  no  stimulant  action  on  the  liver. 
It  nevertheless  notably  counteracts  '  biliousness,'  alike  in 
men  and  animals,  by  sweeping  away  bile,  which  is  generally 
present  in  the  duodenum,  and  which,  unless  removed,  be- 
comes re-absorbed. 

Epsom  salt  injected  into  the  circulation  does  not  produce 
intestinal  secretion,  rather  it  drains  fluid  from  the  intestine 
into  the  blood,  to  be  excreted  later  by  the  kidneys.  Five 
grains  to  the  pound  of  body- weight  were  proved  by  Matthew 
Hay  to  produce  powerful  toxic  effects  in  cats  and  other 
animals,  paralysing  first  the  respiration  and  afterwards  the 
heart,  abolishing  sensation,  or  paralysing  the  sensori-motor 
reflex  centres.  This  effect  is  a  specific  action  of  magnesium 
and  is  not  produced  by  other  salines. 

The  several  domesticated  animals  are  differently  affected 
by  Epsom  salt.  On  horses,  unless  given  in  combination,  it 
acts  uncertainly.  Full  doses  sometimes  cause  violent 
catharsis,  and  occasionally  produce  considerable  diuresis  ; 
but  two  to  three  ounces,  repeated  daily,  are  laxative  and 
febrifuge.  On  dogs  the  purgative  effect  is  irregular,  and 
often  accompanied  by  vomiting.  For  cattle  and  sheep  it  is 
a  convenient  and  effectual  cathartic,  inducing  copious  fluid 
evacuations,  usually  in  twelve  or  fifteen  hours. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — For  ruminants  Epsom  salt  is  the  purga- 
tive in  general  use.  In  indigestion,  constipation,  and  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  many  cases  of  diarrhoea,  it  clears  the  bowels 
of  undigested,  fermenting  food,  of  irritant  matters,  and 
occasionally  of  worms.  Horses  liberally  fed  on  cut,  dry  food, 
or  tough,  over-ripened  green  fodder,  are  subject  to  overloaded 
bowels,  and  in  such  cases,  with  restriction  to  fluid  food,  and 
in  conjunction  with  one  or  two  doses  of  linseed  oil  and 
copious  clysters,  two  ounces  Epsom  salt,  repeated  twice 
daily,  help  to  moisten,  soften,  and  expel  the  dry,  impacted 
ingesta.  Emptying  the  bowels,  and  removing  waste  pro- 
ducts from  the  blood,  it  lowers  abnormal  temperature  and 
blood-pressure,  and  relieves  febrile  and  inflammatory 
conditions. 

Although  not  a  desirable  purgative  for  horses,  it  is  a  useful 
febrifuge.  One  to  three  ounces  given  in  influenza,  pneu- 
monia, and  indeed  in  most  febrile  and  inflammatory  dis- 


A   USEFUL   PURGATIVE   FOR   RUMINANTS         217 

orders,  improve  the  appetite,  clean  the  buccal  membrane, 
lessen  fever,  and  help  to  establish  and  maintain  a  healthy 
and  regular  action  of  the  bowels.  For  such  febrifuge 
purposes,  whether  in  horses  or  cattle,  it  is  given  once  or  twice 
daily,  but  should  be  withheld  or  diminished  in  amount, 
whenever  the  bowels  become  unduly  relaxed,  or  where 
flatulence  or  spasm  follows  its  use.  It  acts  more  certainly 
and  regularly  when  given  in  solution  than  in  bolus.  It  is 
often  conjoined  with  nitre  and  other  salines,  and  during 
convalescence  from  acute  disorders  with  powdered  gentian 
and  other  carminatives.  Epsom  salt  is  one  of  the  best 
antidotes  in  poisoning  by  barium  chloride,  and  salts  of  lead  ; 
it  converts  them  into  insoluble  sulphates,  and  further  evokes 
action  of  the  bowels,  which  in  lead-poisoning  is  apt  to  be 
impaired  and  tardy.  In  smaller  and  repeated  doses  it  acts 
as  a  diuretic,  but  is  seldom  specially  used  for  that  purpose. 
It  is  frequently  added  to  laxative  clysters.  A  saturated 
solution  is  a  valuable  application  for  recent  strains,  wrenched 
joints,  articular  rheumatism,  and  orchitis. 

DOSES. — As  a  cathartic,  cattle  take  Ib.  j.  to  Ib.  jss. ;  calves 
of  two  or  three  months,  §iij.  to  §iv.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  §iv.  to 
5vi.  ;  dogs,  3ii-  to  3iy-  One-fifth  to  one-eighth  of  these 
doses  is  often  effectual  in  removing  indigestion,  keeping  up 
the  action  of  other  cathartics,  and  as  a  febrifuge  or  alterative. 
Epsom  salt  is  given  dissolved  in  ten  or  fifteen  parts  of  water. 
To  conceal  its  nauseous,  bitter  taste  it  is  administered  with 
treacle,  or  with  sulphuric  acid,  in  the  proportion  of  about 
five  drops  to  every  ounce  of  salt.  To  expedite  its  purgative 
action  and  prevent  nausea  and  griping,  there  is  usually  added 
some  carminative,  such  as  a  drachm  of  ginger  to  the  ounce 
of  salt.  To  ensure  prompt  and  full  purgation  in  cattle  or 
sheep,  equal  weights  of  Epsom  and  common  salt  are  prefer- 
able to  either  given  alone  ;  treacle  and  a  full  dose  of  ginger 
are  added,  and  solution  is  effected  in  a  liberal  amount  of 
tepid  water.  In  impaction  of  the  third  stomach,  and 
obstinate  constipation  of  cattle,  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to 
add  to  the  saline  mixture  twelve  or  fifteen  croton  beans,  a 
drachm  of  calomel,  or  half  an  ounce  of  gamboge,  and  to  follow 
this  with  repeated  doses  of  treacle  and  ginger.  In  torpidity 
of  the  bowels  it  is  conjoined  with  half  a  dose  of  aloes  and 


218  BARIUM   CHLORIDE 

thirty  grains  of  nux  vomica.  For  febrifuge  and  alterative 
purposes,  Epsom  salt  is  conjoined  with  nitre,  mineral  acids, 
gentian  and  other  bitters. 

BARIUM  CHLORIDB-BARII   CHLORIDUM 

Barium  occurs  in  nature  in  combinations  analagous  to 
those  of  strontium  ;  as  carbonate  in  the  mineral  witherite 
and  as  sulphate  in  barite  or  heavy  spar. 

Barium  Chloride. — BaCl22H20,  Terra  ponderosa  salita, 
discovered  by  Scheele,  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  the 
native  carbonate  in  hydrochloric  acid.  It  occurs  in  flat  or 
tabular  crystals,  colourless  and  transparent,  with  bevelled 
edges.  Taste,  acrid  and  bitter  ;  reaction,  neutral.  Soluble 
in  two  and  a  half  parts  of  cold  water,  in  400  parts  absolute 
alcohol,  and  slightly  soluble  in  rectified  spirit.  The  salt 
keeps  well  either  solid  or  in  aqueous  solution. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Barium  chloride  has  a  specific  action 
on  muscle,  whether  striped  or  unstriped,  causing  strong 
contraction.  Given  by  the  mouth  it  causes  vomiting  in 
small  animals,  colicky  pains,  contraction  of  the  muscle  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  so  purgation.  Small  doses, 
whether  given  intravenously  or  by  the  mouth,  stimulate  the 
muscles  of  the  intestine,  uterus,  and  bladder,  causing  tonic 
contraction.  Excessive  doses  induce  general  muscular 
spasms,  dyspnoea,  sweating,  incoordination,  and  paralysis. 
Death  may  occur  suddenly  from  spasm  of  the  heart.  Barium 
quickens  the  heart,  steadies  its  rhythm,  and  increases  the 
volume  of  blood  forced  from  the  ventricle.  Blood  pressure 
is  enormously  raised,  an  effect  which  is  due  to  the  action  of 
the  drug  on  the  muscular  coat  of  the  vessels.  In  animals, 
large  doses  over-stimulate  and  arrest  the  heart  in  systole. 
It  thus  resembles  digitalis  in  its  local  action,  but  having  no 
effect  on  the  vagus,  does  not  slow  the  heart.  Barium 
chloride  has  little  therapeutic  effect  on  sheep,  but  on  horses 
it  increases  the  power  and  causes  strong  contraction  of  the 
muscular  coat  of  the  bowels.  It  causes  no  irritation  of  the 
gastric  mucous  membrane,  exerts  its  action  on  the  whole 
length  of  the  gut,  and  acts  very  quickly,  especially  when 
injected  intravenously.  As  soon  as  the  bowels  have  been 


REMEDY   FOR   COLIC  219 

evacuated,  the  effects  of  the  drug  cease,  and  even  during  its 
operation  there  is  little  or  no  constitutional  disturbance. 
Large  doses  may  cause  pain  by  exciting  intestinal  spasm. 
An  underdose  has  no  apparent  effect ;  but  an  overdose  may 
be  followed  by  fatal  spinal  paralysis.  The  activity  of  the 
chloride  depends  on  its  mode  of  administration.  Given  intra- 
venously in  suitable  dose,  the  bowels  respond  in  a  minute  or 
two,  and  faeces  may  continue  to  be  passed  at  intervals  of 
fifteen  minutes  for  five  or  six  hours.  Administered  in  drench 
or  in  bolus  it  is  less  active.  In  some  horses  it  has  a  powerful 
action  on  the  heart.  It  paralyses  the  central  nervous  system, 
and  a  second  dose  administered  within  twelve  hours  of  the 
first  is  not  without  danger  (Veterinarian,  1895). 

Zschokke  experimented  with  the  drug  on  apparently 
healthy  horses.  He  gave  three  horses,  11^150  ;  two,  Tl\105  ; 
one  horse,  TT[75  ;  and  another,  IT\225,  of  a  ten  per  cent, 
aqueous  solution  injected  into  the  jugular  vein.  Within 
thirty  seconds  all  the  subjects  exhibited  masticatory  move- 
ments of  the  jaws,  and  in  less  than  three  minutes  and  a  half 
there  was  expulsion  of  gas  followed  by  faeces.  The  horse 
that  received  the  largest  dose  groaned  and  strained. 

Roder  injected  into  the  jugular  of  a  horse  three  grammes 
of  the  chloride  dissolved  in  thirty  grammes  of  water.  In  a 
minute  loud  borborygmus  was  heard,  and  in  two  minutes 
profuse  sweating  occurred,  followed  by  defaecation,  with 
violent  straining.  In  half  an  hour  the  horse  was  all  right. 

Barium  chloride,  as  a  remedy  for  colic  in  horses,  was  intro- 
duced in  1895  by  Dieckerhoff.  In  seven  months  he  treated 
400  cases,  with  only  one  death.  Cadiot  recommends  the 
drug  after  an  experience  of  its  effects  in  32  cases,  with  three 
deaths,  two  from  gastric  rupture,  and  one  from  volvulus. 
Mollereau  used  it  successfully  in  38  consecutive  cases,  and 
then  lost  three  suddenly. 

In  cattle  practice,  and  particularly  in  the  treatment  of 
tympanites,  Kreutzer  obtained  excellent  results  from  the 
administration  of  barium  chloride  in  doses  of  grains  Ixxv. 
for  calves  ;  3JV-  f°r  cows  ;  and  3v.  for  bulls,  in  drench. 

The  toxic  effects  are  salivation,  champing  of  the  jaws, 
dyspnoea,  loss  of  pulse,  distension  of  the  superficial  veins, 
sweating,  tremors,  muscular  cramps,  incoordination,  con- 


220  ALUM 

vulsions,  and  paralysis  of  the  central  nervous  system.  In 
poisoning,  the  best  antidote  is  magnesium  sulphate,  or 
sodium  sulphate,  which  is  given  with  the  object  of  convert- 
ing the  poison  into  the  insoluble  and  harmless  barium 
sulphate. 

Although  not  often  followed  by  a  fatal  result,  it  should  be 
noted  that  intravenous  injection  of  barium  chloride  some- 
times produces  symptoms  of  poisoning,  and  occasionally 
sudden  death.  Dieckerhoff  attributed  the  single  mishap  in 
his  400  cases  to  barium  poisoning.  Koder  mentions  the 
death  of  a  horse  in  two  minutes  after  an  intravenous  injec- 
tion of  twelve  grains  ;  and  Mollereau  has  no  doubt  that  the 
drug  caused  the  immediate  death  of  three  of  his  patients. 
It  gives  unquestionably  good  results  in  many  cases,  but  in 
others  its  effects  are  uncertain  and  unsafe.  In  most  cases  of 
abdominal  pain  the  drug  should  be  used  cautiously,  or  as  a 
last  resort,  after  having  exhausted  other  treatment,  perhaps 
less  active,  but  infinitely  less  dangerous. 

DOSES,  Intravenous. — Horses,  according  to  size,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  xx.,  in  two  and  a  half  to  six  drachms  of  sterilised  water. 
When  the  patient  is  weak,  or  his  pulse  is  over  70,  only  half  a 
dose  should  be  given  ;  or*  half  a  dose  at  the  first  injection, 
followed  by  two  quarter  doses  at  intervals  of  from  ten  to 
twenty  minutes.  Administered  in  this  way,  the  drug  is 
quite  as  effective  as  when  given  in  one  dose.  Mollereau 
prescribes  3J-  of  a  one  m  fifteen  aqueous  solution;  and 
Zschokke  gives  H\75  of  a  ten  per  cent,  solution. 

Drench. — Horses,  3iss.  to  3n'j.  5  ponies,  grs.  xl.  to  3J->  m 
a  quart  of  water. 

ALUM.    ALUMEN 

POTASSIUM  ALUM  (Aluminium  and  Potassium  Sulphate). 
A12(S04)3,  K2SO4,  24H20.  Or— AMMONIUM  ALUM. 
A12(S04)3,  (NH4)2S04,  24H20. 

Produced  by  the  combination  of  aluminium  sulphate  with 
potassium  sulphate,  or  with  ammonium  sulphate  (B.P.). 

The  alums  are  a  series  of  double  salts  in  which  aluminium 
sulphate  is  conjoined  with  potassium,  sodium  or  ammonium 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  221 

sulphate.  They  are  found  in  limited  quantity  on  the  surface 
of  soils  and  rocks,  especially  in  volcanic  districts,  and  are 
largely  prepared  from  aluminium  clay,  shale,  or  schist,  which 
mainly  consists  of  aluminous  silicate  and  iron  sulphide. 
Near  Paisley,  where  alum  is  extensively  manufactured,  the 
schist  lies  between  the  coal  and  limestone  strata.  When 
slowly  roasted  it  absorbs  oxygen,  and  the  sulphur  is  con- 
verted into  sulphuric  acid,  which  unites  with  the  iron  and 
aluminium.  Water  is  added,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  less 
soluble  iron  sulphate  crystallises  out. 

To  make  potash  alum  this  residual  solution  is  treated 
with  potassium  chloride,  usually  obtained  as  a  by-product 
from  the  soap-boilers,  saltpetre  refineries,  and  glass- 
houses ;  double  decomposition  results.  The  remaining  iron 
sulphate  is  converted  into  iron  chloride,  which  continues  in 
solution  ;  while  potassium  sulphate  unites  with  aluminium 
sulphate  to  form  potash  alum,  which  crystallises,  and  is 
further  purified  by  repeated  solution  and  crystallisation. 

PROPERTIES. — The  alums  occur  in  transparent,  colourless 
cubes,  or  octahedral  crystals,  have  a  sweet,  acidulous,  astrin- 
gent taste,  act  like  acids  on  colouring  matter,  and,  when 
heated,  fuse  and  part  with  their  water  of  crystallisation. 
They  are  soluble  in  one-third  of  their  own  weight  of  water 
at  212°  Fahr.,  and  in  seven  parts  of  cold  water.  Freely 
soluble  in  glycerin  :  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Alum  is  slightly  irritant,  astringent, 
and  antiseptic,  and  is  chiefly  used  externally  as  an  astringent 
styptic,  desiccant,  and  caustic. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — One  or  two  ounces  given  to  dogs  cause 
vomiting.  But  when  the  oesophagus  was  tied,  and  vomiting 
prevented,  Orfila  found  that  two  ounces  occasioned  death  in 
five  hours,  with  great  exhaustion  ;  the  intestines  were  found 
extensively  inflamed.  Devergie  found  that  four  drachms 
of  dried  alum  killed  a  dog  when  the  gullet  was  tied.  An 
ounce  introduced  into  the  areolar  tissue  of  a  dog's  thigh 
caused  excessive  suppuration,  and  death  in  fifteen  hours. 
Moiroud  states  that  large  doses  given  for  some  time  exhaust 
the  digestive  organs,  diminish  cutaneous  transpiration,  and 
produce  grave  disorders.  Several  ounces  given  daily  to 
cows,  and  continued  for  a  week  or  two,  do  not  produce  any 


222  MEDICINAL   USES 

obvious  bad  effects.  Thus  the  action  of  alum  in  excessive 
doses  is  simply  to  produce  gastro-enteritis,  and  this  because 
very  little  of  the  drug  is  absorbed.  Alum  is  decomposed 
in  its  passage  through  the  intestines,  rendering  the  faeces 
odourless  and  somewhat  firmer.  Over-doses  are  decomposed 
and  neutralised  by  small  and  repeated  doses  of  sodium 
carbonate,  followed  by  demulcents. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Alum  closely  resembles  copper  and  zinc 
sulphates,  but  is  less  active.  It  is  occasionally  given  to  the 
dog  as  an  emetic.  Applied  in  a  dry  state,  it  absorbs  water 
from  the  tissues,  and  hence  acts  as  a  mild  caustic.  It  has 
little  or  no  effect  upon  the  unbroken  skin.  It  coagulates 
albumin  and  gelatin,  and  hence  invests  the  abraded  skin 
and  mucous  membranes  with  a  protective  film,  diminishes 
their  blood  supply,  and  thus  relieves  congestion,  and  lessens 
secretion.  In  virtue  of  its  astringent  properties,  it  is  used 
as  a  lotion  for  aphthous  or  ulcerated  conditions  of  the  mouth; 
as  a  gargle  and  spray  for  sore-throat ;  as  a  dressing  for 
blistered  surfaces,  as  a  stimulant  injection  for  leucorrhcea  ; 
and  in  many  of  these  cases  it  may  be  conjoined  with  glycerin 
and  borax.  Alum  is  occasionally  prescribed  with  opium 
in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  but  vegetable  astringents  are 
preferable.  In  America,  large  doses  have  been  given  to 
horses  infested  with  bots.  With  the  object  of  precipitating 
lead  salts  in  the  intestine,  it  has  been  prescribed  as  an  early 
antidote  in  lead-poisoning.  Alum  was  formerly  given  for 
polyuria  in  horses,  but  iodine  and  iron  sulphate  are  more 
effectual  remedies.  To  arrest  the  flow  of  synovia  from  open 
bursse,  or  joints,  finely  powdered  alum,  mixed  with  two  or 
three  parts  of  wheat  flour,  or  a  powder  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  dried  alum,  iron  sulphate,  and  myrrh,  is  a  valuable 
application.  A  saturated,  aqueous  solution  is  a  useful 
styptic  for  haemorrhage.  For  simple  conjunctivitis  and 
keratitis,  alum  (5  grains)  and  morphine  (2  grains),  in  an 
ounce  of  water,  form  a  useful  collyrium,  but  it  is  said  to 
dissolve  the  intercellular  cement  substance  of  the  cornea, 
and  so  increase  the  size  of  ulcers  and  lead  to  perforation. 
An  ointment,  made  with  one  part  of  alum  to  three  or  four 
of  lard,  or  vaseline,  will  be  found  useful  as  a  dressing  for 
ulcerated  heels  and  slow-healing  wounds.  Glycerin  of  alum, 


CHLORALUM  223 


composed  of  alum,  §j.,  water  3^J->  an(^  gtycerm'  SvJ->  *8 
used  for  chapped  teats  and  eczema.  Alumen  exsiccatum, 
the  dried  alum  of  the  B.P.  is  potash  alum  deprived  of  its 
water  of  crystallisation  by  heat.  It  is  a  white  powder, 
forming  spongy  opaque  masses  on  exposure  to  moisture. 
Slowly  soluble  in  water,  it  should  contain  45  to  46  per  cent. 
less  water  than  alum.  It  is  a  useful  caustic  and  astringent 
for  exuberant  granulations,  warts,  and  superficial  sores.  An 
albuminate,  made  by  thoroughly  mixing  an  ounce  of  dried 
alum  with  the  whites  of  six  eggs,  is  employed  as  an  adhesive 
in  setting  fractures,  and  as  a  styptic  for  open  joints. 

DOSES,  etc.  —  Astringent  for  horses  and  cattle,  3ij-  to  3Jv.  ; 
sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xx.  to  3ij-  '•>  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  xxx.,  given 
in  bolus  or  in  solution.  Alum  is  incompatible  with  alkalies, 
and  their  carbonates,  lime  salts,  phosphates,  salts  of  lead  and 
mercury,  and  tannin-containing  bodies. 

Kaolin,  a  native  aluminium  silicate,  is  an  excellent 
desiccant,  mild  astringent  and  protective,  much  used  for 
chafed  shoulders,  harness-galls,  and  simple  abrasions. 
Aluminium  sulphate  is  occasionally  used  as  a  caustic,  anti- 
septic, and  astringent. 

CHLORALUM.    SOLUTION  OF  ALUMINIUM  CHLORIDE. 

When  aluminium  sulphate  and  calcium  chloride  are  dis- 
solved together,  double  decomposition  ensues,  and  there 
remains  in  solution  an  impure  hydrated  aluminium  chloride 
—  a  colourless,  oily  fluid,  with  a  sweet  astringent  taste,  sold 
as  chloralum. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.  —  Like  many  metallic  chlorides,  chlor- 
alum is  corrosive,  astringent,  and  antiseptic.  It  has  been 
recommended  in  influenza  in  horses,  in  dysentery  in  cattle, 
and  in  distemper  in  dogs.  Drachm  doses  suffice  for  horses 
or  cattle,  H\v.  to  TT[x.  for  dogs.  It  may  be  administered 
either  in  bolus  made  with  meal,  or  dissolved  in  water  or  gruel. 
Externally  it  may  be  applied  to  the  purposes  for  which 
alum  or  zinc  sulphate  is  serviceable.  As  a  disinfectant  it 
has  been  more  used  on  the  -Continent  than  in  this  country. 
As  a  deodoriser  it  is  more  effectual  than  alum,  but  less 
effectual  than  tar  oils,  sodium  sulphite,  or  bleaching  powder. 


224  BISMUTH   AND    ITS    SALTS 

Diluted  solutions  destroy  the  parasites  of  mange  and  scab, 
and  kill  fleas  and  ticks. 


BISMUTH  AND  ITS  SALTS 

Bismuth  and  its  salts  belong  to  the  group  comprising 
phosphorus,  and  the  salts  of  antimony,  and  arsenic.  For- 
merly, owing  probably  to  defective  preparation,  and  the 
presence  of  arsenic  or  antimony,  their  administration  in  full 
and  continued  doses  produced  gastro-intestinal  irritation, 
and  fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver  and  other  organs.  But 
pure  salts  of  bismuth,  being  sparingly  soluble,  and  absorbed 
to  a  very  slight  extent  if  at  all,  have  little,  if  any,  toxic  effect. 

Bismuth  oxycarbonate,  prepared  by  the  interaction  of 
bismuth  nitrate  and  ammonium  carbonate  ;  bismuth  oxide, 
prepared  by  boiling  the  oxynitrate  with  solution  of  sodium 
hydroxide  ;  and  bismuth  subnitrate  or  oxynitrate,  obtained 
by  the  interaction  of  bismuth  nitrate  and  water,  have  similar 
characters  and  reactions.  The  carbonate  is  whitish,  the 
oxide  is  brownish-yellow,  and  the  subnitrate  is  white.  They 
form  heavy  powders,  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in 
diluted  nitric  acid. 

Bismuth  salicylate,  prepared  by  the  interaction  of  bismuth 
nitrate  and  sodium  salicylate,  occurs  as  a  white  amorphous 
powder,  odourless  and  tasteless,  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol 
and  glycerin,  and  containing  about  65  per  cent,  of  bismuth 
oxide  (Bi203). 

Bismuth  benzoate,  is  obtained  by  heating  the  nitrate  in 
glycerin  and  water,  and  adding  a  solution  of  sodium  benzo- 
ate, and  washing  and  drying  the  precipitate.  It  is  a  white, 
insoluble  powder,  employed  externally  as  a  desiccant,  and 
internally  as  an  intestinal  disinfectant. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Externally,  applied  to  wounds, 
bismuth  salts  are  desiccant,  protective,  slightly  astringent, 
and  antiseptic.  The  salicylate  has  been  used  as  a  substitute 
for  iodoform.  With  starch,  boric  acid,  or  iodoform,  the 
oxynitrate  is  employed  to  relieve  irritation  and  itching  of  the 
skin.  The  oxide,  in  ointment  made  with  eight  parts  of 
vaseline,  is  sometimes  applied  after  firing  or  blistering,  but 
ointment  of  zinc  oxide  is  quite  as  useful.  In  human  surgery 


DERMATOL,    AIROL,    ORPHOL  225 

bismuth  salts  applied  to  wounds  have  sometimes  given  rise 
to  toxic  symptoms.  These  are  salivation  and  swelling  of 
the  gums  and  tongue,  then  vomiting  and  diarrhoea,  and 
albumin  has  generally  been  found  in  the  urine  (Cushney). 

Internally,  the  oxynitrate  and  carbonate  are  astringent, 
antacid,  protective,  and  absorbent.  The  subnitrate  mixed 
with  equal  parts  of  charcoal  and  salol  forms  an  excellent 
dressing  for  otorrhcea  of  the  dog,  and  cracked  heels  in  horses. 
It  allays  irritation  in  dyspepsia,  vomiting,  and  in  gastro- 
intestinal catarrh.  It  acts  by  its  oxide  and  by  its  acid,  which 
is  antiseptic.  The  salicylate  is  a  more  powerful  antiseptic 
than  the  subnitrate.  In  the  bowel  it  is  rapidly  split  up  into 
salicylic  acid  and  bismuth  oxide.  But  as  free  salicylic  acid 
irritates  the  mucous  membrane,  bismuth  benzoate,  which  is 
not  irritant,  is  usuaUy  preferred  as  an  intestinal  disinfectant. 

DOSES,  etc. — Subnitrate,  Horses,  3iJ-  to  3JV-  or  more  ; 
dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xxx.,  in  mucilage,  milk,  or  bolus. 

Salicylate  or  benzoate,  foals  and  calves,  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xl.  : 
dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xv.  ;  The  B.P.  liquor  bismuthi  et  am- 
monii  citratis,  containing  three  grains  of  bismuth  oxide  in 
each  drachm,  is  a  convenient  preparation  for  special  cases. 

Dermatol,  or  bismuth  subgallate,  prepared  from  bismuth 
trinitrate,  glacial  acetic  acid,  and  gallic  acid,  is  a  bright 
yellow  powder,  odourless,  tasteless,  and  insoluble.  Dermatol 
is  absorbent,  astringent,  and  feebly  antiseptic.  It  is  em- 
ployed externally  as  a  dry  dressing  for  wounds.  Two  parts 
each  of  dermatol  and  zinc  oxide,  and  twenty  parts  of  vaseline 
form  an  ointment,  which  promotes  cicatrisation  of  cracked 
heels.  Internally,  dermatol  has  been  prescribed  for  diarrhoea 
and  gastro-intestinal  catarrh.  Doses,  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x.  ; 
calves  and  foals,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.  Xeroform  (bismuth 
tribromophenol)  is  a  neutral,  odourless,  tasteless,  and  in- 
soluble yellow  powder,  containing  about  fifty  per  cent,  of 
bismuth  oxide.  It  is  employed  as  a  substitute  for  iodoform, 
and  occasionally  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic.  Airol  (bismuth 
oxy-iodo-gallate),  alight-greyish,  or  yellow  powder,  tasteless, 
odourless,  and  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether  ;  has  been 
used  as  a  substitute  for  iodoform,  and  by  Frohner  as  a  pig- 
ment, made  with  airol,  glycerin,  gum  and  talc,  for  dressing 
small  surgical  wounds.  Orphol  (bismuth  beta-naphthol),  a 

p 


226  LEAD    SALTS 

light-brown  powder  of  agreeable  taste,  and  containing  about 
three  per  cent,  of  beta-naphthol.  It  is  a  useful  astringent 
and  antiseptic  in  intestinal  catarrh  of  foals,  calves,  and  dogs. 
Doses. — Grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx.,  in  boiled  milk,  or  in  electuary. 
Thioform  (bismuth  dithio-salicylate)  occurs  as  a  bulky, 
yellow  powder,  odourless,  tasteless,  and  insoluble.  It  is 
antiseptic  and  desiccant,  and  in  the  form  of  paste  made  with 
glycerin  or  vaseline  is  used  in  the  treatment  of  wounds, 
eczema,  and  conjunctivitis.  Pugh  (Sevenoaks)  prescribes 
thioform  in  gastro-intestinal  inflammation  and  ulcerative 
diarrhoea.  Combined  with  opium  it  alleviates  the  tenesmus 
of  white  scour  in  calves,  and  also  that  which  follows  the 
enteric  form  of  distemper  in  the  dog.  It  is  a  valuable 
intestinal  antiseptic,  sedative,  and  astringent. 


LEAD  AND   ITS   MEDICINAL   SALTS 
LEAD.     Plumbum.     Pb. 

Lead  is  chiefly  obtained  by  roasting  galena,  the  sulphide 
(PbS).  It  has  a  blue-grey  colour,  and  a  peculiar  odour  when 
rubbed  ;  is  soft  and  fusible,  melting  at  617°  Fahr.  ;  is  readily 
cut  and  rolled  into  sheets  or  pipes.  It  has  the  specific 
gravity  of  11*4.  Exposed  to  air  it  oxidises,  loses  its  metallic 
lustre,  and  becomes  dull  and  opaque.  In  contact  with  air 
and  soft  water  a  soluble  basic  carbonate  is  gradually  formed, 
and  water  thus  contaminated  is  dangerous. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  salts  of  lead  resemble  those  of  tin. 
Metallic  lead  is  devoid  of  medicinal  or  poisonous  action. 
Shot — an  alloy  of  lead,  with  two  per  cent,  of  arsenic — is 
occasionally  used  by  the  lower  order  of  dealers,  temporarily 
and  mechanically  to  relieve  the  distressed  breathing  of 
broken- winded  horses,  by  weighting  the  stomach  and  so 
pulling  the  abdominal  viscera  away  from  the  diaphragm. 
Four  ounces  of  metallic  lead  were  given  to  a  dog  at  the 
Veterinary  School  of  Lyons  without  effect.  Introduced  into 
the  animal  body,  in  frequently  repeated  although  small 
quantity,  the  metal  is  apt,  however,  to  become  oxidised,  and 
cause  poisoning.  Painters,  plumbers,  and  other  persons 
working  with  lead  frequently  suffer  from  lead-poisoning,  and 


LEAD-POISONING,    OB   PLUMBISM  227 

such  poisoning  also  occasionally  occurs  in  the  domestic 
animals. 

The  soluble  salts — such  as  the  nitrate  and  acetate,  as  well 
as  the  peptonates  formed  in  the  stomach — unite  with 
albumin  to  form  a  precipitate  which  is  very  slightly  soluble 
in  excess  of  the  salt.  Thus  lead  salts  do  not  penetrate 
deeply  but  are  among  the  most  astringent  of  salts.  Small  to 
moderate  diluted  doses  do  not  irritate  either  the  skin  or 
mucous  membranes,  but  are  astringent,  desiccant,  and 
analgesic.  They  have  a  sweet  rather  than  a  corrosive  taste. 
When  swallowed  they  act  as  gastro-intestinal  astringents, 
are  absorbed  very  slowly,  chiefly  as  albuminates,  permeate 
the  tissues,  contract  arterioles  to  some  extent,  raise  blood- 
pressure,  and  slow  the  heart  movements.  Larger  or  long- 
continued  small  doses  irritate  and  then  paralyse  voluntary 
and  involuntary  muscles  through  the  motor-nerves,  and  also 
affect  the  central  nervous  system.  This  action  is  illustrated 
by  the  vomiting  induced  in  dogs  and  cats,  the  cramp  of  the 
intestinal  and  other  muscles  in  man  and  animals,  and  the 
paresis  developed  subsequently  by  toxic  doses.  These 
effects  appear  to  result  from  the  local  action  of  the  lead  in 
the  several  textures  affected.  Hence  arise,  in  chronic  cases, 
degeneration  of  the  implicated  muscles,  chronic  interstitial 
nephritis,  and  cirrhosis  of  other  internal  organs.  Certain 
animals  exhibit  more  prominently  some  of  the  actions  of  lead. 
Muscular  weakness  and  paralysis  are  well  marked  in  frogs 
and  rabbits,  are  less  pronounced  in  cats,  and  are  absent  in 
dogs.  Elimination  is  slowly  effected  in  the  urine,  bile,  and 
intestinal  mucus  (Brunton). 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Lead  is  used  medicinally  only  for  its 
astringent  effects,  and  that  when  locally  applied.  It  is 
specially  valuable  as  an  intestinal  astringent  and  styptic 
with  opium.  It  is  of  no  use  in  cases  of  bleeding  from  the 
lungs  or  kidneys,  for  it  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the 
part  in  sufficient  concentration. 

Lead-poisoning,  or  plumbism,  in  the  lower  animals  ex- 
hibits symptoms  analogous  to  those  in  man,  and  frequently 
continues,  in  more  or  less  aggravated  form,  for  several 
weeks,  or  even  months.  Digestion  is  impaired,  appetite 
becomes  capricious  and  irregular  ;  there  are  spasms  and 


228         SYMPTOMS   AND    MORBID    APPEARANCES 

subsequently  torpidity  of  the  bowels.  These  symptoms 
simulate  those  of  gastric  distension  in  horses  and  impaction 
of  the  third  stomach  of  cattle — disorders  for  which  lead- 
poisoning  has  been  mistaken.  Distinctive  features  shortly, 
however,  present  themselves.  Anaemia  is  a  marked  feature, 
probably  because  of  the  destruction  of  red  cells,  but  partly 
from  malnutrition.  Along  the  margin  of  the  gums  appears  a 
grey  or  blue  line  of  lead  deposited  in  the  connective  tissue, 
blackened  by  hydrogen  sulphide  present  in  the  mouth,  or  by 
sulphur  in  the  food.  Colic  and  constipation  are  not  so 
invariably  present  in  the  lower  animals  as  in  human  patients. 
The  extensor  muscles  of  the  limbs  are  cramped  and  paralysed 
earlier  and  more  seriously  than  the  flexors.  The  affected 
muscles  gradually  waste.  The  cause  of  the  paralysis  of 
muscles  is  generally  thought  to  be  peripheral  neuritis,  and 
experimentally  lead  has  often  been  found  to  cause  nerve 
degeneration  in  animals.  In  some  cases,  however,  degenera- 
tion of  motor  areas  in  the  spinal  cord  has  been  found.  In 
cattle  lead-poisoning  occasionally  proves  a  cause  of  abortion. 
Amaurosis  and  amblyopia  are  not  infrequently  caused 
by  lead,  probably  inducing  optic  neuritis.  In  animals, 
too,  chorea,  convulsions,  and  delirium  are  easily  set  up  by 
lead-poisoning,  and  these  symptoms  often  arise  with  great 
suddenness.  They  appear  to  be  due  to  a  direct  action  on 
the  cells  of  the  cerebrum. 

Shenton,  a  veterinary  surgeon  practising  in  Derbyshire, 
in  1861,  had  eleven  horses  poisoned,  and  several  cattle,  and 
thus  described  the  conditions  which  came  under  his  observa- 
tion : — '  There  was  a  rough,  staring  coat,  a  tucked-up 
appearance  of  the  abdomen,  and  a  slightly  accelerated  pulse  ; 
in  fact,  symptoms  of  febrile  excitement,  which  usually, 
however,  passed  away  in  about  a  week.  About  this  time 
large  quantities  of  grey-coloured  mucus  were  discharged 
from  the  nostrils,  and  saliva  from  the  mouth  ;  but  at  no 
time  was  there  any  enlargement  of  the  submaxillary, 
lymphatic,  or  salivary  glands.  Neither  was  there  constipa- 
tion of  the  bowels,  which  appears  to  be  nearly  always  present 
in  lead-poisoning  in  man./  Fits  and  partial  paralysis  came 
on  at  intervals,  and  when  the  animals  got  down  they  often 
struggled,  for  a  long  time  ineffectually,  to  get  up  again. 


LEAD-POISONING  229 

The  breathing  up  to  this  period  was  tranquil,  but  now 
became  so  difficult  and  laboured  that  the  patients  appeared 
in  danger  of  suffocation.  The  pulse  was  in  no  case  above 
sixty  or  seventy,  and  I  ascribed  the  difficulty  of  respiration 
to  a  paralysed  state  of  the  respiratory  apparatus. )  The 
animals  did  not  live  more  than  two  or  three  days  after  these 
symptoms  appeared.  The  post-mortem  appearances  varied 
little.  The  lungs  and  trachea  were  inflamed,  the  lungs 
engorged  with  large  quantities  of  black  blood,  the  trachea 
and  bronchi  filled  with  frothy  spume.  In  all  but  two  cases 
the  villous  portion  of  the  stomach  presented  isolated  patches 
of  increased  vascularity,  and  in  all  cases  the  intestines,  and 
especially  the  large  ones,  were  inflamed.  The  blind  pouch 
of  the  caecum  was  nearly  gangrenous.  There  was  nothing 
remarkable  about  the  liver,  spleen,  or  kidneys,  except  that 
they  were  of  a  singularly  blue  appearance.  The  brain  and 
spinal  cord  were  not  examined.5  ('According  to  Mosselman 
and  Hebrant,  the  effects  of  the  poison  in  horses  are  especially 
manifested  upon  the  vagus  nerve,  inducing  roaring  and 
dyspnoea.  I 

In  1863,  three  milch  cows  were  poisoned  by  eating  sheet 
lead,  which  had  been  used  for  lining  tea-chests,  and  which  was 
afterwards  carelessly  thrown  on  the  manure  heap,  and  thence 
spread  on  the  pastures.  Besides  failure  of  milk  and  appetite, 
grinding  of  the  teeth,  and  dulness,  several  curious  symptoms 
are  mentioned.  The  head  was  rested  against  any  convenient 
object  as  if  the  animal  were  asleep,  while  the  eyes  were 
nearly  closed,  and  were  little  sensitive  to  light  or  to  move- 
ments of  the  finger.  The  gait  was  weak  and  tottering,  while 
for  an  hour  or  two  at  a  time  the  cows,  although  persistently 
standing  on  their  hind  limbs,  went  down  on  their  knees, 
propping  themselves  against  the  wall.  They  survived  four 
or  five  days.  From  the  fourth  stomach  of  one  cow  a  pound 
of  sheet  lead  was  removed  ;  the  lining  membrane  was 
thickened,  and  of  a  brown  colour.  The  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomachs  and  bowels  was  abnormally  vascular,  and 
exhibited  in  places  patches  of  ecchymosis.  The  liver  was 
pale,  clay-coloured,  compact,  and  contained  little  blood. 

Watson  records  the  poisoning  of  three  cows,  which 
languished  for  several  months,  and  died  from  eating  grass  on 


230  LEAD-POISONING 

which  bullet  spray  from  the  Rugby  rifle  butts  had  fallen. 
Fragments  of  the  lead  were  found  adhering  to  the  coats  of 
the  stomach,  and  the  poison  was  also  detected  in  the  in- 
testines, liver,  and  kidneys  (Veterinarian,  1864).  Broad 
also  records  cases  of  cattle  poisoned  by  picking  up  bullet 
spray.  The  animals  were  described  as  dull  and  tucked-up, 
the  eyes  staring,  the  gait  unsteady,  the  appetite  good,  but 
the  bowels  constipated  ;  emaciation,  with  oedema  under  the 
jaw,  made  rapid  progress.  Portions  of  bullet  spray  were 
found  in  the  second  and  third  stomachs  ;  both  large  and 
small  intestines  were  pale-blue  and  bloodless  (Veterinarian, 
1865).  Tuson  reported  similar  symptoms  from  licking  red 
paint,  which  he  found  retained  for  twenty-eight  weeks  in  a 
cow's  stomach.  Cox,  of  Hendon,  had  several  sheep  which 
became  emaciated  and  paralysed  from  eating*the  splashes  of 
lead  bullets,  which  were  found  in  the  stomachs  in  thin  flakes, 
readily  soluble  in  the  gastric  fluids  (Taylor).  Birds  are 
occasionally  poisoned  by  eating  berries  contaminated  by  the 
smoke  of  lead  smelters. 

Herapath  reported  interesting  cases  of  lead-poisoning 
which  followed  the  erection  of  smelting  furnaces  on  the 
Mendip  hills  in  1853.  Lead  oxides,  carbonate,  and  sulphate 
were  found  on  the  herbage,  hedges,  and  hay.  On  the  live 
stock  '  the  effects  of  the  metal  were,  stunted  growth,  lean- 
ness, shortness  of  breathing,  paralysis  of  the  extremities, 
particularly  the  hinder  ones  ;  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  fore- 
legs affected,  so  that  they  stood  upon  their  toes  ;  swelling 
of  the  knees  ;  but  no  constipation  or  colic,  as  in  the  human 
species  ;  in  a  few  months  death  followed.  In  the  young  the 
symptoms  were  more  conspicuous  and  the  mortality  greater. 
Lambs  were  yeaned  paralytic  ;  when  three  weeks  old  they 
could  not  stand,  although  they  made  great  efforts  to  do  so  ; 
in  attempting  to  feed  them  from  a  bottle  they  were  nearly 
suffocated  from  paralysis  of  the  glottis  ;  twenty-one  died 
early  out  of  twenty- three.  /Colts  also  died,  and  those  that 
lived  could  not  be  trotted  150  yards  without  distressed 
breathing. )  Pigs  confined  to  the  stye  were  not  injured,  but 
if  allowed  to  roam  were  soon  affected.  The  milk  of  cows 
and  sheep  was  reduced  in  quality  and  quantity,  and  cheese 
made  from  the  former  had  less  fat  in  it.  In  the  milk  of  both 


FROM   BULLET-SPRAY   AND    SMELTER   SMOKE      231 

minute  traces  of  lead  were  found.  The  dead  subjects  showed 
the  mucous  surfaces  to  be  paler  than  natural ;  a  blue  line 
appeared  in  the  gum  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  Dr.  Taylor  said 
in  court  was  not  caused  by  lead  poison,  as  it  did  not  occur 
as  in  the  human  subject,  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  gum,  but 
where  the  gums  first  come  into  contact  with  the  teeth,  about 
three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  below  the  top  edge.  Herapath 
dissected  out  this  line,  which  was  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  the  thickness  of  sewing  cotton,  and,  by 
aid  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  the  blow-pipe,  reduced  a  spangle 
of  lead  from  it,  quite  visible  to  the  jury  without  the  aid  of  a 
microscope.' 

Lead  is  readily  found  in  the  bodies  of  animals  thus 
poisoned.  It  has  been  detected  in  the  blood,  the  contents 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  the 
muscles,  lungs,  spleen,  and  liver.  Lead  enters  the  bodies  of 
animals  in  their  food  or  water,  portions  of  metal  are  picked 
up,  or  paint  is  licked.  The  poison  is  sometimes  brought 
to  the  farm  in  street  manure.  Water,  especially  soft  water, 
is  liable  to  contamination  by  conveyance  through  leaden 
pipes  or  storage  in  leaden  cisterns.  The  hounds  at  the  royal 
kennels  at  Ascot  some  years  since  suffered  from  paralysis 
from  drinking  water  contaminated  by  passing  through  new 
lead  pipes.  At  Claremont  the  late  Louis  Philippe  and  his 
suite  had  symptoms  of  lead-poisoning,  although  the  amount 
of  lead  did  not  reach  half  a  grain  to  the  gallon.  But  in 
some  of  the  Yorkshire  towns  where  lead-poisoning  occurred 
from  new  pipes,  the  contamination  did  not  exceed  one 
twenty-fifth  of  a  grain  per  gallon.  On  lead  pipes  or  vessels 
the  conjoined  action  of  air  and  soft  water  is  liable  to  produce 
a  crust  of  carbonate  (PbC03),  with  variable  proportions  of 
hydrate  Pb  (OH)2.  This  crust  crumbles  away  as  a  crystal- 
line powder,  partly  dissolved  and  partly  suspended  in  the 
fluid.  Leaden  vessels,  or  vessels  soldered  with  lead,  must 
therefore  be  used  with  caution  for  storage,  especially  for  any 
length  of  time,  of  water,  saccharine  or  acetic  solutions,  or 
other  fluids  likely  to  dissolve  the  metal.  This  caution  is 
especially  applicable  to  soft  waters  and  to  those  rich  in 
chlorides,  nitrites,  nitrates,  and  nitrogenous  matters  yield- 
ing ammonia.  Hard  waters,  abounding  in  carbonates,  sul- 


232  LEAD    OXIDES   AND    CARBONATE 

phates,  or  phosphates,  are  less  liable  to  contamination,  as 
their  acid,  uniting  with  the  lead,  forms  an  insoluble  crust, 
which  protects  the  metal  from  further  action  of  air  or  water. 
But  even  such  hard  waters  are  not  absolutely  safe  from  lead 
contamination.  A  piece  of  iron,  a  patch  of  soft  solder,  or  a 
few  carbonaceous  or  other  impurities  in  the  lead,  are  liable 
to  set  up  galvanic  action,  and  thus  dissolve  the  metal. 
Great  care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  prevent  lime,  mortar, 
nails,  or  in  fact  any  foreign  body,  getting  into  leaden 
cisterns,  which  should  further  be  emptied  and  cleaned  out 
frequently,  especially  when  new. 

In  acute  poisoning  an  emetic  or  the  stomach  pump  is 
promptly  used,  followed  by  a  soluble  sulphate,  such  as 
magnesium  sulphate,  to  form  the  insoluble  lead  sulphate, 
then  by  demulcents,  such  as  albumin,  oils,  gruel,  etc.,  and 
appropriate  agents  to  combat  the  collapse.  In  chronic 
poisoning,  the  lead,  whether  deposited  in  the  tissues  or 
lodged  in  the  digestive  canal,  should  be  excreted  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  If  in  the  intestine,  by  the  action  of  mag- 
nesium sulphate,  and  if  in  the  tissues,  by  means  of  potassium 
iodide.  This  agent  is  believed  to  combine  with  the  lead 
albuminate  in  the  tissues,  forming  the  more  readily  excreted 
lead  iodide,  which  is  removed  by  the  kidneys.  Diuretics 
should  be  given  at  the  same  time,  and  a  nutritious 
strengthening  diet. 

LEAD  OXIDE.     Plumbi  Oxidum.     Litharge. 

LEAD  CARBONATE.     Plumbi  Carbonas.     White  Lead. 

There  are  five  oxides  of  lead.  Litharge  (PbO)  is  a  yellow- 
ish-red, scaly  powder,  prepared  by  the  action  of  air  on  melted 
lead. 

Lead  carbonate,  or  white  lead,  may  be  prepared  by  the 
interaction  of  lead,  water,  and  carbonic  anhydride,  in  the 
presence  of  vapours  of  acetic  acid  (B.P.).  It  is  insoluble  in 
water  ;  entirely  soluble  in  diluted  acetic  acid. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Litharge  and  white  lead  are  used  topi- 
cally as  desiccants  and  astringents.  Mixed  with  linseed  oil, 
glycerin,  or  vaseline,  they  form  antiseptic,  astringent,  pro- 
tective coverings,  useful  in  burns,  herpes,  and  moist  eczema. 


LEAD    OLEATE   AND    IODIDE  233 

Animals,  however,  are  prone  to  eat  or  lick  such  dressings, 
and  to  obviate  risk  of  poisoning,  zinc  oxide  and  carbonate 
are  hence  usually  substituted. 

LEAD  OLEATE.     Lead  Plaster.     Emplastrum  Plumbi. 

The  common  sticking  or  diachylon  plaster  is  prepared  by 
boiling  together  gently,  by  the  heat  of  a  steam  bath,  one 
pound  litharge,  two  pounds  olive  oil,  and  sixteen  ounces  of 
water,  keeping  them  simmering  for  four  or  five  hours,  stirring 
constantly  until  the  product  acquires  a  proper  consistence 
for  a  plaster,  and  adding  more  water  if  necessary  (B.P.). 
In  this  process  the  oil  is  decomposed  in  the  same  manner 
as  fats  are  acted  upon  by  steam  heat,  or  by  alkalies  in  the 
preparation  of  soap  ;  lead  oleate  rises  to  the  surface,  and 
glycerin  remains  in  solution.  Lead  plaster  is  sold  in  rolls, 
about  a  foot  in  length,  of  a  yellow-white  colour,  and  a 
faint,  sweet,  soapy  odour.  Although  brittle  when  cold  it 
becomes  soft  and  adhesive  when  heated. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Lead  plaster  is  adhesive,  free  from 
irritant  properties,  and  the  lead  is  not  liable  to  absorption. 
For  bringing  together  the  edges  of  small  incised  wounds  it 
is  generally  used  spread  on  linen  or  calico,  and  thus  applied 
it  besides  affords  protection  and  support.  Lead  plasters  are 
rendered  more  adhesive,  and  consequently  better  adapted 
for  most  veterinary  purposes,  by  melting  with  every  pound 
four  ounces  of  pitch  or  resin  and  two  ounces  of  hard 
soap. 

LEAD  IODIDE.     Plumbi  lodidum.     PbI2. 

When  equal  parts  of  lead  nitrate  and  potassium  iodide 
are  dissolved,  and  the  solutions  mixed,  double  decomposi- 
tion occurs,  potassium  nitrate  remains  in  solution,  and  lead 
iodide  is  precipitated  in  brilliant,  golden-yellow,  crystalline 
scales,  or  in  a  fine,  bright  yellow,  heavy  powder.  It  is  taste- 
less, colourless,  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water,  but  readily 
dissolved  by  200  parts  boiling  water,  entirely  soluble  in 
solution  of  ammonium  chloride. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  resembles  other  lead  salts  ;  is  occa- 


234  LEAD    ACETATES 

sionally  prescribed  for  enlarged  glands  to  promote  reduc- 
tion, and  applied  as  a  dressing  for  ringworm  and  for  indolent 
tumours,  being  used  in  the  form  of  ointment  or  plaster. 
Emplastrum  Plumbi  lodidi  is  made  with  two  ounces 
lead  iodide,  one  pound  lead  plaster,  and  two  ounces  of 
resin. 

LEAD  ACETATE.     Plumbi  Acetas.     Sugar  of  Lead.     Neutral 
Acetate.     Pb(C2H302)23Aq. 

STRONG  SOLUTION  OF  LEAD  SUBACETATE.    Liquor  Plumbi 
Subacetatis  Fortis.     Goulard's  Extract.     (B.P.) 

Two  lead  acetates  are  used  in  medicine — the  neutral 
acetate  or  sugar  of  lead,  and  the  tribasic,  which  occurs  in 
Goulard's  Extract. 

Sugar  of  lead  is  obtained  by  dissolving  lead  oxide  or  lead 
carbonate  in  acetic  acid.  Lead  acetate  occurs  in  minute 
needle-like  crystals,  which  are  slightly  efflorescent,  have  an 
odour  of  vinegar,  and  a  sweet,  astringent  taste.  It  is  soluble 
in  less  than  three  parts  of  cold  water,  and  in  thirty  parts  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 

The  liquor  plumbi  subacetatis,  or  Goulard's  Extract,  is 
prepared  by  boiling  5  ounces  of  lead  acetate  and  3|  ounces 
lead  oxide,  in  powder,  in  a  pint  of  water,  for  half  an  hour, 
constantly  stirring  ;  then  filter,  and,  when  the  liquid  is  cold, 
add  to  it  more  distilled  water,  until  the  product  measures 
20  fluid  ounces  (B.P.).  It  is  a  colourless,  transparent, 
alkaline  liquid  with  a  sweet,  astringent  taste.  It  becomes 
turbid  on  exposure  to  air.  From  a  solution  of  the  neutral 
acetate  it  is  distinguished  by  its  alkalinity,  and  by  its  pro- 
ducing an  opaque  white  jelly  when  mixed  with  mucilage  of 
gum  acacia.  The  diluted  solution  of  lead  subacetate,  or 
Goulard' 's  water,  is  made  with  2  drachms  of  strong  solution 
of  lead  subacetate,  2  drachms  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  and  19  J 
ounces  of  distilled  water. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  acetates  exhibit  the  physiological 
actions  of  other  soluble  lead  salts.  They  are  prescribed  as 
internal  astringents  and  styptics,  and  externally  as  astrin- 
gents and  analgesics.  They  are  less  corrosive  and  astrin- 
gent, and  more  soothing,  than  zinc  or  copper  acetates.  The 


LEAD    ACETATE  235 

greater  solubility  of  Goulard's  Extract  renders  it  more 
active  than  the  sugar  of  lead,  and  it  is  preferable  for 
external  application  on  account  of  its  not  drying  or  crystal- 
lising. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Hertwig  gave  a  pound  of  sugar  of  lead 
to  horses,  and  observed  nausea,  colic,  a  quick,  small,  hard 
pulse,  stiffness  of  the  limbs,  paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve, 
and  sometimes  of  other  parts,  insensibility,  and  often  death. 
Even  more  energetic  effects  occur  in  cattle.  Prinz  observed 
that  half  an  ounce  given  daily  for  three  days  produced  in 
cows  fever,  with  a  quick,  throbbing  pulse,  colic,  and  other 
symptoms  of  abdominal  pain  ;  in  one  case  mania,  but  in 
none  death.  Mecke  found  that  eight  ounces,  dissolved  in 
water,  and  given  in  divided  doses  during  two  days,  destroyed 
nine  cattle — the  first  on  the  second,  the  last  on  the  four- 
teenth day  after  the  poison  had  been  given.  Early  in 
1857  a  farmer  near  Glasgow  lost  eight  cows  from  their 
boiled  food  having  been  stored  in  a  large  tub  obtained  from 
a  chemical  manufactory,  and  impregnated  with  sugar  of 
lead.  The  symptoms  were  similar  to  those  above  recorded. 
Dogs  receiving  half  an  ounce,  retained  by  tying  the  oesopha- 
gus, suffered  intense  intestinal  irritation,  and  died,  occasion- 
ally in  nine  hours,  but  sometimes  only  after  two  or  three 
days  (Orfila).  Owing  to  chemical  action  the  membrane  of 
the  stomach  is  grey,  of  a  macerated  appearance,  and  some- 
times very  vascular,  especially  in  lingering  cases.  These 
effects  are  due  to  the  local  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomach  and  intestine,  set  up  by  concentrated  solu- 
tions or  large  doses.  They  are  not  due  in  any  measure  to 
systemic  lead  poisoning,  for  little  lead  is  absorbed  from  the 
alimentary  tract  unless  given  for  long  periods  and  in  small 
doses. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Lead  acetate  is  administered  to  check 
haemorrhages,  especially  from  the  stomach  and  intestine. 
Formerly  it  was  prescribed  for  purpura  in  horses  and  red- 
water  in  cattle  ;  but  for  these  purposes  it  is  useless,  primarily 
because  of  its  non-absorption.  Half -drachm  doses  of  sugar 
of  lead  and  opium,  given  daily,  sometimes  check  the  danger- 
ous diarrhoea  and  dysentery  which  attack  badly-managed 
anaemic  cattle  in  autumn  and  early  winter.  Scouring  lambs 


236         ZINC   AND    ITS   MEDICINAL   COMPOUNDS 

are  equally  benefited  by  eight  or  ten  grains  each  of  lead 
acetate  and  opium.  In  many  of  these  cases,  besides 
being  given  by  the  mouth,  it  is  also  added  to  starch  injec- 
tions. 

Externally  it  is  applied  to  check  superficial,  circumscribed 
inflammation  ;  to  soothe  and  heal  burns,  bruises,  and  irri- 
table moist  ulcers  ;  to  cool  and  relieve  strained,  inflamed 
tendons  and  joints  ;  in  conjunction  with  a  dose  of  physic,  to 
abate  the  itching  of  nettle-rash  and  erythema  ;  to  remove 
the  irritation  and  heal  the  excoriations  of  herpes  ;  to  limit 
the  surrounding  inflammation  of  acne  ;  to  arrest  irritation 
and  discharge  in  eczema,  in  such  cases  being  advantageously 
alternated  with  dilute  alkalies,  sulphur  or  citrine  ointment, 
or  yellow  wash.  It  is  applied  in  mucous  or  catarrhal 
inflammation  of  the  eye,  but  is  unsuitable  when  there  is 
abrasion  or  rupture  of  the  cornea,  as  insoluble  lead  albumi- 
nates  and  sulphates  are  formed,  causing  opacity,  which  is 
difficult  to  remove. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  lead  acetates,  horses  and  cattle  take 
3ss.  to  3i-  ;  calves  and  sheep,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.  ;  pigs,  grs.  ij. 
to  grs.  vj.  ;  dogs.  grs.  j.  to  grs.  iv.,  given  in  bolus  or  solution, 
repeated  once  or  twice  daily.  For  external  application, 
sugar  of  lead  is  used  in  powder,  ointment,  or  dissolved  in 
twenty  to  forty  parts  of  water,  with  a  little  vinegar  to  in- 
crease its  solubility.  Goulard's  Extract,  diluted  with  four 
to  six  parts  of  linseed  or  olive  oil,  is  a  cooling  application 
for  blistered  or  contused  surfaces.  An  equally  serviceable 
astringent  and  anodyne  is  made  with  one  part  of  extract 
to  six  or  eight  of  vaseline  or  glycerin.  Equal  parts  of 
extract  and  spirit,  diluted  with  eight  or  ten  parts  of  water, 
make  a  useful  refrigerant  astringent.  One  part  of  lead 
acetate  and  three-quarter  part  zinc  sulphate,  dissolved  in 
thirty  or  forty  of  water,  constitute  the  familiar  white  lotion, 
a  serviceable  astringent,  analgesic,  and  antiseptic. 

ZINC  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 

Metallic  zinc  is  obtained  by  roasting  zinc  blende,  which 
is  a  native  sulphide,  or  calamine,  which  is  a  native  car- 
bonate. Zinc  is  a  bluish- white  metal,  brittle  at  low  and 


ZINC   OXIDE  237 

high  temperatures,  but  between  212°  and  300°  Fahr.  it  is 
ductile  and  malleable.     Its  salts  are  colourless. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Zinc  salts  unite  with  albumin  to 
form  an  insoluble  precipitate,  and  hence  are  astringent.  As 
solids  and  concentrated  solutions,  several  are  irritant  and 
caustic,  and  being  deliquescent  they  tend  to  spread.  Al- 
though not  affecting  the  unbroken  skin,  when  applied  to 
mucous  membranes  small  doses  are  astringent,  large  doses 
are  irritant.  The  chloride,  nitrate,  and  iodide  are  readily 
soluble  and  diffusible,  and  hence  are  active  and  corrosive. 
The  sulphate  and  acetate,  although  less  energetic,  have  more 
activity  than  the  less  soluble  oxide  or  carbonate.  The 
sulphate  and  acetate  are  prompt  emetics  for  dogs  and  other 
animals  that  vomit,  and  unlike  tartarised  antimony,  they 
cause  little  depression  of  the  circulation.  They  produce 
emesis  chiefly  by  local  action  on  the  stomach.  Continued 
full  doses  produce  symptoms  allied  to  those  of  acute  poison- 
ing by  copper  or  lead,  due  to  the  local  irritant  effect  in  the 
stomach  and  intestine.  They  are  absorbed  very  slowly  as 
albuminates,  and  produce  no  characteristic  effects,  but 
injected  intravenously,  depression  of  the  central  nervous 
system  and  of  muscle  tissue  is  produced  as  with  copper. 
They  are  eliminated  more  rapidly  than  mercury,  lead,  or 
copper,  in  small  quantity  by  the  kidneys,  but  chiefly  by  the 
liver  and  intestinal  glands  (Bartholow). 

ZINC  OXIDE.     Zinci  Oxidum.     Oxide  of  Zinc.     ZnO. 

Oxide  of  zinc  may  be  prepared  by  exposing  zinc  carbonate 
to  a  dull  red  heat,  or  from  metallic  zinc  by  combustion.  It 
is  a  soft,  nearly  colourless,  tasteless,  inodorous  powder,  in- 
soluble in  water,  but  soluble  without  effervescence  in  acids 
and  in  alkalies.  When  heated  it  becomes  yellow,  but  if  free 
from  iron  nearly  loses  its  colour  on  cooling. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  a  desiccant,  protective,  and  haemo- 
static, but,  being  insoluble  in  water,  it  acts  mechanically  un- 
less dissolved  by  an  acid,  when  it  is  mildly  astringent.  It  is 
occasionally  prescribed  in  catarrh  and  bronchitis  for  the 
arrest  of  profuse  secretion,  is  said  to  be  a  nerve  sedative,  and 
is  given  to  dogs  in  epilepsy  and  chorea. 


238  ZINC    OXIDE 

It  relieves  cutaneous  tenderness  and  itching.  In  ery- 
thema, in  which  it  is  often  desirable  to  avoid  moist  dressings, 
it  is  dusted  over  the  tender  surface  mixed  with  four  to  six 
parts  of  kaolin,  '  Sanitas  '  powder,  or  starch  flour.  In  many 
cases  of  erythema  it  is  usefully  conjoined  with  glycerin, 
vaseline,  or  soft  soap.  Acute  vesicular  eczema  is  often 
successfully  treated  by  a  thorough  soaking  with  mercurous 
oxide  wash  and  the  subsequent  in-rubbing  of  zinc  oxide 
ointment  or  oleate.  When  there  is  much  tenderness  or 
itching  such  dressings  are  mixed  with  or  followed  by  applica- 
tion of  orthoform.  After  cleansing  the  meatus  the  oint- 
ment is  useful  in  canker  of  the  ear  of  dogs,  and  in  diseases 
that  simulate  it. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  ^ij.  to  ^iv.  ;  dogs, 
grs.  ij.  to  grs.  vj.,  given  in  bolus  or  solution.  For  external 
use  aqueous  solutions  are  made  with  equal  parts  of  zinc  oxide 
and  borax  or  other  alkaline  salt  or  glycerin  added  to  ensure 
solution,  with  ten  to  thirty  parts  of  water.  It  is  also  used 
with  subnitrate  or  oxide  of  bismuth.  Liniments  are  prepared 
with  one  part  of  oxide  to  five  or  six  of  olive  oil,  or  other  fatty 
matter.  Unguentum  zinei  is  made  with  three  parts  of  zinc 
oxide,  and  seventeen  parts  of  benzoated  lard.  Some 
cutaneous  complaints,  in  which  ointments  freely  used  are 
apt  to  impair  secretion  and  excretion,  and  others  which 
should  not  be  wetted,  are  satisfactorily  treated  by  pastes  or 
powders.  Zinc  oxide  suits  well  for  such  purposes,  and  may 
be  applied  mixed  with  kaolin,  magnesium  carbonate, 
starch,  iodoform,  or  boracic  acid. 

Peroxide  of  zinc,  or  zinc  perhydrol  (Merck),  is  a  white 
powder,  insoluble  in  water,  and  composed  of  equal  parts  of 
zinc  peroxide  (Zn02),  and  zinc  oxide  (ZnO).  It  is  said  to 
combine  the  disinfectant  properties  of  oxygen  with  the 
astringent  effects  of  zinc  oxide.  Applied  to  open  wounds  it 
is  neither  caustic  nor  irritant ;  and  in  powder  or  ointment  it 
is  valuable  as  a  dressing  for  contusions,  ulcers,  dermatitis, 
and  eczema.  For  operation  wounds  it  may  be  used  in  place 
of  iodoform.  A  pomade,  made  with  five  to  twenty  parts  of 
zinc  peroxide  and  a  hundred  parts  of  vaseline,  or  lanoline,  is  a 
convenient  application  for  recent  superficial  wounds  and 
bruises. 


ZINC    SULPHATE  239 

ZINC  CARBONATE.     Zinci  Carbonas.     Carbonate  of  Zinc. 

Calamine,  the  native  carbonate,  is  an  important  ore  of 
zinc.  The  B.P.  carbonate — white,  tasteless,  and  insoluble  in 
water — is  prepared  by  the  interaction  of  zinc  sulphate  and 
sodium  carbonate,  and  is  a  mixture  of  carbonate  and  oxide 
with  water  of  crystallisation,  Zn  CO3(Zn  H202)2H2O.  Its 
uses  are  identical  with  those  of  the  oxide. 


ZINC  SULPHATE.     Zinci  Sulphas.     Sulphate  of  Zinc.     White 
Vitriol.     ZnS047H20. 

Zinc  blende,  the  native  sulphide  when  roasted,  yields  a 
crude  sulphate.  The  B.P.  salt  is  formed  by  the  interaction 
of  diluted  sulphuric  acid  and  zinc.  It  occurs  in  colourless, 
transparent,  tabular  crystals,  isomorphous  with  those  of 
Epsom  salt,  with  a  styptic  metallic  taste,  and  efflorescent  in 
dry  air.  It  is  soluble  in  2' 5  parts  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.), 
and  in  two  parts  of  water. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  irritant,  emetic,  astringent,  and 
antiseptic  internally.  It  is  used  externally  as  a  stimulant, 
astringent,  and  antiseptic. 

Toxic  ACTIONS. — Powerful  astringent  effects  are  produced 
on  horses  by  sixty  to  seventy-five  grains  ;  three  to  five 
drachms  dry  the  buccal  and  gastro-intestinal  secretions,  and 
cause  nausea,  colic,  and  efforts  to  vomit  (Tabourin).  Two 
horses  had  each  half  an  ounce  daily  for  a  fortnight  without 
marked  effect,  but  larger  doses  impaired  appetite,  and  caused 
nausea  and  diuresis.  Somewhat  larger  doses  produce  similar 
effects  on  cattle.  Dogs  receiving  seven  to  thirty  grains 
promptly  vomit ;  but  the  act  is  seldom  accompanied  by  the 
nausea  and  depression  produced  by  tartar  emetic.  Orfila 
found  that  seven  and  a  half  drachms  were  vomited  by  dogs 
in  a  few  seconds,  but  produced  no  lasting  bad  effects. 
When  vomiting,  however,  was  prevented  by  ligature  of  the 
oasophagus,  much  smaller  quantities  sufficed  to  destroy  dogs, 
in  about  three  days,  from  gastro-enteritis.  Thirty  grains 
in  solution,  injected  into  the  veins,  depressed  the  action  of 
the  heart  and  destroyed  life  in  a  few  seconds  (Christison). 
Repeated  doses  are  detected  in  the  spleen,  liver,  faeces,  and 


240  ZINC    SULPHATE 

urine.  Unlike  lead  or  mercury,  it  exhibits  no  cumulative 
action. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — As  a  gastric  tonic  it  resembles,  but  is 
inferior  to,  iron  and  copper  sulphates.  As  an  astringent 
compared  with  lead  or  silver  salts,  it  contracts  capillary 
vessels  more  powerfully.  It  is  sometimes  prescribed  with 
opium  in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  but  is  less  serviceable  than 
copper  sulphate  or  lead  acetate.  It  may  be  given  for  acute 
chorea  in  dogs  in  good  condition  :  but  iron  is  better  in 
chronic  cases  associated  with  debility.  For  diminishing 
excessive  discharge,  or  arresting  haemorrhage  from  the 
alimentary  canal,  frequent  small  doses  are  given  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  opium.  As  a  safe  and  prompt  emetic 
it  is  prescribed  for  dogs  and  pigs  to  empty  the  stomach  of 
undigested  food,  foreign  bodies,  and  poisons. 

Externally,  it  is  much  used  as  a  stimulant  and  astringent 
for  wounds,  ulcers,  conjunctivitis,  relaxed  sore  throat, 
irritable  conditions  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  uterus 
or  vagina,  vesicular  and  pustular  skin  eruptions,  and  inter- 
digital  inflammation  in  sheep.  Where  powerful  astringent 
and  caustic  effects  are  sought,  the  zinc  sulphate  is  conjoined 
with  that  of  copper  or  iron,  or  with  both.  Malcolm,  in  his 
successful  treatment  of  canker  in  the  foot  of  the  horse,  uses 
a  dressing  of  equal  parts  of  zinc,  copper,  and  iron  sul- 
phates, with  carbolic  acid,  and  sufficient  vaseline  to  form 
a  paste. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  an  emetic,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  v.  for  cats  ;  grs. 
jv.  to  grs.  viij.  for  dogs  ;  and  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xv.  for  pigs,  are 
given  in  two  or  three  ounces  of  water.  As  an  astringent  for 
horses  and  cattle,  3SS-  to  3ij-  ;  for  sheep,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.  ; 
for  dogs,  grs.  j.  to  grs.  iij.  are  given,  either  in  the  solid  or  fluid 
state.  Externally,  it  is  used  in  powder  or  solution,  usually 
made  with  thirty  to  sixty  parts  of  water.  Three-quarters 
of  an  ounce  of  zinc  sulphate  and  an  ounce  of  lead  acetate, 
with  30  to  40  ounces  of  water,  constitute  the  white  lotion  so 
familiar  in  veterinary  practice,  but  for  some  purposes  this 
strong  solution  requires  further  dilution. 

Zinc  sulpho-carbolate  is  sometimes  used  as  a  mild  anti- 
septic and  astringent,  two  to  five  grains  being  dissolved  in  an 
ounce  of  water. 


ZINC   CHLORIDE  241 

ZINC  CHLORIDE.     Zinci  Chloridum.     Butter  of  Zinc.     ZnCl2. 

Chloride  of  zinc  is  produced  by  the  interaction  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  zinc.  It  occurs  in  colourless,  opaque  rods 
or  tablets,  very  deliquescent  and  caustic  ;  soluble  in  water, 
alcohol,  and  ether. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  an  irritant  and  corrosive  poison. 
Medicinal  doses  are  antiseptic  and  astringent ;  but  it  is 
seldom  given  internally.  Externally,  it  is  applied  as  a 
stimulant,  astringent,  caustic,  and  parasiticide.  It  is  also 
used  as  an  antiseptic,  disinfectant,  and  deodoriser. 

SURGICAL  USES. — From  its  strong  attraction  for  water,  and 
its  coagulating  albumin,  it  is  an  energetic  caustic.  It 
resembles  mercuric  and  antimony  chlorides.  It  is  used  to 
control  luxuriant  granulations,  unhealthy  ulceration,  and 
foot-rot  in  sheep,  and  for  such  purposes  is  applied  in  sub- 
stance. To  remove  malignant  growths  and  to  destroy  the 
walls  of  sinuses,  it  is  applied,  usually  mixed  with  two  parts 
of  flour  made  into  a  paste  with  glycerin  and  water.  Unlike 
arsenic  or  mercury  salts,  it  is  not  liable  to  undergo  absorption 
and  produce  constitutional  mischief.  Strong  solutions,  con- 
taining 10  per  cent.,  secure  the  aseptic  state  of  foul  or 
envenomed  wounds,  and  are  serviceable  where  repeated 
dressings  are  inadmissible,  and  the  volatile  carbolic  acid 
cannot  be  conveniently  used.  Socin's  paste,  consisting  of 
five  parts  zinc  chloride,  thoroughly  mixed  with  fifty  parts 
each  of  zinc  oxide  and  water,  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  pro- 
tective for  surgical  wounds  which  cannot  be  bandaged. 
Solutions  of  two  to  three  per  cent,  are  used  for  ordinary 
astringent  purposes  and  for  the  destruction  of  vermin. 
Almond  recommends  a  2^  per  cent,  solution  as  an  application 
for  follicular  mange  of  the  dog. 

Like  mercuric  chloride,  it  is  serviceable  for  keeping  animal 
tissues  for  dissection.  Its  antiseptic  effects  are  exerted  even 
in  the  presence  of  considerable  quantities  of  water,  which 
interferes  with  the  efficacy  of  the  tar  acids.  Besides  prevent- 
ing and  arresting  putrefaction,  it  also  decomposes  hydrogen 
sulphide,  ammonia,  and  other  offensive  products  of  decay. 
Burnett's  disinfecting  and  antiseptic  fluid  contains  twenty- 
five  grains  zinc  chloride  in  every  fluid  drachm,  and  is 


242  ZINC  ACETATE 

ordered  to  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  pint  to  five 
gallons  of  water. 

ZINC  ACETATE.     ZinciAcetas.  Acetate  of  Zinc.  Zn(C2H302)2 
3H20. 

Zinc  acetate  is  prepared  by  neutralising  acetic  acid  with 
zinc  carbonate.  It  crystallises  in  colourless,  odourless, 
pearly  plates,  which  have  a  sharp,  disagreeable,  metallic 
taste,  and  are  soluble  in  2- 5  parts  of  water. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  acetate  closely  resembles  the 
sulphate.  It  is  an  emetic  and  nerve  tonic,  but  is  seldom  used 
internally.  Externally,  as  a  stimulant  and  astringent  it 
dries  excessive  serous  discharges,  relieves  erythema,  eczema, 
and  impetigo,  as  well  as  conjunctivitis  and  other  superficial 
inflammations.  Tuson  recommended  a  solution  for  saturat- 
ing at  short  intervals  the  wash-leather  bandages  applied  to 
the  jarred,  swollen  legs  of  hunters.  According  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  required,  forty  grains  to  an  ounce  are 
dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water. 

DOSES. — Horses  and  cattle,  3J-  to  3ij-  \  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to 
grs.  v. 

COPPER  AND   ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 

Copper  (Cu)  is  a  brilliant  red  metal,  found  native  near 
Lake  Superior  in  North  America,  crystallised  in  octahedrons 
or  cubes.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  8*95,  a  nauseous 
styptic  taste,  and  unpleasant  odour,  especially  when  rubbed. 
The  principal  copper  ores  are  pyrites,  which  is  a  double 
sulphide  of  copper  and  iron,  and  the  carbonate  or  malachite. 
Its  chief  officinal  salts  are  the  sulphate,  nitrate,  iodide,  and 
acetate.  Copper  forms  two  series  of  salts,  the  cuprous  and 
oupric,  the  latter  the  more  stable,  and,  when  hydrated, 
having  a  green  or  blue  colour. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Salts  of  copper,  like  those  of  other 
heavy  metals,  form  sparingly  soluble  albuminates.  In 
virtue  of  their  combining  with  the  albumin  of  the  tissues, 
they  are  antiseptic,  astringent,  irritant,  and  caustic.  When 
they  are  absorbed,  these  topical  effects  are  more  widely 


COPPER   SALTS  243 

extended,  and  more  general  astringent,  antiseptic,  tonic,  or 
irritant  effects  are  produced. 

Copper  salts  are  allied  to  those  of  zinc  and  silver,  and  some 
of  their  actions  also  resemble  those  of  iron,  lead,  and  mercury. 
The  sulphate,  nitrate,  and  other  soluble  salts  have  slight 
action  on  the  unbroken  skin,  but  combine  with  albumin,  and 
hence  const ringe  and  irritate  the  abraded  skin  and  mucous 
surfaces.  When  swallowed  they  irritate  the  stomach,  pro- 
ducing emesis  in  many  animals.  After  exerting,  according 
to  dose  or  state  of  concentration,  astringent  or  irritant  effects 
on  the  alimentary  mucous  membrane,  they  are  slowly 
absorbed  as  albuminates,  and  as  the  still  more  soluble 
peptonates.  They  are  chiefly  stored  in  the  liver,  to  a  less 
extent  in  the  kidneys  and  spleen.  They  probably  unite 
with  various  tissues,  and  modify  their  nutritive  and  functional 
activity.  Like  many  other  metallic  salts,  they  are  excreted 
slowly  in  the  bile,  in  the  mucus  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  to 
a  slight  extent  in  the  sweat,  but  mainly  in  the  urine. 

Copper  in  the  metallic  state  is  devoid  of  poisonous  action. 
Drouard  gave  ounce  doses  finely  divided  to  dogs  of  different 
sizes  and  ages,  but  none  experienced  any  inconvenience. 
If  a  double  salt  of  copper  (copper  albuminate)  is  injected 
into  the  blood-stream  the  specific  effect  of  the  metal  is  seen. 
There  is  awkwardness  and  staggering  gait,  then  paralysis  of 
locomotion,  and  finally  of  the  heart  and  lungs.  Thus  copper, 
like  zinc  and  lead,  paralyses  the  central  nervous  system, 
and  also  has  a  direct  toxic  action  on  muscle.  Given  by  the 
mouth  this  typical  action  is  not  produced,  for  the  drug  is 
absorbed  too  slowly.  Two  drachms  of  oxide  caused  in  dogs 
vomiting  and  diarrhoea.  The  more  soluble  salts  are  active 
irritants.  Dogs  tolerate  for  a  week  or  two  daily  doses  of 
10  to  15  grains  of  the  sulphate,  or  acetate,  but  40  to  60 
grains  induce  loathing  of  food,  diarrhoea,  and  in  some 
instances  death  by  collapse.  Cupreous  poisoning  also  results 
in  cows,  pigs,  and  dogs,  from  the  use  of  food  or  drink  boiled 
in  copper  vessels,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  them  while 
cooling.  Acid  and  fatty  matters  are  most  apt  thus  to  be 
contaminated,  especially  if  long  in  contact  with  copper,  and 
exposed  at  the  same  time  to  air  and  moisture.  The  promin- 
ent symptoms  are,  impaired  appetite,  constipation,  alter- 


244     ASTRINGENT,  IRRITANT,  ANTISEPTIC,  AND  TONIC 

nated  with  diarrhoea,  colic,  imperfect  nutrition,  muscular 
weakness  and  trembling,  and  occasional  hsemoglobinuria 
or  haematuria.  All  these  symptoms  arise  from  the  gastro- 
enteritis set  up,  and  are  similar  to  the  effects  produced  by 
any  corrosive.  The  antidotes  consist  of  white  of  egg,  wash- 
ing out  the  stomach,  administering  demulcents,  and  allaying 
irritation  and  pain,  if  need  be,  by  morphine. 

Chronic  poisoning  occasionally  occurs  among  animals  de- 
pastured in  the  neighbourhood  of  copper-smelting  works, 
but  such  effect  may  in  part  depend  upon  the  arsenic  present 
in  copper  ores.  This  is  shown  by  gradual  unthriftiness, 
emaciation,  and  increasing  weakness,  and  is  relieved  by 
removal  of  the  cause,  and  good  feeding. 

COPPER  SULPHATE.    Cupri  Sulphas.    Cupric  Sulphate.    Blue 
Vitriol.     Blue  Stone.     CuS045H20. 

Copper  sulphate  is  got  by  dissolving  the  black  oxide  in 
sulphuric  acid,  by  boiling  metallic  copper  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  on  the  large  scale  by  roasting  copper  pyrites 
(CuFeS2),  when  both  the  copper  and  iron  are  oxidised  into 
sulphates  ;  at  the  red-heat  used  the  iron  sulphate  is  decom- 
posed, and  the  copper  sulphate  crystallised  from  a  hot 
watery  solution.  Blue  vitriol  made  from  pyrites  always 
contains  iron,  which  does  not,  however,  interfere  with  its 
medicinal  uses.  It  occurs  in  large  blue  triclinic  prisms, 
with  a  styptic  metallic  taste.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it 
effloresces  and  becomes  covered  with  a  greenish-white 
powder  of  carbonate.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  alcohol,  but 
soluble  in  3J  parts  of  cold  water,  and  in  2J  of  glycerin. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — In  moderate  doses  or  weak  solutions 
it  is  antiseptic,  astringent,  and  tonic  in  the  alimentary  tract. 
Even  small  doses  induce  emesis  in  dogs  and  other  carnivora. 
Large  doses  and  concentrated  solutions  are  irritant  and 
caustic.  Externally,  applied  to  a  mucous  membrane  or  a 
wound,  it  combines  with  the  albumin  of  the  tissues  with 
which  it  comes  into  contact,  and  is  used  as  a  stimulant, 
astringent,  and  caustic.  Like  many  other  metallic  salts,  it 
arrests  the  action  of  enzymes  and  of  organised  ferments,  and 
has  an  inhibitory  action  on  parasites  such  as  worms. 


COPPER   SULPHATE  245 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Hertwig  records  that  large  doses  (above 
twelve  drachms  for  horses  and  cattle,  one  drachm  for  sheep 
or  swine,  and  half  a  drachm  for  dogs)  cause  indigestion  and 
impaired  appetite  ;  in  carnivora,  vomiting  and  diarrhoea  ; 
the  evacuations  are  tinged  green  or  blue,  and  mixed  with 
blood  ;  and  fatal  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines 
usually  follows.  Drouard  found  that  60  grains  retained  in 
the  stomach  of  a  dog  killed  it  in  half  an  hour,  but  left  little 
appearance  of  inflammation.  Mitscherlich  found  that  two 
drachms  speedily  killed  dogs,  leaving  '  blueness  of  the  villous 
coat  of  the  stomach,  mingled  with  brownness,  the  apparent 
effect  of  chemical  action.'  A  drachm  applied  to  a  wound 
caused  in  dogs  rapid  prostration,  and  death  in  four  hours. 
Injected  into  the  jugular  vein,  it  speedily  reduces  and 
arrests  the  action  of  the  heart,  15  grains  proving  fatal  in 
twelve  seconds  (Christison).  In  poisoning  by  copper  salts, 
the  appropriate  antidotes  are  white  of  egg  and  milk,  which 
form  insoluble  innocuous  albuminates  ;  iron  filings,  which 
attract  and  fix  the  copper  ;  or  potassium  ferrocyanide, 
which  produces  a  comparatively  insoluble  and  harmless 
salt. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Copper  sulphate  is  given  to  dogs  and 
cats  as  a  promptly-acting  effectual  emetic,  useful  in  narcotic 
poisoning.  It  acts  chiefly  on  the  stomach.  With  phos- 
phorus it  forms  a  stable,  inert  compound,  the  copper  from 
a  salt  being  deposited  in  the  metallic  form  on  the  particles 
of  phosphorus,  so  that  copper  sulphate  is  a  valuable  antidote 
in  phosphorus  poisoning.  It  is  prescribed  for  all  animals  in 
atony  of  the  stomach  and  excessive  catarrhal  discharges  from 
the  alimentary  canal.  In  chronic  diarrhoea  and  dysentery 
it  is  prescribed  with  opium.  Given  in  bolus,  administered 
fasting,  and  repeated  daily  for  a  week,  it  is  a  useful  general 
vermifuge  for  the  horse.  As  a  nerve  tonic  it  has  been  pre- 
scribed for  weakly  dogs  affected  with  epilepsy  and  chorea, 
but  the  results  have  not  been  reassuring. 

Externally,  it  is  applied  as  a  stimulant,  astringent,  and 
disinfectant.  In  ophthalmia,  as  an  antiseptic  stimulant ; 
as  a  spray  and  gargle  for  ulcerated  sore-throat ;  as  an  anti- 
septic stimulant  and  caustic  for  sluggish  wounds,  discharging 
and  parasitic  skin  diseases,  exuberant  granulations,  grease, 


246          ANTISEPTIC,    ASTRINGENT,    AND    TONIC 

canker,  cracked  heels,  sinuses,  fistulse,  and  in  foot-rot  in 
sheep,  and  as  a  styptic  for  arresting  haemorrhage  from  super- 
ficial vessels. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  a  tonic  and  astringent,  horses  take  3i-  to 
3ij.  ;  cattle,  3i-  to  3iv-  5  sheep,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  pigs, 
grs.  v.  to  grs.  x. ;  and  dogs,  gr.  J  to  grs.  ij.  These  doses, 
repeated  twice  daily,  are  administered  either  in  bolus  or  dis- 
solved in  some  mucilaginous  solution  ;  and  as  tonics  are  best 
given  along  with  food,  or  immediately  after  feeding.  Unless 
in  very  small  doses,  copper  sulphate  should  not  be  given  for 
more  than  ten  days,  as  it  is  apt  to  interfere  with  appetite,  and 
even  cause  nausea.  As  a  prompt  emetic  for  the  dog,  grains 
ii.  to  grains  x.  are  given  dissolved  in  water,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  iii. 
for  cats,  and  grs.  viii.  to  grs.  xxiv.  for  pigs.  Externally,  the 
powder  or  a  watery  solution  is  applied,  and  the  crystals  are 
used  as  an  escharotic.  A  useful  caustic  injection  for  sinuous 
wounds  is  made  with  two  ounces  each  of  copper  and  zinc 
sulphates,  three  ounces  of  lead  acetate  and  a  pint  of  vinegar. 
Shepherds  make  an  ointment  for  foot-rot  with  equal  weights 
of  powdered  blue  vitriol,  gunpowder  and  lard.  A  more 
convenient  and  adhesive  application  is  prepared  by  carefully 
mixing  over  a  slow  fire  one  part  of  powdered  blue  vitriol 
with  one  of  lard  and  two  of  tar.  A  resinate  of  copper  may 
be  made  by  boiling  12  parts  of  copper  sulphate  in  250  parts 
of  water,  and  adding  25  parts  of  powdered  resin.  The  solid 
resinate,  dissolved  as  required  in  methylated  alcohol  and 
glycerin,  is  used  as  an  injection  for  quittor  and  similar 
wounds. 

COPPER  IODIDE.    Cupri  lodidum.      Cuprous  Iodide.     Cu2I2- 

It  is  the  by-product  in  one  of  the  processes  for  making 
iodine,  and  is  also  obtained  by  mixing  solutions  of  cuprous 
sulphate  and  potassium  iodide.  It  is  a  fawn-coloured  salt, 
has  a  disagreeable,  styptic,  coppery  taste,  and  evolves  an 
odour  of  iodine.  It  was  introduced  in  the  belief  that  it 
conjoined  the  actions  of  its  two  constituents  ;  but  large 
doses,  in  which  its  characteristic  actions  should  be  most 
obvious,  produce  the  effects  of  other  soluble  copper  salts. 
It  has  been  recommended  as  a  stimulating  tonic  in  chronic 


COPPER   ACETATE  247 

oedema  of  the  legs,  and  as  an  astringent  in  ill-conditioned 
ulcers  and  inveterate  grease. 

COPPER  ACETATE.    Cupri  Acetas.    Cupri  subacetas.    Verdi- 
gris.    ^Erugo. 

Copper  subacetate  may  be  prepared  by  subjecting  plates 
of  copper  to  the  vapour  of  acetic  acid.  It  occurs  either  in 
amorphous  masses  or  powder,  is  blue  or  green,  according  to 
the  mode  of  preparation,  and  has  the  taste  and  odour  of 
a  copper  salt.  It  remains  unchanged  in  air  ;  when  heated, 
it  gives  off  water,  acetic  acid,  and  acetone,  leaving  a  residue 
of  oxide  and  metal. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  acetate,  like  other  copper  salts, 
is  an  irritant  poison,  emetic,  antiseptic,  astringent,  and  tonic, 
but  is  rarely  prescribed  internally.  It  is  used  externally  as  a 
caustic,  stimulant,  astringent,  and  antiseptic. 

Drouard  exhibited  12  grains  of  the  subacetate  to  a  strong 
dog  fasting,  and  observed  aversion  to  food,  efforts  to  vomit, 
diarrhoea,  listlessness,  and  death  in  twenty- two  hours. 
Paralysis  of  the  hind  extremities  was  also  observable  in  some 
cases,  but  in  none  was  the  stomach  much  inflamed.  Cupric 
acetate  is  still  more  active.  Orfila  found  that  12  to  15 
grains  given  to  dogs,  produced  besides  gastric  irritation, 
convulsions,  tetanus,  sometimes  insensibility,  and  death 
within  an  hour.  The  toxic  dose  for  the  horse  is  two  ounces. 
Hertwig  records  that  one  ounce  administered  to  a  horse 
caused  colic,  with  acceleration  of  the  pulse  ;  and  that  two 
ounces,  given  some  hours  after,  aggravated  these  symptoms, 
causing  first  acceleration  and  then  depression  of  the  pulse, 
debility,  and,  after  six  hours,  convulsions  and  death.  Pre- 
scribed internally,  the  doses  of  the  acetate  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  sulphate.  The  external  uses  are  also  the 
same.  It  is  applied  in  the  form  of  solution  or  ointment, 
the  latter  made  with  one  part  of  the  salt  to  eight  or  ten 
of  lard  or  of  resin  ointment.  A  useful  dressing  for  foot- 
rot  in  sheep  is  made  with  one  part  of  acetate  to  three  or 
four  parts  of  lard,  oil,  or  tar.  Liniment  of  Verdigris,  or  Mel 
^Egyptiacum,  is  made  with  9  ounces  of  verdigris,  6  ounces  of 
alum,  and  1J  Ibs.  of  honey,  or  treacle,  heated  together  over 


248  SILVER   NITRATE 

a  water-bath  until  the  mixture  assumes  a  brown  colour. 
It  is  employed  as  a  dressing  for  open  joint,  for  thrush, 
canker,  and  other  foot  cases. 


SILVER  AND   ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 

SILVER  NITRATE.     Argenti  Nitras.     Lunar  Caustic.     Lapis 
Infernalis.     AgN03. 

When  metallic  silver  is  gently  heated  with  diluted  nitric 
acid,  and  the  solution  evaporated,  silver  nitrate  crystallises 
in  colourless  right  rhombic  prisms.  To  form  the  familiar 
sticks  or  pencils,  the  salt  is  fused  and  run  into  moulds. 
Toughened  caustic  is  prepared  by  adding,  before  fusion,  one 
part  potassium  nitrate  to  nineteen  parts  silver  nitrate. 
Mitigated  caustic  is  made  by  fusing  together  one  part  of 
silver  nitrate,  and  two  parts  of  potassium  nitrate,  and 
pouring  into  moulds. 

Argenti  nitras  is  devoid  of  odour,  has  a  disagreeable 
metallic  taste,  is  permanent  in  air,  but  blackens  on  exposure 
to  light  or  in  contact  with  organic  matters.  It  is  soluble  in 
its  own  weight  of  cold  water,  ether,  and  glycerin,  and  slightly 
soluble  in  rectified  spirit.  It  blackens  the  cuticle,  parts 
readily  with  oxygen,  and  thus  corrodes  soft  animal  tissues. 

Like  other  silver  salts,  it  is  distinguished  by  giving,  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  a  curdy-white  precipitate  of  silver  chloride 
(AgCl),  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  soluble  in  ammonia,  and 
darkened  by  exposure  to  light. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  antiseptic,  astringent,  irritant, 
and  corrosive,  is  used  as  a  caustic,  and  administered  as  an 
astringent  and  nerve  tonic.  It  induces  emesis  in  animals 
capable  of  vomiting.  Large  doses  cause  gastro-enteritis, 
corrosion  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  and 
intestine,  and  then  prostration  and  collapse. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Like  iron,  zinc,  and  copper  salts,  which  it 
resembles,  silver  nitrate  readily  unites  with  albumin.  It  is 
absorbed  slowly  as  an  albuminate  ;  and  the  astringent, 
irritant,  and  caustic  actions  of  the  solid  nitrate  or  a  strong 
solution,  are  confined  to  the  parts  with  which  it  comes  into 
contact.  When  vomiting  is  prevented,  30  to  60  grains 


SILVER   NITRATE  249 

given  to  dogs  cause  prostration,  weakness  of  heart  action, 
intestinal  irritation,  and  sometimes  convulsions,  paralysis, 
and  death  from  shock.  When  administered  for  some  time 
it  is  deposited  in  the  skin  and  blackens  it  ('  argyria  '),  and 
has  also  been  detected  in  the  liver,  spleen,  pancreas,  and 
bones.  As  in  the  case  of  arsenic,  antimony,  or  phos- 
phorus, chronic  poisoning  is  accompanied  by  fatty  degenera- 
tion. Rosenstern,  experimenting  on  the  vessels  of  the 
mesentery  of  frogs,  with  weak  solutions  of  various  astrin- 
gents, found  silver  nitrate  most  powerful ;  lead  acetate 
followed  next  in  order,  requiring  for  production  of  a  given 
effect  a  solution  five  times  as  strong  ;  ferric  chloride  acted 
only  feebly ;  alum  caused  dilatation.  Silver  nitrate  is 
slowly  excreted  in  the  albuminous  secretions  and  in  the 
bile,  mainly  by  the  bowels,  very  little,  if  any,  by  the  kidneys. 
Undue  irritation,  produced  whether  internally  or  externally, 
is  diminished  by  solution  of  common  salt,  which  forms  the 
insoluble  and  inert  chloride  ;  milk  and  eggs  should  also  be 
given.  For  pigmentation  there  is  no  certain  remedy, 
although  potassium  iodide  may  be  tried. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — As  a  tonic  it  is  prescribed  in  chronic 
nervous  diseases,  especially  amongst  dogs.  Like  arsenic, 
it  is  sometimes  used  to  check  chronic  gastric  irritation. 
Alone,  or  in  combination  with  opium,  it  is  given  as  an 
astringent  in  chronic  diarrhoea  and  dysentery  in  dogs  ; 
while  enemata  of  2  to  5  grains  to  the  ounce  of  distilled 
water  or  of  starch  gruel  are  occasionally  also  used. 

Applied  to  irritable,  relaxed,  discharging  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces,  it  coagulates  mucus  and  albumin,  eonstringes 
dilated  vessels,  produces  a  white  film  of  chloride,  which 
quickly  deepens  in  colour,  from  the  reduction  of  the 
salt  to  the  sulphide  and  metal.  The  solid  nitrate  or 
strong  solution  rubbed  into  the  skin  raises  blisters.  The 
eschar  remaining,  after  a  free  dressing,  gradually  cracks  and 
peels  off,  leaving  usually  a  healthy  surface  beneath.  The 
solid  nitrate  acting  superficially,  and  readily  localised,  is  for 
many  purposes  preferable  to  fluid  caustics,  or  to  the  delique- 
scent caustic  potash.  It  is  serviceable  for  destroying  ring- 
worm, warts,  and  other  neoplasms,  and  checking  the  progress 
of  indolent  boils.  Silver  nitrate  rolled  in  a  piece  of  tissue 


250  TONIC,    ASTRINGENT,    AND    CORROSIVE 

paper  is  sometimes  substituted  for  corrosive  sublimate  in 
treating  sinuses  not  easily  reached  with  the  knife,  and  a  few 
days  after  its  introduction  causes  sloughing  of  the  hard  walls 
of  the  canal,  and  leaves  a  healthy  granulating  surface.  It 
forms  one  of  the  most  effectual  remedies  for  the  inter- 
digital  inflammation  and  discharge  of  contagious  foot-rot 
in  sheep. 

A  light  dressing  of  the  solid  caustic,  or  of  a  weak  solution, 
promotes  a  healthier  condition  of  indolent  wounds  and 
ulcers,  represses  over-luxuriant  granulations,  often  arrests 
the  irritability  of  circumscribed  attacks  of  erythema, 
eczema,  or  pruritus,  and  is  an  excellent  dressing  for 
chronic  sore  teats  in  cows.  Solutions  of  10  to  20  grains 
to  the  ounce  of  water  destroy  the  parasites  of  mange  and 
scab. 

A  solution  containing  half  a  grain  to  two  grains  to  an 
ounce  of  distilled  water  abates  the  pain  and  congestion 
of  conjunctivitis,  and  stimulates  and  heals  the  inflamed, 
suppurating  eyelids  of  weakly  dogs.  It  removes  opacity 
of  the  cornea,  if  recent  and  produced  by  accident,  but 
is  of  little  avail  in  dense  opacity  of  the  cornea,  result- 
ing in  horses  from  repeated  attacks  of  ophthalmia. 
Solutions  of  10  to  30  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water  are 
sometimes  used,  with  a  spray  producer,  to  control 
laryngeal  ulceration,  follicular  tonsillitis,  and  pharyngitis 
in  dogs. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  nitrate  horses  and  cattle  take  grs. 
viii.  to  grs.  xv.  ;  sheep,  gr.  ij.  to  grs.  iv.  ;  pigs,  gr.  j.  to 
grs.  ij. ;  dogs,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  j.  These  doses  may  be  repeated 
two  or  three  times  daily,  and  are  given  in  bolus  or  pill. 
When  astringent  effects  are  to  be  directed  upon  an 
ulcerated  or  discharging  portion  of  intestine,  the  bolus 
should  be  made  with  kaolin,  and  given  coated  with 
keratin.  The  oxide,  having  no  topical  irritant  effect,  is 
sometimes  substituted  for  the  nitrate  as  a  nerve  tonic. 
For  external  purposes  the  sticks  of  nitrate  are  sometimes 
coated  with  wax  to  preserve  them  from  the  decomposing 
action  of  air  and  light ;  and  are  held  in  quills  or  forceps 
to  prevent  their  blackening  the  fingers.  An  ointment  is 
occasionally  made  with  grs.  v.  to  grs.  viij.  to  the  ounce  of 


SILVER   COMPOUNDS  251 

vaseline.  Solutions  require  to  be  protected  from  light,  and 
kept  in  bottles  with  glass  stoppers.  Silver  nitrate  is  in- 
compatible with  highly  oxidised  bodies,  and  forms  explosive 
compounds  with  creosote  and  morphine. 

Argentum    Colloidale.      Collargolum.      Soluble    metallic 
silver  prepared  from  the  directions  of  Dr.  Crede,  by  Heydens' 
Chemical  Company.     Colloid  silver  occurs  in  small  hard 
masses  of  a  greenish-grey  lustre,  containing  97  per  cent,  of 
silver.     Reduced  to  powder,  it  is  soluble  in  20  parts  of  water 
and  in  albuminous  fluids.     It  is  antiseptic  and,  except  in 
excessive  doses,  non-poisonous.     This  soluble  silver  is  stated 
to  be  of  great  value  in  the  treatment  of  septic  diseases  in  man. 
In  veterinary  practice  it  has  been  used  as  a  remedy  for  equine 
purpura  haemorrhagica,  strangles,  and  omphalo-phlebitis  of 
foals   and   calves,   with   the   object   of   destroying   micro- 
organisms or  their  toxins  in  the  blood  and  tissues.     Diecker- 
hoff   obtained  very   satisfactory   results   in   four   cases   of 
purpura  treated  by  intravenous  injection  of  one  per  cent, 
aqueous  solution  in  doses  of  50  grammes.    Further  investiga- 
tion is  necessary  to  determine  the  proper  dose  and  frequency 
of  administration.     To  one  patient,  in  ten  hours,  Dieckerhoff 
gave  five  injections  of  7|  grains  silver  colloid  dissolved  in 
water.     The  solution  does  not  irritate  the  vein.     It  may  be 
administered  subcutaneously,  or  in  pill  or  bolus  mixed  with 
sugar  of  milk  and  glycerin.     A  solution  (one  or  two  per  cent.) 
may  be  used  to  spray  or  inject  wounds.     An  ointment  is 
employed  for  skin  diseases.     For  intravenous  injection  a 
one  per  cent,  solution  in  sterilised  water  is  employed  in 
doses  of  3VJ-  to  3XU-  f°r  horses  ;  3J-  to  3ij-  f°r  foals  and 
calves;  and  H\xxx.  to  3J-  f°r  dogs.     These  doses  may  be 
repeated  twice  a  day.    Actol,  or  silver  lactate,  is  a  white, 
tasteless,  and  odourless  powder,  soluble  in  twenty  parts  of 
water.     An  aqueous  solution  of  1  in  800  forms  an  active 
germicide.     Itrol,  or  silver  citrate,  occurs  as  a  light  powder, 
without  odour  or  taste,  slightly  soluble  in  water  (3800  parts). 
Less  irritating   than   the   lactate,   it   is   employed   as   an 
antiseptic  lotion  (1  in  5000  of  water),  or  ointment  (1  to  50 
of  lanoline)  for  wounds  and  skin  eruptions.     Argentol,  a 
compound  of  silver  and  quinaseptol,  is  used  as  a  substitute 
for  iodoform. 


252  IRON    SALTS 

Protargol,  a  silver  albumose,  containing  eight  per  cent,  of 
silver,  is  a  yellow  powder,  readily  soluble  in  water  and  in 
glycerin  ;  insoluble  in  alcohol.  The  solution  is  not  affected 
by  heat,  albumin,  sodium  chloride,  caustic  soda,  or  hydro- 
chloric acid.  It  is  said  to  be  absolutely  non-irritating.  An 
aqueous  solution  (1  to  10  per  cent.)  forms  a  penetrating 
antiseptic  of  great  value  in  the  treatment  of  vaginal  catarrh, 
keratitis,  conjunctivitis,  and  otorrhcea.  Argonin,  a  com- 
bination of  silver  casein  and  alkali,  containing  4  per  cent,  of 
silver,  is  a  white  powder,  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  freely 
soluble  in  hot  water.  Solutions  of  one  to  five  parts  in  100  of 
water,  are  powerful  germicides  (Coblentz). 


IRON  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 
IRON.     Ferrum.     Ferrum  redactum.     Fe. 

Iron  is  a  lustrous  grey  metal,  tenacious,  malleable,  ductile, 
the  least  fusible  of  the  useful  metals,  but  readily  welded  at  a 
white  heat.  It  is  attracted  by  the  magnet,  and  becomes 
itself  magnetic.  It  is  widely  diffused  in  rocks  and  soils,  and 
is  present  in  the  structures  of  plants  and  animals.  Small 
quantities  occur  uncombined,  probably  of  meteoric  origin. 
Its  chief  ores  are  the  oxides,  comprising  magnetic  ore  and 
haematites  ;  the  carbonates  or  clay  ironstone,  and  black- 
band  ;  and  the  bisulphide  or  pyrites. 

Iron  forms  three  compounds  with  oxygen — FeO,  Fe203, 
and  Fe304 — the  last  being  a  compound  of  the  other  two. 
Iron  forms  two  series  of  salts — the  lower  proto  or  ferrous 
salts,  in  which  it  is  divalent  and  magnetic ;  and  the 
higher  per  or  ferric  salts,  in  which  it  is  trivalent  and  non- 
magnetic. 

The  ferrous  salts  are  reducing  agents,  are  chiefly  grey  or 
green,  and  in  solution  give,  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  negative  results  ;  with  ammonium 
hydrosulphide,  a  black  precipitate  of  hydrated  sulphide 
(FeS.H20)  ;  with  caustic  alkalies,  white  or  grey  precipitates 
of  hydrated  protoxide,  Fe(HO)2,  rapidly  becoming  green  and 
then  brown  ;  with  potassium  ferrocyanide,  a  white  precipi- 
tate, gradually  becoming  blue  by  oxidation  ;  with  potassium 


IRON   A   GABBIER   OF   OXYGEN  253 

ferricyanide,  a  precipitate  dark-blue  from  the  first,  Fe4[Fe 


The  ferric  salts  are  oxidising  agents,  are  mostly  brown  or 
red,  and  in  solution  exhibit,  with  hydrochloric  acid,  a  nega- 
tive reaction  ;  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  give  a  white 
precipitate  of  sulphur  ;  with  ammonium  hydrosulphide,  the 
black  ferrous  sulphide,  together  with  sulphur  ;  with  caustic 
alkalies,  a  brown-red  precipitate  of  ferric  hydrate  ;  with 
potassium  ferrocyanide,  a  deep-blue  precipitate  of  Prussian 
blue,  at  once  goes  down  ;  with  potassium  ferricyanide,  no 
precipitate,  but  an  olive  or  brown  discoloration  ;  with 
solution  of  galls,  neutral  solutions  yield  a  blue-black  pre- 
cipitate —  the  basis  of  writing  ink  ;  with  potassium  sulpho- 
cyanide,  an  intense  blood-red  colour. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.  —  Iron  and  its  salts  were  the  first 
mineral  substances  employed  in  medicine  ;  they  have  been 
used  for  three  thousand  years  ;  but  although  anciently  and 
extensively  prescribed,  a  good  deal  has  still  to  be  learned 
regarding  them. 

The  presence  of  iron  seems  to  be  essential  to  life  of  practi- 
cally all  forms  of  protoplasm.  In  the  bodies  of  the  higher 
animals  iron  occurs  chiefly  in  the  blood.  About  9  grammes  is 
obtained  from  the  blood  of  a  horse  or  ox  of  about  1000  Ibs. 
live-  weight.  In  the  haemoglobin  and  oxy  haemoglobin  the 
iron  performs  much  the  same  functions  as  it  does  in  the 
ferrous  and  ferric  oxides  in  the  soils.  In  the  lungs,  haemo- 
globin takes  up  oxygen,  and  becomes  oxyhaemoglobin,  which 
readily  parts  with  oxygen  as  it  circulates  through  the 
capillary  vessels.  Thus  maintaining  the  healthy  activity  of 
these  blood  constituents,  iron  is  said  to  act  as  a  haematinic  or 
blood  tonic.  Its  curative  effects  are  specially  manifested  in 
anaemia,  in  which  the  number  of  red  corpuscles  and  amount 
of  haemoglobin  are  seriously  reduced,  sometimes  to  the 
amount  of  one-fifth  of  their  normal  proportion,  impairing 
tissue  oxidation  and  functional  activity.  In  chlorosis, 
where  there  is  a  deficiency  of  haemoglobin  but  a  normal 
number  of  red  cells,  it  is  especially  valuable.  Clinical 
observation  testifies  that  full  doses  of  iron  restore  the  pallid 
soft  textures  to  their  normal  colour  and  firmness,  and  im- 
prove general  health.  These  curative  results  depend  upon 


254      IRON  SALTS  PARTIALLY  AND  SLOWLY  ABSORBED 

the  medicine  being  absorbed,  and  directly  furnishing  iron  to 
the  haemoglobin,  restoring  its  deficiency,  and  aiding  the 
formation  of  red  blood  corpuscles  from  leucocytes. 

A  prolonged  controversy  has  waged  on  the  question  of  the 
absorption  of  iron  salts,  and  although  clinical  experience  of 
the  remarkable  value  of  iron  in  cases  of  ansemia,  especially 
chlorosis,  warranted  the  assumption  that  the  iron  given  was 
absorbed  and  supplied  iron  to  the  blood,  yet  many  author- 
ities have  denied  that  the  drug  was  absorbed  at  all.  Bunge 
notably  was  of  this  opinion,  and  he  affirmed  that  the  bene- 
ficial action  of  inorganic  iron  in  any  of  its  salts  was  simply  to 
remove  from  the  alimentary  tract,  by  combination  and 
precipitation,  the  excess  of  alkaline  sulphides  there  as  a 
result  of  dyspepsia.  He  believed  that  these  sulphides 
united  with  and  precipitated  the  organic  iron  contained  in 
food  which  would  normally  have  been  absorbed  and  would 
have  supplied  the  necessary  iron  to  the  blood.  Thus  on 
this  theory  inorganic  iron  was  only  useful  by  making  it 
possible  for  organic  food  iron  to  be  absorbed.  This  theory 
has  now  been  given  up,  by  its  author  among  others,  and  it 
can  be  definitely  stated  that  a  small  part  of  the  inorganic 
iron  given  by  the  mouth  is  absorbed.  Iron  salts  are  con- 
verted into  the  chloride  in  the  stomach  and  then  into  the 
albuminate.  As  the  latter  it  is  absorbed  in  the  duodenum 
and  carried  to  the  spleen  and  liver  in  which  organs  it  is 
stored.  It  appears  probable  that  this  iron  stimulates  the 
blood-forming  tissues,  such  as  the  red  marrow,  and  it 
supplies  the  needs  of  the  blood  and  other  tissues  whilst  the 
excess  is  excreted  chiefly  by  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
large  intestine. 

Neither  ferrous  nor  ferric  salts  dissolve  or  pass  through 
the  epidermis.  Both,  except  the  albuminate  of  iron, 
coagulate  albumin,  and  exert  astringent  effects  on  mucous 
and  denuded  skin  surfaces,  and  also  coagulate  blood. 
Soluble  iron  salts,  which  do  not  coagulate  albumin,  such  as 
the  albuminate  or  double  tart  rate  of  iron  and  sodium,  when 
injected  into  the  circulation  produce  metallic  poisoning, 
characterised  by  muscular  and  nervous  depression,  dys- 
pnoeic  breathing,  vomiting,  cardiac  weakness,  and  gastro- 
intestinal, and  to  a  less  extent,  renal  inflammation.  But 


ACTIONS    OF   IRON    SALTS  255 

when  iron  salts  are  swallowed  no  such  effects  are  produced, 
for  absorption  is  too  slow  and  the  quantity  too  small. 

It  would  thus  appear  that  iron  salts  are  absorbed,  but 
only  partially  and  slowly  from  the  alimentary  tract ;  only 
small  proportions  of  the  doses  prescribed  can  be  used  by  the 
red  blood  corpuscles  ;  the  absorbed  portions,  as  occur  with 
so  many  other  metallic  salts,  accumulate  in  the  liver,  spleen, 
bone  marrow,  and  lymphatic  glands,  and  are  again  returned 
to  the  intestine  to  be  excreted. 

The  numerous  salts  of  iron  possess  much  the  same  kind  of 
action,  but  differ  considerably  in  the  degree  of  their  activity. 
Comparing  the  ferrous  with  the  ferric  salts,  the  latter  are 
darker  coloured,  more  soluble  and  stable,  as  well  as  more 
irritant  and  astringent.  Small  dogs  are  injured  by  4  or  5 
grains  of  ferric  chloride,  but  swallow  without  harm  40 
grains  of  ferrous  sulphate.  The  more  soluble  ferric  salts  are 
notably  irritant,  astringent,  and  corrosive.  In  the  earlier 
stages  of  convalescence,  where  the  stomach  is  irritable,  in 
young  patients,  and  especially  in  dogs,  ferrous  iodide  or  the 
carbonate,  in  the  conveniently  keeping  saccharated  form,  is 
usually  better  borne  than  the  ferric  chloride,  or  even  the 
ferrous  sulphate.  But  in  order  to  secure  the  full  tonic 
effects  of  iron  it  is  essential  that  the  bowels  be  maintained 
in  a  natural  state,  and  an  occasional  laxative  should  be  given 
to  counteract  the  constipating  effect  of  the  drug.  Where 
prompt  astringent  effects  are  to  be  produced,  full  doses  of 
the  chloride  or  other  soluble  ferric  salt  are  given. 

The  salts  of  iron  chiefly  used  in  veterinary  practice,  and 
hence  demanding  special  notice,  are  the  saccharated  car- 
bonate, ferrous  sulphate,  and  iodide,  with  the  ferric  oxide 
and  chloride. 

Metallic  iron,  as  filings  or  pulvis  ferri,  is  occasionally  given 
in  cases  of  poisoning  with  salts  of  mercury  and  copper. 
Ferrum  redactum,  or  reduced  iron,  is  a  greyish-black  powder, 
containing  75  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron  with  iron  oxide. 
Tasteless,  and  without  astringency,  it  is  frequently  pre- 
scribed for  young,  unthrifty  animals  as  a  hsematinic,  which 
is  less  apt  to  derange  digestion  than  the  sulphate.  Iron 
arsenate  has  been  prescribed  in  squamous  and  herpetic  skin 
diseases,  in  about  the  same  doses  as  arsenic,  and  is  also 


256  IRON    CARBONATE 

applied  externally.  Citrate  of  iron  and  quinine,  conjoining 
the  tonic  properties  of  its  components,  and  the  less  astringent 
citrate  of  iron  and  ammonium  are  occasionally  used  for  dogs, 
in  doses  of  4  to  10  grains.  Dialysed  iron  and  amorphous 
quinine  have  been  conjoined.  The  phosphate  (Fe3P208)  is 
sometimes  prescribed  in  diseases  of  the  bones,  in  diabetes, 
and  in  nervous  exhaustion.  It  is  occasionally  given  to 
delicate  dogs  and  foals,  along  with  other  phosphates,  in  the 
form  of  Squire's  Chemical  Food,  which  contains  the  phos- 
phates of  iron,  calcium,  sodium,  and  potassium,  and  in 
nervous  depression  with  quinine  and  strychnine  in  the 
preparation  known  as  Easton's  Syrup. 

The  acetate,  lactate,  citrate,  and  tartrate,  are  very  soluble, 
readily  absorbed,  and  only  slightly  astringent,  are  sometimes 
preferred  to  the  less  expensive  sulphate  and  carbonate. 

Ferratin,  a  brownish-red  powder,  prepared  from  alkaline 
solution  of  tartarated  iron  and  albumin,  and  containing 
7  per  cent,  of  iron,  is  prescribed  as  a  tonic  for  dogs,  in  doses 
of  grs.  5  to  grs.  30. 

IRON  CARBONATE.      Ferri  Carbonas.      Ferrous  Carbonate. 

FeC03. 
S ACCHARATED  IRON  CARBONATE  .  Ferri  Carbonas  Saccharatus . 

The  ferrous  carbonate  occurs  in  clay  iron  ore  and  in  many 
mineral  waters.  It  is  prepared  by  mixing  solutions  of  iron 
sulphate  and  ammonium  carbonate.  It  is  greyish-green,  has 
a  chalybeate,  inky-taste,  and  dissolves  with  brisk  efferves- 
cence in  hydrochloric  acid.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it  rapidly 
absorbs  oxygen,  gives  off  carbonic  anhydride,  and  becomes 
converted  into  ferric  oxyhydrate — a  change  constantly 
taking  place  along  the  banks  of  chalybeate  streams. 

The  saeeharated  carbonate  is  greatly  more  stable.  It  is 
made  by  rubbing  the  freshly-prepared  carbonate  with  sugar 
in  a  porcelain  mortar.  It  occurs  in  small,  coherent,  grey 
lumps,  has  a  sweet,  feebly  chalybeate  taste,  and  should 
contain  about  20  grains  of  ferrous  carbonate  in  a  drachm. 
It  is  readily  soluble,  is  a  mild  chalybeate,  especially  con- 
venient in  canine  practice,  and  administered  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  sulphate.  Doses,  horses  and  cattle,  3 j-  to 


IRON   SULPHATE  257 

3Jv.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xx.  to  3J-  \  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  grs. 
xv.,  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

IRON  SULPHATE.    Ferri  Sulphas.    Ferrous  Sulphate.    Green 
Vitriol.     Copperas.     FeS04.7H20. 

Iron  sulphate  may  be  prepared  by  the  interaction  of 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  iron. 

Ferrous  sulphate  occurs  in  bluish-green,  oblique,  rhombic 
prisms,  which,  exposed  to  the  air,  gradually  oxidise,  becom- 
ing opaque,  and  covered  with  a  brown  coating  of  the  normal 
and  basic  ferric  sulphate  ;  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  retards 
this  oxidation.  It  has  an  inky,  styptic  taste  ;  is  insoluble  in 
rectified  spirit,  but  soluble  in  less  than  two  parts  of  cold 
water  ;  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  212°  F.,  until  aqueous 
vapour  ceases  to  be  given  off,  it  parts  with  six-sevenths  of 
its  water  of  crystallisation,  and  forms  the  exsiccated  sulphate. 
This  dried  sulphate  is  a  white  powder,  slowly  but  entirely 
soluble  hi  water. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Topically  applied,  it  is  astringent  and 
antiseptic.  When  swallowed  it  is  a  hsematinic,  astrin- 
gent, and,  in  large  doses,  irritant.  It  is  twice  as  active  as 
the  oxides  and  carbonates,  but  it  is  not  so  astringent,  cor- 
rosive, or  irritant  as  the  ferric  chloride  or  nitrate.  As  an 
antiseptic  it  is  not  so  powerful  as  the  ferric  chloride,  but  has 
about  the  same  power  as  the  sulphates  of  alumina  and  zinc. 
Gohier  administered  10  J  ounces  to  a  horse,  6  ounces  to  a 
donkey,  and  3  ounces  to  a  six-months  foal.  All  were 
nauseated  ;  no  appreciable  increase  of  iron  appeared  in  the 
excretions  from  either  bowels  or  kidneys.  The  three  subjects 
died  the  following  day,  and  their  intestines  were  found  to  be 
gangrenous  (Kaufmann). 

MEDICINAL  USES.— Iron  sulphate  is  administered  to  all 
veterinary  patients  in  anaemia,  and  especially  when  it  is  con- 
nected with  dyspepsia.  It  improves  the  appetite,  diminishes 
exhausting  discharges,  and  abates  glandular  enlargements. 
It  is  specially  beneficial  in  anaemia  occurring  in  young 
horses,  cattle,  or  sheep,  kept  throughout  the  late  autumn  or 
winter  on  grass  that  has  lost  its  nutritive  value,  or  in  young 
stock  that  have  been  reduced  by  restriction  to  indigestible, 

B 


258  IRON    SULPHATE 

poor  straw  fodder.  Along  with  concentrated,  good  food, 
the  iron  salt  in  many  such  cases  is  advantageously  conjoined 
or  alternated  with  quinine  and  other  bitter  tonics,  nux 
vomica,  acids,  and  occasionally  with  arsenic. 

In  conjunction  with  nutritive  and  oleaginous  diet,  iron  is 
given  to  horses  and  cattle  to  improve  condition.  It  is  said 
to  abate  nasal  gleet  and  leucorrhcea.  It  is  prescribed  with 
aloes  for  atonic  torpidity  of  the  bowels,  and  for  destroying 
intestinal  worms.  Combined  with  iodine,  it  arrests  diabetes 
insipidus  in  horses.  It  is  one  of  the  remedies  given  to 
check  the  earlier  progress  of  liver-rot  in  sheep.  Chorea  and 
epilepsy,  when  connected,  as  they  often  are,  with  anaemia, 
are  benefited  by  iron.  In  hsemorrhagie  cases,  as  in  purpura, 
it  is  prescribed  with  a  mineral  acid,  and  alternated  with 
quinine.  Given  after  a  laxative,  it  aids  recovery  of  cattle 
and  sheep  from  red- water. 

In  convalescence  from  debilitating  disorders  it  is  regarded 
as  a  valuable  hsematinic.  In  the  several  forms  of  influenza 
and  bronchitis,  Robertson  prescribed  ferrous  sulphate  and 
nux  vomica,  of  each  half  a  drachm,  with  four  drachms  of 
powdered  gentian,  in  bolus.  In  irritability,  chronic  catarrh, 
or  hsemorrhagic  conditions  of  the  urinary  bladder,  such  as 
accompany  or  follow  epizootic  disorders  in  horses,  it  has 
been  prescribed  with  sulphuric  acid  and  alternated  with 
salicylic  acid.  A  course  of  iron  and  quinine  is  advised  in 
convalescence  from  nephritis.  Although  itself  devoid  of 
purgative  effect,  iron  sulphate  is  stated  to  increase  the 
activity  of  most  cathartics  with  which  it  is  combined.  The 
sulphate  in  solution,  2  to  10  per  cent.,  is  much  used  as  an 
astringent  antiseptic.  Mixed  with  sulphates  of  lime  and 
alumina,  Tuson's  disinfectant  powder  is  formed,  which, 
when  moistened,  gives  off  sulphurous  anhydride. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  3ss.  to  3ij-  ;  cattle,  ^i.  to  3iv.  ; 
sheep,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  pigs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx.  ;  dogs, 
grs.  ij.  to  grs.  x  ;  cats,  gr.  Jth  to  gr.  j.  The  smaller  doses 
are  given  as  hsematinics  and  tonics,  the  larger  as  astrin- 
gents. Two  and  a  half  parts  of  the  dried  sulphate  are  equal 
to  four  of  the  sulphate.  The  drug  is  administered  in  bolus, 
in  solution  in  water-gruel,  infusion  of  calumba,  or  ale,  or 
mixed  with  soft  food,  and  repeated  twice  or  thrice  daily. 


IRON   IODIDE  259 

As  a  tonic  for  horses  and  cattle,  one  to  two  drachms  iron 
sulphate,  and  half  an  ounce  each  of  gentian  and  ginger,  are 
made  into  bolus,  or  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  ale  or  gruel.  Such 
proportions  make  three  or  four  doses  for  sheep  and  eight  or 
ten  for  dogs.  Preparations  of  iron  intended  to  act  as  tonics 
should  be  given  during  or  shortly  after  meals.  Full  doses 
introduced  into  the  empty  stomach,  especially  of  dogs,  are 
apt  to  cause  dyspepsia.  To  obviate  gastric  irritation  or 
constipation,  and  maintain  the  continued  good  effects  of 
iron  tonics,  after  being  used  for  a  week  or  ten  days  they 
should  for  several  days  be  withheld,  or  replaced  by  other 
tonics.  Constipation  and  the  dark  colour  and  fcetor  com- 
municated to  the  dejections  are  abated  by  appropriate  diet, 
combination  with  Epsom  or  Glauber  salt,  or  by  an  occasional 
laxative. 


IRON  IODIDE.     Ferri  lodidum.     FeI24Aq.     (Not  official.) 

When  iodine,  iron  wire,  and  distilled  water  are  gradually 
heated  together,  combination  occurs,  and  the  solution, 
filtered  and  evaporated,  yields  tabular  green  crystals,  which 
are  inodorous,  have  a  styptic,  metallic  taste,  and  are  soluble 
in  about  their  own  weight  of  water  and  alcohol.  When 
heated,  iron  iodide  gives  off  violet-coloured  fumes  of  iodine, 
and,  exposed  to  the  air,  it  deliquesces  and  acquires  a  red- 
brown  colour.  This  oxidation  is  retarded  by  keeping  the 
solution  in  contact  with  fresh  iron  wire,  in  well-stoppered 
bottles,  secluded  from  light,  or  by  boiling  the  freshly- 
prepared  solution  in  syrup. 

ACTIONS,  USES,  AND  DOSES.— It  is  a  haematinic,  altera- 
tive, and  astringent.  Poisonous  doses  are  irritant,  and  pro- 
duce the  effects  of  iron  rather  than  of  iodine.  Thus  Cogs- 
well found  that  three  drachms  caused  in  dogs  vomiting  and 
purging,  while  one  drachm  in  concentrated  solution  killed  a 
rabbit  in  three  hours  and  a  half,  with  the  symptoms  and 
post-mortem  appearances  of  poisoning  with  other  soluble 
salts  of  iron. 

Besides  being  used  for  the  same  haematinic  purposes  as  the 
sulphate,  it  is  given  .to  promote  absorption  of  glandular  en- 
largements, especially  in  young  and  weakly  animals  :  it  is 


260  CHLORIDE    OF   IRON    SOLUTION 

serviceable  in  swellings  of  joints,  and  has  been  commended 
for  its  efficacy  in  polyuria  and  nasal  gleet  in  horses.  The 
doses  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  sulphate.  It  is  prescribed 
in  bolus,  saccharated  powder,  and  in  the  form  of  the  official 
syrupus  ferri  iodidi.  This  syrup,  containing  about  5J  grains 
of  ferrous  iodide  in  each  drachm,  is  frequently  given  in  the 
later  stage  of  canine  distemper  and  bronchitis,  in  doses  of 
Tl\x.  to  Tl\xxx. 

IRON  PEROXIDE  MOIST.  Ferri  Peroxidum  Humidum.  Moist 
Ferric  Oxide,  Fe203.(H20),  with  about  86  per  cent,  of 
uncombined  water. 

Red  or  ferric  oxide  is  found  native  in  the  several  varieties 
of  haematite,  ochre,  red  chalk,  and  specular  ore.  The  hydrate 
may  be  prepared  by  mixing  together  three  ounces  of  liquor 
ferri  perchloridi  and  one  ounce  of  sodium  carbonate  diluted 
with  water.  This  moist  ferric  oxide,  freshly  prepared,  is  the 
best  antidote  for  arsenic.  Twelve  parts  are  stated  to 
neutralise  one  part  of  arsenious  acid.  It  mechanically 
absorbs  the  dissolved  poison,  and  further  converts  it  into 
an  insoluble  arsenite.  The  antidote  should  be  followed  by 
a  saline  purgative.  In  human  patients  doses  of  a  dessert- 
spoonful of  the  peroxide  are  given  every  five  or  ten  minutes. 
Another  arsenic  antidote  is  the  ferri  oxidum  hydratum  cum 
magnesia,  made  by  mixing  a  solution  of  magnesia  with  a 
solution  of  iron  persulphate  (U.S. P.). 

IRON  PERCHLORIDE.  Ferri  Perchloridum.  Ferric  Chloride. 
Fe2Cl6.  Liquor  Ferri  Perchloridi  Fortis. 

Iron  perchloride  is  prepared  by  boiling  the  metal  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  water,  and  adding  a  little  nitric  acid  to 
ensure  production  of  the  higher  chloride.  The  green  crystals, 
having  a  great  affinity  for  water,  quickly  melt.  The  strong 
solution,  liquor  ferri  perchloridi  fortis,  is  orange-brown, 
odourless,  with  a  styptic  taste,  and  miscible  with  water  and 
alcohol  in  all  proportions.  Specific  gravity  about  1*42  ;  110 
minims  contain  22J  grains  of  iron.  Diluted  with  three 
measures  of  distilled  water,  it  constitutes  the  medicinal 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  261 

solution,  liquor  ferri  perchloridi,  which  for  ordinary  purposes 
is  as  effectual  as  the  tincture.  Tinctura  ferri  perchloridi, 
known  as  tincture  of  steel,  is  made  by  mixing  five  ounces 
each  of  strong  solution  of  ferric  chloride  and  alcohol  (90  per 
cent.)  and  adding  ten  ounces  of  distilled  water.  This 
tincture  has  a  red-brown  colour,  an  ethereal  odour,  and  an 
acid,  chalybeate  taste. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Iron  perchloride,  whether  in  watery  or 
alcoholic  solution,  is  one  of  the  most  soluble,  irritant,  and 
corrosive  preparations  of  iron.  It  is  prescribed  as  a  haema- 
tinic,  antiseptic,  astringent,  and  styptic,  and  is  used 
topically  as  an  antiseptic,  astringent,  and  caustic. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — The  solutions  of  the  chloride  are 
serviceable  in  most  of  the  cases  for  which  the  sulphate  has 
been  recommended.  They  conjoin,  with  general  tonic  effects, 
marked  astringent  action.  They  are  prescribed  in  atonic 
dyspepsia,  and  for  the  removal  of  intestinal  worms.  In 
relaxed  throat,  which  accompanies  and  follows  catarrhal 
fever  in  horses,  half -drachm  doses,  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
glycerin  and  six  or  eight  ounces  of  water,  are  given  every 
two  hours,  administered  slowly,  as  a  gargle,  or  applied  as  a 
spray.  Solutions  are  used  in  anaemia  and  the  several  con- 
ditions connected  with  it.  When  debility  and  anaemia  are 
associated  symptoms,  the  salts  of  iron,  more  especially  the 
tincture  of  the  perchloride,  have  a  marked  effect  in  promoting 
absorption  of  inflammatory  products.  In  influenza  and 
purpura  in  horses  the  chloride  improves  the  appetite,  and  is 
credited  with  tonic  effects  both  on  the  blood  and  blood- 
vessels. In  haemorrhagic  cases  it  is  sometimes  prescribed 
with  turpentine,  in  purpura  with  quinine,  and  sulphuric 
acid,  alternated  with  occasional  doses  of  potassium  chlorate. 
Liquor  ferri  pernitratis,  containing  3J  grains  of  iron 
in  110  minims,  is  sometimes  preferred  to  the  chloride,  in 
obstinate  diarrhoea,  dysentery  and  haematuria.  In  rheuma- 
tism, especially  in  weakly  subjects,  it  is  useful,  and  may  be 
alternated  with  salicylic  acid.  After  the  bowels  have  been 
freely  opened  it  is  serviceable  in  red- water  in  cattle. 

The  chloride  is  particularly  suitable  in  cases  of  distemper 
and  rheumatic  lameness  in  weakly  dogs,  and,  with  or  without 
arsenic,  benefits  most  attacks  of  chorea  and  many  of  epilepsy. 


262         ANTIMONY   AND    ITS   MEDICINAL   SALTS 

In  dogs,  as  in  other  animals,  it  promotes  recovery  from  ex- 
hausting diseases. 

Externally,  it  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  and  astringent.  It 
coagulates  albumin,  and  carefully  employed  is  a  valuable 
styptic.  Tow  or  wool  saturated  with  a  solution  of  the  liquor 
and  applied  directly  to  the  orifice  of  the  bleeding  vessel,  is 
usually  effectual.  Diluted  with  six  or  eight  parts  of  water 
the  medicinal  solution  is  injected  into  the  uterus  in  cases  of 
post-partum  haemorrhage,  and  into  the  nose  in  epistaxis. 
Two  drachms  to  a  pint  of  water,  injected  into  the  rectum, 
destroy  and  bring  away  ascarides.  The  growths  of  actino- 
mycosis,  after  scraping,  are  sometimes  dressed  with  the 
strong  liquor,  and  subsequently  with  weaker  solutions.  The 
strong  solution  has  been  applied,  with  beneficial  results,  in 
grease,  and  canker  of  the  horse's  foot. 

Although  not  so  effectual  an  antiseptic  as  corrosive  sub- 
limate, it  readily  yields  part  of  its  chlorine,  and  arrests  the 
actions  of  ferments.  A  solution  of  five  per  cent,  in  water  in 
two  days  retarded  the  growth  of  anthrax  bacilli,  and  in  six 
days  effectually  destroyed  both  bacilli  and  their  spores, 
which  was  effected,  however,  in  two  days  by  corrosive 
sublimate  (Koch).  As  caustics,  the  liquor  ferri  perchloridi 
fortis,  and  the  solid  chloride  are  sometimes  used. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  medicinal  liquor  and  tincture,  horses 
and  cattle  take  f  3ij-  to  f  §j.  ;  sheep,  TT[xx.  to  17\xxx.  ;  pigs, 
ll\x.  to  TT[xx. ;  dogs,  TT|j.  to  fl\x.  The  smaller  doses  suffice 
for  hsematinic  or  tonic  purposes,  are  repeated  two  or  three 
times  daily,  are  diluted  with  at  least  ten  parts  of  water,  ale, 
or  gruel ;  are  sometimes  conjoined  with  mineral  acids, 
quassia,  calumba,  and  other  bitters,  or  with  alcohol  or  ether. 
They  are  incompatible  with  ammonia,  alkalies,  or  their 
carbonates,  and  with  tannin-containing  substances.  The 
larger  doses  mentioned  are  given  when  powerful  astringent 
effects  are  required. 

ANTIMONY  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 

The  salts  and  preparations  of  antimony  in  their  physio- 
logical as  well  as  their  chemical  relations  resemble  those  of 
arsenic  and  bismuth.  They  combine  with  albumin,  are 


ANTIMONIOUS    OXIDE  263 

precipitated  by  acid  solutions,  and  consequently  exert  their 
irritant  effects  on  parts  where  they  meet  with  acid  secretions, 
as  in  the  stomach  and  around  the  orifices  of  the  sweat  glands. 
With  the  exception  of  the  chloride,  which  is  a  powerful 
escharotic,  antimony  salts,  locally  applied,  produce  in- 
flammation of  isolated  spots,  causing  first  papules,  and 
subsequently  pustules.  The  solubility  and  volatility  of  the 
several  preparations  mainly  determines  their  activity.  In 
animals  that  vomit  they  cause  emesis,  cardiac  and  vascular 
depression,  and  increased  secretion.  Large  doses  produce 
gastro-enteritis,  and  depression  of  the  spinal  cord  and  brain. 
Given  for  a  considerable  period,  they  induce  fatty  degenera- 
tion. The  geese  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick,  fed  for  their 
fatty  livers,  receive  daily  doses  of  antimonious  oxide.  Tartar 
emetic  is  almost  the  only  antimonial  prescribed  internally. 

ANTIMONIOUS  OXIDE.     Antimonii  Oxidum. 

The  medicinal  oxide,  also  known  as  native  white  or  flowers 
of  antimony  (Sb203),  is  often  used  as  a  paint  instead  of  white 
lead.  It  is  prepared,  by  direction  of  the  B.P.,  by  pouring 
solution  of  the  chloride  into  water,  and  decomposing  the 
precipitated  antimony  oxy-chloride  with  sodium  carbonate. 
It  is  a  greyish- white,  tasteless,  heavy,  crystalline  powder, 
insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  hydrochloric,  tartaric,  and 
acetic  acids,  and  forms,  by  oxidation  with  nitric  acid,  anti- 
mony tetroxide,  and  antimony  pent  oxide.  An  imitation  of 
the  patent  James's  powder  is  made  by  thoroughly  mixing  one 
part  of  antimony  oxide  and  two  parts  of  calcium  phosphate. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Antimony  oxide  is  chiefly  important 
on  account  of  its  employment  in  the  preparation  of  tartar 
emetic,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  its  actions  and  uses. 
It  has,  however,  no  advantages  over  the  latter,  and  is  less 
easily  absorbed. 

ANTIMONIOUS  SULPHIDE.  Antimonium  Nigrum  PurificatunK 

The  native  sulphide  or  stibnite  (Sb2S3),  the  most  abundant 
ore  of  antimony,  when  purified  by  fusion,  washing  and 
drying,  occurs  in  dark-grey,  metallic,  heavy,  brittle  cakes, 
or  as  a  heavy,  greyish-black,  crystalline  powder,  devoid  of 


264  ANTIMONY    CHLORIDE 

odour  and  taste,  insoluble  in  water,  and  known  as  black 
antimony.  The  orange-red  sulphurated  antimony  of  the 
B.P.  is  obtained  by  boiling  black  antimony  with  sublimed 
sulphur  and  caustic  soda,  neutralising  the  solution  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  washing  the  precipitated  mixture.  The 
following  sulphides  are  used  in  the  arts,  and  have  occasion- 
ally been  employed  in  medicine  : — Glass  of  antimony,  a  red, 
transparent  body,  consisting  of  about  eight  parts  of  oxide 
and  one  of  sulphide ;  liver  of  antimony,  a  double  sulphide  of 
antimony  and  potassium  ;  and  Kermes  mineral,  a  red-brown 
powder  containing  a  variable  proportion  of  oxide  and 
sulphide. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Being  uncertain,  irregular,  and  often 
violent  remedies,  the  antimony  sulphides  are  now  seldom 
used  in  either  human  or  veterinary  medicine.  Their  ir- 
regular action  mainly  depends  on  their  variable  composition 
and  their  insolubility  in  water.  They  once  had  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  expectorant,  and  anthelmintic,  and  were  given 
to  horses  and  cattle  in  doses  of  one  to  three  drachms,  usually 
along  with  sulphur  or  nitre.  They  cause  emesis  in  dogs. 
The  orange  sulphide  has  been  recommended  for  mammitis. 
It  is  transformed  in  the  stomach  into  the  double  chlorides  of 
potassium  and  antimony.  In  contagious  mammitis  four 
to  six  drachms  may  be  given  three  times  a  day. 

SOLUTION  OF  ANTIMONIOUS  CHLORIDE.    Liquor  Antimonii 
Chloridi.     Butter  of  Antimony.     SbCl8. 

When  native  sulphide  is  boiled  with  about  five  times  its 
weight  of  hydrochloric  acid,  hydrogen  sulphide  is  evolved, 
and  the  chloride  remains  in  solution — a  transparent,  yellow- 
red  liquid,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  T47.  The  colour 
darkens  by  exposure,  depending  upon  oxidation  of  the  iron 
chloride,  which  is  sometimes  added  intentionally.  Contain- 
ing excess  of  hydrochloric  acid,  it  has  an  acid  reaction,  and 
fumes  on  exposure  to  air.  Addition  of  water  separates  a 
white  precipitate  of  basic  oxy-chloride  (SbOCl),  which,  if 
persistently  washed,  yields  the  oxide.  The  true  butter  of 
antimony — a  hard,  white,  crystalline,  fusible  solid — is  got  by 
evaporating  and  then  distilling  the  commercial  solution. 


TARTAR   EMETIC  265 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Although  less  used  than  formerly,  the 
chloride  in  solution  is  still  employed  as  a  desiccating  caustic 
for  thrush,  canker,  and  luxuriant  granulations  ;  and  for 
wounds  of  the  feet  in  cattle,  and  foot-rot  in  sheep.  Its  appli- 
cation causes  little  pain ;  but,  except  in  cautious  hands,  it 
is,  however,  too  energetic  for  general  use.  As  it  cannot 
be  diluted  with  water  without  undergoing  decomposition, 
it  should  be  mixed  with  three  or  four  parts  of  tincture  of 
myrrh. 

ANTIMONY  TARTRATE.  Potassio- tart  rate  of  Antimony. 
Potassium  Antimonyl  Tartrate.  Tartar  Emetic. 
[K(SbO)C4H406]2H20. 

Prepared  by  setting  aside  a  mixture  of  antimonious  oxide, 
and  acid  potassium  tartrate,  made  into  a  paste  with  a  little 
water,  until  combination  has  taken  place,  and  then  purifying 
by  crystallisation  from  water  (B.P.). 

PROPERTIES. — Tartar  emetic  is  sold  as  a  white  powder,  and 
in  colourless,  transparent  crystals,  exhibiting  triangular 
facets,  becoming  opaque  when  opposed  to  the  air,  and  crepi- 
tating and  blackening  when  heated.  It  is  devoid  of  odour, 
has  a  sweet,  metallic  taste,  is  insoluble  in  strong  alcohol, 
sparingly  soluble  in  weak  spirit ;  dissolves  in  about  seventeen 
parts  of  water,  and  in  three  parts  boiling  water.  The  watery 
solution  is  slightly  acid  ;  is  decomposed  by  strong  acids, 
alkalies,  alkaline  earths  and  their  carbonates,  and  by  solution 
of  tannic  acid,  but  not  by  gallic  acid.  Iron  oxide,  the  most 
common  impurity,  communicates  to  the  salt  a  yellow  or 
brown  colour  ;  cream  of  tartar  diminishes  its  solubility. 
If  purchased  in  crystals  instead  of  powder,  impurities  are 
more  readily  discoverable. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Tartar  emetic  applied  to  the  skin  causes 
eruption  of  isolated  papules,  which  shortly  become  pustules. 
Poisonous  doses  produce  gastro-enteritis,  nervous  depression, 
or  in  small  repeated  doses,  fatty  degeneration.  Medicinal 
doses  given  to  dogs,  cats,  and  pigs  are  emetic,  expectorant, 
and  depressant.  Their  physiological  effects  on  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep  are  not  so  well  marked.  It  is  occasionally 
used  externally  as  a  counter-irritant. 


266  TARTAR   EMETIC — TOXIC    EFFECTS 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Tartar  emetic  in  substance  or  in  con- 
centrated solution  acts  as  an  irritant  upon  the  alimentary 
mucous  membrane.  In  the  stomach  it  is  partly  decomposed 
by  the  acid  of  the  gastric  juice,  soluble  chlorides  of  antimony 
and  potassium  being  formed  (Kauf mann) .  It  probably  com- 
bines with  albumin.  Horses  and  cattle  when  receiving  even 
poisonous  doses,  do  not  vomit,  and  doses  of  one  to  four 
drachms  sometimes  given  medicinally  do  not  produce  the 
nausea  and  depression  which  are  the  notable  results  of 
medicinal  doses  in  man,  dogs,  cats,  or  pigs.  Dogs  receiving 
two  to  four  grains  are  nauseated,  and  vomiting  occurs 
usually  within  fifteen  minutes.  Emesis  depends  upon 
irritation  both  of  the  stomach  and  vomiting  centre,  but  more 
especially  of  the  former.  Reflexly,  from  the  stomach,  from 
the  effects  of  the  emesis,  as  well  as  by  acting  directly  on  the 
heart  and  vessels,  it  produces  in  men  and  carnivora  cardiac 
and  vascular  depression,  with  lowered  blood  pressure  ;  it 
slightly  increases  but  subsequently  diminishes  the  number 
of  the  respirations  ;  reduces  temperature,  relaxes  voluntary 
and  involuntary  muscles  ;  and  increases  secretion  from  the 
skin,  bronchial  and  gastro-intestinal  membranes .  Poisonous 
doses  cause  purging  and  gastro-enteritis,  and  when  their 
action  is  very  violent,  after  slightly  exciting,  they  paralyse 
both  the  motor  and  sensory  tracts  of  the  spinal  cord.  In 
many  of  its  actions  it  resembles  phosphorus  and  arsenic 
notably  in  arresting  the  formation  of  glycogen,  and  in  caus- 
ing fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver  and  other  organs.  It  is 
eliminated  in  the  mucus  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and 
also  in  the  bile  and  urine.  It  increases  the  excretion  of  urea. 
As  with  arsenic,  animals  receiving  small  doses  acquire  a 
condition  of  tolerance,  and  with  impunity  take  doses  which 
would  otherwise  prove  dangerous. 

THE  Toxic  EFFECTS,  like  the  general  actions,  are  less 
marked  in  herbivora  than  in  dogs,  cats,  and  pigs,  which  are 
affected  much  in  the  same  way  as  men.  According  to  Kauf- 
mann,  dogs  are  poisoned  by  three  to  six  grains.  But  these 
and  even  larger  doses  are  apt  to  be  speedily  ejected  by  vomit- 
ing if  the  dogs  are  left  to  themselves.  If  the  oesophagus, 
however,  be  tied  so  as  to  prevent  vomiting,  such  doses,  and 
sometimes  even  one  grain,  cause  nausea,  accelerated  and 


EXPERIMENTS  267 

difficult  respiration,  fluid  dejections,  gastro-intestinal  in- 
flammation, and  death  in  a  few  hours.  Taylor,  in  his  volume 
On  Poisons,  records  that  three  to  six  grains  injected  into  the 
jugular  vein  of  dogs  caused  death  in  eight  or  ten  hours. 
Frohner  states  that  half  a  grain  to  a  grain  injected  intra- 
venously proves  fatal  in  half  an  hour,  while  small  quantities 
applied  to  the  broken  skin  also  kill. 

Pigs  are  not  so  susceptible.  Hertwig  mentions  that  ten 
to  twenty  grains  cause  nausea  and  vomiting,  but  act  neither 
very  rapidly  nor  very  certainly  ;  that  one  drachm  in  solu- 
tion, given  to  a  boar  nine  months  old,  caused  vomiting,  dul- 
ness,  and  uneasiness,  which  continued  for  three  days  ;  but 
that  two  drachms  given  to  a  similar  animal  dissolved  in 
half  a  litre  of  water,  within  an  hour  and  a  half  caused  vomit- 
ing five  times,  loss  of  appetite,  thirst,  spasms,  prostration, 
and  death  the  following  day.  Poultry  swallowing  one  to 
three  grains  in  bolus  vomit  freely. 

Horses  take,  per  os,  without  injury,  thirty  to  forty  times 
the  quantity  of  tartar  emetic  which  would  prove  fatal  to  a 
man  or  dog.  Without  notable  effect  they  may  be  given  one 
to  four  drachms  in  bolus,  and  such  doses  may  be  repeated 
night  and  morning  for  several  days  without  causing  impaired 
appetite,  nausea,  or  gastric  derangement.  This  insuscepti- 
bility of  horses  to  the  action  of  tartar  emetic  was  demon- 
strated by  experiments  made  by  Dun  and  Barlow  : 

CASE  I. — On  9th  September,  about  10  A.M.,  a  brown  mare,  unfit  for 
work  on  account  of  lameness,  with  the  pulse  38  and  respirations  7,  got  three 
drachms  of  tartar  emetic  in  a  ball  made  up  with  treacle  and  linseed  meal. 
In  the  evening  the  pulse  was  unaffected,  and  the  dose  was  repeated. 

IQth. — The  pulse  was  40,  the  respirations  7,  appetite  good,  bowels  and 
kidneys  regular.  A  dose  of  four  drachms  was  given  morning  and  evening. 

llth. — At  10  A.M.  the  pulse  was  42,  respirations  7,  appetite  and  bowels 
quite  normal.  Got  an  ounce  in  a  ball  as  before.  In  the  evening  the  pulse 
was  40,  no  perceptible  nausea,  appetite  good,  bowels  and  kidneys  regular. 
Dose  of  an  ounce  repeated. 

12th. — In  the  morning  the  pulse  was  37,  somewhat  weaker  than  yesterday, 
but  still  firm.  The  appetite  was  very  good,  and  there  was  no  change  in  the 
state  of  the  kidneys  or  bowels.  Got  a  dose  of  an  ounce.  In  the  evening 
the  pulse  was  40,  and  the  patient  in  other  respects  as  in  the  morning.  Gave 
an  ounce,  being  five  ounces  6  drachms  in  four  days. 

13th. — At  10  A.M.  the  pulse  was  35,  the  appetite  good,  and  the  bowels 
and  kidneys  normal.  About  1  A.M.  the  animal  had  dropped  or  lain  down, 
and  while  lying  the  pulse  was  somewhat  irregular,  varying  between  60  and 
70.  The  respirations  were  quiet.  At  12  the  animal  was  lifted,  when  the 
pulse  fell  in  a  few  minutes  to  55,  and  the  respirations  to  6.  The  appetite 


268  EXPERIMENTS 

still  remained  very  good.  Gave  ten  drachms  in  the  usual  way.  In  the 
evening  the  pulse  was  40,  the  respirations  6,  the  appetite  and  evacuations 
natural.  Gave  fourteen  drachms. 

14th. — 10  A.M.  No  change  from  last  night.  Got  an  ounce  ;  but  when 
having  it  put  over,  the  animal  ran  back  and  went  down.  At  1  she  was 
raised,  still  continued  to  eat,  and  at  1.30  got  another  dose  of  an  ounce. 
She  remained  down  all  day,  and  appeared  nauseated.  The  pulse  was  not 
quite  regular,  probably  owing  to  occasional  struggling,  but  reached  about 
60  when  at  its  maximum.  Eespirations  about  12.  At  6.30  the  animal 
was  still  eating  and  drinking,  but  only  sparingly  ;  was  much  nauseated 
and  lying  pretty  quiet,  with  the  lips  much  retracted,  and  the  pulse  75  and 
weak. 

15th. — 10  A.M.  Found  dead,  having  taken  ten  ounces  and  six  drachms 
of  tartar  emetic  in  six  days.  Barlow  made  the  following  notes  of  the 
post-mortem  examination  : — The  muscular  tissue  in  every  part  of  the  body 
was  unusually  flaccid,  although  rigor  mortis  was  well  established.  The 
right  lung,  which  was  lowermost  as  the  animal  lay,  was  much  congested  in 
its  deeper  and  central  parts  ;  the  several  margins  were  comparatively  pale  ; 
at  the  anterior  part  of  the  anterior  lobe  there  was  much  emphysema.  The 
left  lung  was  perfectly  healthy,  and  not  at  all  emphysematous.  The 
bronchial  tube  and  smaller  bronchi  in  both  lungs  contained  frothy 
mucus.  The  pleura  and  pericardium  were  in  every  way  healthy.  The  heart 
was  very  large,  its  cavities  being  filled  with  firmly  coagulated  blood.  At 
the  junction  of  the  villous  and  cuticular  coats,  the  stomach  was  much  con- 
tracted, and  exhibited  a  slight  blush,  not  amounting  to  redness.  The 
cuticular  coat  was  marked  with  several  indentations,  such  as  are  produced 
by  bots  ;  but  in  all  other  respects  the  stomach  was  perfectly  healthy. 
The  intestines  were  also  perfectly  healthy  both  within  and  without.  The 
liver  was  in  a  state  of  cirrhosis,  such  as  is  often  seen  in  old  and  worn-out 
horses.  The  organs  of  urination  and  generation  were  quite  normal.  The 
brain  was  healthy,  but  the  subarachnoid  spaces  contained  a  considerable 
quantity  of  fluid. 

CASE  II. — A  mare,  about  16  hands  high,  and  in  good  health  and  condi- 
tion, got  three  drachms  of  tartar  emetic  daily,  in  bolus,  for  five  days,  and 
then  four  drachms  daily  for  thirteen  days — making  in  all  ten  ounces  and 
three  drachms  in  eighteen  days — but  without  exhibiting  any  physiological 
effect.  The  animal  was  destroyed  by  cutting  the  carotid  artery,  but  the 
post-mortem  examination  revealed  nothing  at  all  abnormal.  It  may  be 
mentioned  that,  on  the  twelfth  day  of  experiment,  twenty  ounces  of  urine 
were  removed,  and  found  to  contain  a  perceptible  but  not  very  large 
quantity  of  antimony. 

CASE  III. — A  black  mare,  of  sound,  healthy  constitution,  took  ten 
ounces  and  a  half  of  tartar  emetic  (in  doses  of  four  drachms,  repeated  twice 
and  thrice  a  day)  during  ten  consecutive  days  ;  yet  she  was  in  no  way 
affected  by  it  ;  her  pulse  and  respiration  were  scarcely  at  all  altered  ;  her 
appetite  throughout  was  voracious  ;  her  evacuations  natural  in  appearance 
and  quantity  ;  and  her  condition  considerably  improved.  She  was 
poisoned  by  a  fluid  drachm  of  Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite.  On  dissection 
not  a  single  morbid  appearance  referable  to  the  tartar  emetic  was  observed. 
The  stomach  and  intestines  were  carefully  examined,  and  found  '  beautifully 
healthy.' 

CASE  IV. — A  healthy,  well-bred  horse  was  given  ten  ounces  of  tartar 
emetic  in  solution,  and  after  showing  a  good  deal  of  nausea,  uneasiness,  and 
pain,  died  in  about  six  hours.  The  only  notable  appearances  on  post- 
mortem examination  were  softness  and  increased  vascularity  of  the  intes- 


'  TARTAR   EMETIC  269 

tines,  analogous  to  what  is  seen  in  patients  that  have  died  while  affected 
by  diarrhea.  Neither  in  this  nor  in  any  of  the  other  cases  were  the 
lungs  congested  or  inflamed,  as  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  Magendie's 
experiments. 

Frohner's  experiments  show  similar  results.  Healthy 
horses,  he  states,  take  one  or  two  drachms  without  causing 
any  notable  effect  except  increased  discharge  from  the 
bowels  ;  but  these  doses  if  continued  are  said  to  slow  the 
pulse  and  cause  palpitation,  lassitude,  diarrhoea,  polyuria, 
and,  when  further  continued,  great  weakness.  An  ounce 
in  pill  or  electuary  was  not  fatal,  but  in  solution  caused 
spasms,  and  death  in  eight  days  ;  while  sixty  grammes 
(nearly  two  ounces)  in  solution  proved  fatal  in  two  and  a  half 
hours.  Hertwig  records  that  four  drachms  in  solution  in 
water  induced  colic,  trembling,  and  acceleration  of  the  pulse ; 
the  symptoms  after  a  few  hours  abated,  but  death  resulted 
after  six  or  eight  days.  Much  greater  activity  is,  however, 
observed  when  tartar  emetic  is  administered  to  horses  intra- 
venously. One  drachm  thus  given  raised  the  pulse  to  120 
beats  per  minute,  caused  difficult  breathing,  purging,  sweat- 
ing, flow  of  tears  and  saliva,  eructation,  retching,  and 
muscular  spasms.  Two  drachms  further  produced  severe 
fits,  vertigo,  paralysis,  and  death  in  one  and  a  half  to  three 
hours,  but  without  action  of  the  bowels.  Kaufmann  states 
that  horses  receiving  fifteen  grains  intravenously  in  a  few 
minutes  exhibited  efforts  to  vomit,  great  inquietude,  dilata- 
tion of  the  nostrils,  and  lowering  of  the  neck,  as  if  suffering 
abdominal  pain. 

Cattle,  like  horses,  take  large  doses  with  impunity.  Hert- 
wig and  Viborg  gave  quantities  varying  from  two  to  ten 
drachms,  and  Gilbert  gave  ten  drachms  in  solution — all 
without  effect.  Dun  repeatedly  administered  an  ounce 
twice  a  day  to  cattle,  and,  except  in  a  few  cases  where 
purgation  occurred,  did  not  observe  any  evidence  of  its 
action.  Balfour,  Kirkcaldy,  has  given  half  a  pound  in 
solution  without  any  very  obvious  effects.  Sheep  exhibit 
similar  insusceptibility.  Viborg  gave  one  drachm,  and  Gil- 
bert three  drachms  in  solution,  and  four  in  the  solid  state, 
without  effect.  But  Gilbert  found  that  four  to  six  drachms 
in  solution  destroyed  one-year-old  sheep.  Intravenous 


270      EFFECTS    DIFFER   IN   DIFFERENT   ANIMALS 

injection  of  five  to  six  grains  produces,  however,  lassitude, 
small,  frequent  pulse,  difficult  breathing,  and  purgation 
(Fuohner). 

No  very  satisfactory  explanation  has  been  given  of  this 
insusceptibility  of  horses,  ruminants,  and  also  of  rabbits. 
It  is  evidently  due  in  part  to  imperfect  development  of 
the  vomiting  centre ;  but  the  gastric  functions  have  also, 
doubtless,  some  connection  with  it,  and  also  difficulty  of 
absorption,  as  is  shown  by  the  drug  being  about  ten  times 
more  active  when  administered  intravenously  than  when 
given  by  the  mouth. 

Antidotal  treatment  consists  hi  the  removal  of  any  un- 
absorbed  poison  by  promoting  vomiting  or  using  the 
stomach  pump,  and  subsequently  giving  large  quantities  of 
tannic  acid,  or  of  tannin-containing  solutions,  which  form  an 
insoluble  compound,  and  thus  delay  absorption.  Demulcents 
abate  gastric  irritation,  which,  with  irritation  of  the  vomit- 
ing centre,  may  also  be  relieved  by  morphine  and  chloral, 
while  tendency  to  collapse  is  treated  by  stimulants. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — As  tartar  emetic  in  safe  doses  produces 
no  very  marked  physiological  actions  in  horses  and  cattle,  it 
can  scarcely  exert  any  marked  curative  effects  on  these 
animals.  The  febrifuge  and  sedative  virtues  formerly 
ascribed  to  it  were  doubtless  the  result  of  other  medicinal 
or  hygienic  remedies  with  which  it  was  used.  As  a  vermi- 
fuge it  is  still  occasionally  given  with  aloes  to  horses,  and 
with  Epsom  salt  to  cattle  ;  but  although  increasing  the 
activity  of  purgatives,  it  has  no  special  anthelmintic  action. 

When  the  stomach  of  the  dog,  cat,  or  pig  is  to  be  emptied 
of  undigested  food,  irritants,  or  poisons,  ipecacuanha,  mus- 
tard, or  zinc  sulphate,  being  more  prompt  and  less  nauseating, 
is  preferred.  But  tartarised  antimony  is  occasionally  used 
as  a  nauseating  emetic  for  robust  subjects  at  the  outset  of 
febrile  and  inflammatory  complaints.  It  promotes  bron- 
chial and  gastric  secretion,  and  relieves  engorgement  of  the 
stomach,  liver,  throat,  and  chest.  It  hence  mitigates  the 
early  acute  catarrhal  symptoms  of  distemper,  and  relieves 
bilious  attacks  in  pampered,  overfed  dogs. 

As  a  counter-irritant,  unless  employed  with  much  caution, 
it  is  apt  to  induce  painful,  deep-seated  inflammation,  slough- 


ARSENIC  271 

ing,  and  blemishing,  and  is  consequently  unsuitable  either 
for  horses  or  dogs.  For  cattle,  however,  it  is  sometimes 
applied  in  chest  diseases  and  chronic  rheumatism.  Unlike 
cantharides,  it  does  not  irritate  the  kidneys  ;  but  if  it  be 
absorbed,  it  produces  in  dogs,  cats,  and  pigs  nauseating 
effects  similar  to  those  which  follow  its  administration  by 
the  mouth. 

DOSES,  etc. — When  given  to  horses  or  cattle  with  the 
view  of  producing  sedative,  alterative,  or  expectorant  effects, 
3i.  to  3iv-  are  administered  three  or  four  times  daily,  in 
either  bolus  or  solution.  It  may  be  conjoined  with  nitre, 
camphor,  Epsom  salt,  calomel,  or  aloes.  As  an  emetic  for 
dogs  or  cats,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  iv.,  and  for  pigs,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  x. 
are  given  in  bolus,  rolled  in  a  piece  of  meat,  or  dissolved  in 
hot  water.  Doses  considerably  less  than  one  grain,  con- 
joined with  ipecacuanha,  have  been  .prescribed  for  carnivora 
as  antipyretics  and  expectorants  in  acute  attacks  of  bron- 
chitis and  pneumomia. 

Externally  it  is  occasionally  used  in  the  form  of  saturated 
watery  solution  or  of  ointment,  which  is  made  with  one 
part  of  tartar  emetic  and  four  of  lard.  The  ointment  is 
sometimes  added  to  ordinary  blisters  to  increase  their 
activity.  Antimonial  wine,  prepared  by  dissolving  forty 
grains  tartar  emetic  in  an  ounce  of  distilled  water,  and 
adding  sufficient  sherry  to  form  twenty  ounces,  is  seldom 
used  in  veterinary  practice.  Doses. — Dogs,  H\v.  to  IT^lx. 


ARSENIC 

ACIDUM  ABSENIOSUM.    AESENICTJM  ALBUM.    Arsenious  An- 
hydride.    Arsenium.     As4O6. 

Arsenic  is  obtained  by  roasting  certain  arsenical  ores. 
The  crude  arsenious  anhydride  is  conducted  into  condensing 
chambers,  and  purified  by  sublimation. 

PROPERTIES. — The  anhydride  or  white  arsenic,  used  in 
medicine,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  colours, 
and  shot,  occurs  as  a  heavy  white  powder,  consisting  of 
minute  glassy  fragments  and  octahedral  crystals.  It  is 
odourless  and  tasteless,  rough  and  gritty  between  the  teeth, 


272  ARSENIC 

and  if  held  in  the  mouth  shortly  causes  irritation.  When 
long  kept  it  loses  its  transparency,  and  becomes  opaque.  At 
a  temperature  of  400°  Fahr.  it  is  volatilised.  Sprinkled  on 
ignited  charcoal  it  emits  a  characteristic  garlic  odour. 
Arsenic  is  soluble  in  one  hundred  parts  cold,  and  in  ten  parts 
boiling  water,  and  in  five  parts  of  glycerin.  Moderately 
soluble  in  solutions  of  alkaline  carbonates,  and  in  diluted 
hydrochloric  acid  (B.P.).  Boiled  in  water  for  two  or  three 
hours,  the  ordinary  crystalline  arsenic  is  converted  into  the 
vitreous  form,  and  in  each  pint  219  grains  are  dissolved. 
Solubility  is  diminished  by  organic  matters,  but  increased 
by  acids,  alkalies,  and  alkaline  arsenites. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Arsenious  acid  is  a  corrosive  irritant 
poison,  killing  either  by  gastro-enteritis  or  by  nervous 
paresis.  Continued  doses  cause  fatty  degeneration.  It  is 
prescribed  as  a  gastro-intestinal  stimulant  and  alterative, 
acting  especially  on  the  digestive  and  respiratory  mucous 
membranes  and  skin,  as  an  aid  to  growth  and  nutrition,  as 
an  antiperiodic,  and  as  a  tonic  in  nervous  diseases.  It  is 
used  externally  as  a  parasiticide,  antiseptic,  and  caustic. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Arsenic  belongs  to  the  trivalent  group, 
which  also  comprises  phosphorus,  antimony,  and  bismuth. 
These  agents  diminish  oxidation,  decompose  albuminoid 
tissues,  produce  fatty  degeneration,  and  impair  the  glyco- 
genic  functions  of  the  liver.  With  the  exception  of  bismuth, 
the  members  of  this  group  are  irritant,  corrosive  poisons. 
The  specific  '  arsenic  '  action  is  due  to  the  negative  ion  of 
arsenious  acid. 

Locally  applied,  arsenic  causes  congestion,  heat,  and  pain, 
with  destruction  of  tissue,  but  the  slough  is  preserved  by  the 
antiseptic  effect  of  the  poison.  It  is  absorbed  from  any 
mucous,  serous,  or  skin-abraded  surface,  and  exerts  its  effects 
by  whatever  channel  it  enters  the  body.  Small  medicinal 
doses  directly  stimulate  the  stomach  and  promote  gastric 
secretion.  Beginning  with  small  doses,  animals  shortly 
acquire  a  tolerance  of  arsenic,  and  take  with  impunity  doses 
which  would  otherwise  prove  fatal.  Full  doses  irritate  the 
surfaces  with  which  they  come  into  contact ;  cause  gastro- 
intestinal inflammation ;  in  dogs  and  other  carnivora 
vomiting,  diarrhoea,  weakened  cardiac  action,  reduced 


TOXIC   DOSES  273 

temperature,  cramps,  delirium,  coma,  and  death.  Its  power 
to  produce  fatty  degeneration  is  not  so  great  as  that  of 
phosphorus,  but  fatty  degeneration  is  often  observed  in  the 
epithelial  lining  of  the  stomach  and  of  the  alveoli  of  the 
lungs  of  animals  poisoned  by  arsenic.  The  glycogenic 
function  of  the  liver  is  impaired  by  continued  doses,  and  in 
pigs,  fowls,  and  rabbits  fatty  degeneration  in  three  or  four 
weeks  invades  most  of  the  soft  textures  and  attacks  the 
bones.  It  is  eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  and  to  a  less  extent 
by  the  liver,  skin,  and  glands  generally.  Five  to  six  hours 
after  administration  it  may  be  found  in  the  urine  and  milk. 
It  is  longest  retained  by  the  bones. 

All  arsenical  compounds  are  poisonous,  and  the  most 
soluble  are  the  most  active.  Deadliest  of  all  is  arseniuretted 
hydrogen,  which  has  occasioned  the  death  of  three  chemists, 
who  unfortunately  inhaled  it.  Orfila  found  that  the  sul- 
phides, in  doses  of  forty  to  seventy  grains,  destroyed  dogs  in 
two  to  six  days,  and  had  much  the  same  effect  whether 
they  were  swallowed  or  applied  to  a  wound.  Metallic 
arsenic,  although  itself  innocuous,  unites  so  readily  with 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  that  it  speedily  acquires  poisonous 
activity. 

The  toxic  dose  for  the  horse  is  liable  to  considerable 
variation.  Kaufmann's  estimate  is  240  to  720  grains. 
Berthe  gave  a  mare  affected  with  inveterate  mange  two,  and 
afterwards  three,  drachms  without  injury.  Beissenhirz 
gave  one,  four,  three,  two,  and  eight  drachms,  on  successive 
days  ;  and  death  occurred  twenty-four  hours  after  the  last 
dose.  Hertwig  gave  eight  horses  doses,  beginning  with 
20  grains  and  gradually  increasing  to  a  drachm  ;  continued 
the  administration  in  some  cases  for  thirty  days,  in  others 
for  forty  days,  but  observed  no  bad  effects,  either  during 
the  use  of  the  poison  or  afterwards  ;  the  pulse  became  a  little 
stronger  and  harder,  and  some  of  the  animals  improved  in 
condition.  Percivall  gave  a  horse  affected  with  glanders 
one  drachm  in  bolus  with  linseed  and  treacle,  and  increased 
the  dose  by  20  grains  daily  for  seventeen  days,  when  the 
animal  received  380  grains  in  one  dose.  By  the  eighteenth 
day  the  animal  had  taken  upwards  of  seven  ounces  of 
arsenic.  Yet  no  physiological  effect  was  obvious,  no  loss 

s 


274  ARSENICAL   POISONING 

of  appetite,  no  uneasiness  or  pain,  and  no  alteration  of  the 
pulse  or  respiration. 

Such  comparatively  negative  effects  are  doubtless  ex- 
plained by  the  drug  being  given  in  insoluble  form,  and  hence 
being  only  partially  and  slowly  absorbed.  Much  smaller 
doses  occasionally  act  with  greater  violence.  Thus,  according 
to  Gerlach,  twenty  grains  cause  acute  diarrhoea ;  and 
Percivall  mentions  that  two  glandered  horses,  receiving  five 
grains  daily  in  bolus,  were  attacked,  one  on  the  eighth,  the 
other  on  the  ninth  day,  with  shivering,  loss  of  appetite, 
nausea,  purging,  and  other  symptoms  of  abdominal  irritation 
and  prostration  of  strength.  One  died,  the  other  recovered. 
These  different  effects  depend  partly  on  varying  suscepti- 
bility ;  on  the  amount  of  food  in  the  alimentary  canal ;  and 
mainly  on  gradually  acquired  tolerance  which  enables 
animals  receiving  arsenic  regularly  to  take  with  impunity, 
at  one  dose,  as  much  as  would  kill  a  patient  unused  to  the 
drug.  Large  doses,  moreover,  produce  inflammatory  changes 
in  the  lining  of  the  alimentary  canal  which  greatly  retard 
absorption.  Arsenious  anhydride  is  much  more  active  in 
solution  than  in  substance.  Thirty  grains  given  daily,  in 
solution  of  potassium  carbonate,  destroyed  a  horse  in  four 
days.  Applied  to  wounds,  Kaufmann  states,  it  is  much 
more  active  than  when  swallowed. 

Baldwin  reports  the  case  of  six  horses  poisoned  by  drinking 
from  a  pail  in  which  some  arsenical  sheep-dipping  mixture 
had  been  dissolved.  Two  died,  and  post-mortem  examina- 
tion revealed  inflammation  of  the  mucous  coat  of  the 
stomach,  and  patches  of  inflammation  extending  throughout 
the  intestines.  The  others  suffered  from  dulness,  colicky 
pains,  and  purging  ;  the  pulse  was  upwards  of  70,  and  wiry  ; 
the  extremities  cold  ;  the  visible  mucous  membranes  highly 
injected.  One  mare  was  ill  for  three  or  four  days.  The 
treatment  consisted  of  opiates  and  lime-water  ( Veterinarian, 
1858). 

Eleven  cart  horses  were  poisoned  at  Edgeware  from  drink- 
ing water  containing  arsenic.  They  had  been  drawing  heavy 
loads  of  building  materials  fully  eight  miles  from  London, 
were  tired,  and  their  stomachs  empty,  which  doubtless 
accounts  for  the  rapid  and  serious  results.  Although 


IN    CATTLE,    SHEEP,    DOGS,    ETC.  275 

arsenic  is  not  known  to  have  proved  fatal  in  the  human 
subject  under  seven  hours,  one  of  the  horses  dropped  and 
died  ten  minutes  after  drinking,  and  several  were  dead 
within  an  hour.  The  symptoms  were  colic,  staggering  gait, 
pallid  membranes,  cold  ears,  pulse  40  to  60,  quickened 
breathing,  and  latterly  coma.  Brandy  and  ammonia  were 
the  remedies  prescribed  (Veterinarian,  1874). 

Cattle  take  with  less  danger  even  larger  doses  than  horses, 
for  the  comparatively  insoluble  poison  mixes  with  the  food  in 
the  rumen,  and  hence  slowly  reaches  the  abomasum  and 
intestine,  while  the  small  amounts  thus  gradually  introduced 
into  the  circulation  are  continuously  excreted,  and  toxic 
effects  are  delayed  or  prevented.  Blake  records  the  death  of 
fourteen  in-calf  cows,  which  had  an  arsenical  dip  powder 
mixed  with  their  hay.  Symptoms  of  poisoning  appeared  in 
twenty  hours,  and  consisted  of  '  acute  abdominal  pains, 
profuse  diarrhoea,  heavy  breathing,  staggering  gait,  cold 
extremities,'  etc.  Thirteen  of  the  cows  died  within  three 
days,  while  one  survived  a  week  (Veterinarian,  1892). 
Kaufmann  fixes  the  toxic  dose  at  four  to  eight  drachms. 

Sheep  are  poisoned  by  75  to  90  grains.  A  strong  sheep 
received  an  ounce  of  arsenic  in  water  containing  a  handful 
of  common  salt,  and  after  exhibiting  most  of  the  symptoms 
mentioned  as  occurring  in  horses,  died  on  the  fifth  day. 
Hertwig  states  that  5  to  10  grains  given  in  solution  to 
healthy  sheep  produced  gastro-intestinal  irritation  ;  that  a 
second  dose  of  10  to  20  grains,  given  twenty-four  hours  after, 
caused  death  ;  and  that,  on  examination,  the  poison  was 
found  in  the  blood,  urine,  lungs,  liver,  and  muscles.  But 
dogs  have  eaten  with  impunity  the  carcases  of  sheep  poisoned 
by  arsenic. 

Dogs,  cats,  pigs,  and  poultry  are  more  quickly  and  power- 
fully affected  than  horses  and  cattle,  and,  relatively  to  their 
weight,  exhibit  about  the  same  susceptibility  as  human 
patients,  in  whom  2*5  grains  is  the  smallest  dose  known  to 
have  proved  fatal.  Dogs  to  which  Dun  administered  3  to  10 
grains  in  solution  within  a  few  minutes  exhibited  nausea, 
vomiting,  moaning,  difficult  breathing,  a  wiry,  rapid  pulse  of 
120  or  upwards,  and  shortly  passed  black  faeces  with  con- 
siderable pain  ;  while  death  with  convulsions  followed  in 


276  CHRONIC  ARSENICAL  POISONING 

six  to  thirty  hours.  Dogs  receiving  a  quarter  of  a  grain  to  a 
grain,  repeated  twice  daily,  and  continued  during  eight  to 
fourteen  days,  exhibit  gradually  diminishing  appetite  and 
increased  vomiting.  From  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  day, 
diarrhoea,  lowered  temperature,  rapid  emaciation,  and  pain- 
ful cough  ensue,  and  death  occurs  in  twenty  to  thirty  days. 
Half  an  ounce  of  Fowler's  solution  injected  into  the  jugular 
vein  of  a  dog,  although  it  caused  immediate  vomiting, 
proved  fatal  in  eighteen  hours,  and  left  the  stomach  and 
intestines  reddened  and  injected.  Kossel  gave  sodium 
arsenite  to  dogs  in  doses  of  1J  to  3  grains  for  ten  days,  and 
found  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  excreted  rose,  even  in 
inanition,  to  48  and  60  grains,  and  in  healthy  dogs  receiving 
arsenic  reached  110  to  120  grains. 

Pigs  have  been  poisoned  by  1  to  15  grains,  and  poultry  by 
half  a  grain  to  a  grain. 

Chronic  arsenical  poisoning,  with  symptoms  of  indigestion, 
thirst,  wasting,  and  chronic  disease  of  the  bones  and  joints, 
is  sometimes  met  with  amongst  both  cattle  and  horses  near 
the  tin  and  copper  smelting  works  of  Cornwall  and  Wales. 
Arsenical  green  paper  left  in  the  way  of  animals  has  some- 
times been  eaten  in  quantities  sufficient  to  cause  death. 
Rabbits  at  shows  have  been  destroyed  by  nibbling  the  bright 
green  prize  cards.  An  aged  donkey  is  reported  to  have  died 
in  three  hours,  poisoned  by  eating  green  paper. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  of  poisoning  by  arsenic, 
although  very  similar  in  all  animals,  differ  with  the  con- 
centration of  the  poison  and  the  severity  and  duration  of  the 
case.  In  the  horse  the  cuticular  portion  of  the  stomach  is 
not  usually  much  altered  ;  but  the  villous  portion  is  intensely 
inflamed,  especially  if  the  drug  has  been  given  in  powder. 
The  mucous  membrane  is  softened,  easily  separated,  and 
sometimes  eroded  or  perforated.  Except  in  rapidly  fatal 
cases,  patches  of  inflammation  with  extravasation  will  be 
found  in  the  small  intestine,  colon,  and  rectum.  The  serous 
membranes  are  ecchymosed.  In  chronic  cases  fatty  de- 
generation affects  the  epithelial  tissues,  liver,  heart  muscle, 
and  brain,  and  owing  to  the  antiseptic  power  of  the  drug 
cadaveric  changes  are  retarded.  In  most  cases  the  lesions 
are  fairly  characteristic  ;  but  the  discovery  of  arsenic  in  the 


LESIONS    AND    ANTIDOTES  277 

organs  of  the  body  affords  the  only  positive  proof  of  arsenical 
poisoning. 

In  treating  acute  cases  of  poisoning,  the  stomach  must  be 
washed  out  with  copious   draughts   of  tepid  water,   and 
emptied,  in  carnivora  by  emetics,  such  as  mustard  or  zinc 
sulphate,  in  horses  or  cattle  by  the  stomach  pump.     The 
best  chemical  antidote  is  prepared  by  precipitating  ferric 
chloride  solution  with  ammonia,  washing  the  precipitate  with 
warm  water,  and  administering  it  moist  and  freshly  made. 
Some  authorities  recommend  precipitation  of  two  to  three 
ounces  of  liquor  ferri  perchloridi,  with  one  ounce  of  sodium 
carbonate  diluted  with  water  ;  these  quantities,  freshly  pre- 
pared, suffice  to  neutralise  ten  grains  of  arsenic,  converting 
it  into  insoluble  iron  arsenite.     Dialysed  iron  is  nearly  as 
effectual  as  the  ferric  oxide  or  carbonate.  These  iron  antidotes 
should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible,  in  repeated  doses,  at 
intervals  of  ten  minutes,  until  a  quantity  at  least  twelve 
times  greater  than  that  of  the  poison  has  been  swallowed. 
Magnesia  in  its  hydrated  or  gelatinous  form,  prepared  by 
precipitating  a  solution  of  Epsom  salt  with  caustic  potash, 
also  greatly  diminishes  the  solubility  of  arsenic.     Perhaps 
the  best  agent  is  made  by  adding  magnesia  to  iron  sulphate, 
for  this  contains  the  iron  hydrate  and  magnesium  sulphate 
which  helps  excretion.     Insoluble  powders,  charcoal  and 
clay,  envelop  the  particles  of  poison,  and  retard  absorption  ; 
but  such  agents  to  be  of  service  must  be  given  before,  along 
with,  or  immediately  after  the  poison.     Oils,  lard,  glycerin, 
mucilage,    lime-water,    white   of   egg,    and   milk,    exercise 
similar  mechanical  effect,  and  some  of  these  bodies  also 
slightly  diminish  the  solubility  of  arsenic.     Demulcents  and 
opium  are  given  to  combat  gastro-intestinal  irritation,  whilst 
collapse  is  prevented  by  warmth  and  stimulants,  alcohol, 
digitalis    and    strychnine.     In    chronic    cases    oleaginous 
laxatives  and  enemata  relieve   griping   and  constipation  ; 
easily-digested,  nutritive  food  helps  to  sustain  the  powers  of 
life,  and  occasional  diuretics  hasten  excretion  of  the  poison 
by  the  kidneys. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Arsenic  is  administered  to  animals  as 
a  gastric  stimulant  in  dyspepsia  and  gastralgia,  and  in 
chronic  catarrhal  diarrhoea,  where  imperfectly-digested  food 


278  MEDICINAL  USES 

is  hurried  through  the  intestines.  In  such  cases  it  is 
frequently  conjoined  with  antacids  and  opium.  It  is  often 
given  as  an  anthelmintic. 

Chronic  diseases  of  the  air-passages,  notably  catarrh  and 
ozsena  in  horses,  are  often  benefited  by  a  course  of  arsenic. 
It  relieves  irritable  cough,  as  well  as  thick  and  broken  wind. 
Robertson  was  confident  of  its  value  in  roaring  ;  in  abating 
the  dyspnoea  and  cough  of  thick  wind,  he  enjoined  its  use 
daily  for  ten  days  or  a  fortnight,  when  some  other  remedy 
was  directed  to  be  substituted ;  and  in  broken  wind, 
frequently  with  advantage,  prescribed  two  to  three  grains 
twice  a  week  for  months. 

As  an  alterative,  modifying  tissue  changes  and  improving 
general  nutrition,  it  has  been  given  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
tuberculosis,  and  in  chronic  rheumatism,  chorea,  and  epi- 
lepsy. In  dourine,  trypanosomiasis,  and  piroplasmosis 
arsenic  is  prescribed  with  iron,  or  with  oil  of  turpentine. 
In  febrile  attacks  manifesting  periodicity  arsenic  is  some- 
times as  effectual  as  quinine.  Sir  Lauder  Brunton  believes 
that  its  efficacy  in  phthisis  depends  upon  its  hastening  the 
removal  of  the  effused  products  of  pneumonia  which  form  a 
suitable  nidus  for  the  bacillus  tuberculosis.  In  anaemia 
medicinal  doses  probably  increase  both  the  white  and  red 
corpuscles,  especially  when  conjoined,  as  it  usually  is  in  such 
cases,  with  iron.  When  mixed  with  freshly-drawn  blood  it 
retards  coagulation  and  putrefaction,  and  preserves  the 
globules,  and  possibly  exerts  similar  effects  internally.  Full 
doses  freely  diluted  are  prescribed  thrice  daily,  immediately 
after  meals,  for  dogs  suffering  from  chorea,  and  are  some- 
times also  serviceable  in  epilepsy.  Its  value  in  these  dis- 
orders appears  to  depend  on  some  action  on  the  central 
nervous  system,  as  yet  unexplained.  It  stimulates  the 
dermis,  hastens  removal  of  morbid  epidermal  cells,  and  is 
hence  useful  in  chronic  eczema,  psoriasis,  impetigo,  scab,  and 
mange,  and  in  such  cases  is  used  both  internally  and  ex- 
ternally. In  chronic  scaly  skin  complaints  it  has  been 
prescribed  with  mercury  and  iodine. 

In  Styria  it  is  eaten  by  the  peasantry,  with  the  view  of  im- 
proving the  complexion,  producing  plumpness,  increasing 
general  vigour,  and  preventing  breathlessness  in  running  or 


ARSENICAL   SHEEP   DIPS  279 

climbing.  In  various  parts  of  England,  as  well  as  in 
Southern  Europe,  small  doses  are  sometimes  regularly  given 
to  horses,  and  as  it  diminishes  oxidation,  muscle  waste,  and 
production  of  carbonic  acid,  active  exertion  is  performed 
with  a  minimum  of  fatigue.  So  long  as  it  is  used  cautiously 
and  regularly,  the  animals  appear  to  be  in  excellent  health, 
and  have  fine  sleek  coats  ;  but  when  the  arsenic  is  discon- 
tinued they  fall  off  in  appearance,  and  for  many  months  are 
greatly  more  difficult  to  keep  in  condition.  This  practice 
should  not  be  tolerated,  for  it  is  attended  with  much  risk  of 
poisoning,  and  is,  moreover,  liable  to  injure  the  horse's 
constitution. 

Externally,  arsenic  is  occasionally  used  to  eradicate  warts 
and  destroy  fistulae  and  malignant  tumours.  For  foot-rot, 
Williams  advised  that  the  affected  sheep  be  slowly  driven 
through  troughs  containing  a  tolerably  strong  solution  of 
arsenic  and  alkaline  carbonate.  In  solution  it  is  sometimes 
applied  to  remove  the  scurfiness  of  psoriasis.  Used  in- 
cautiously, it  causes  sloughing  and  blemishing,  and  if 
absorbed  may  produce  constitutional  disturbance .  In  virtue 
of  its  antiseptic  properties  it  is  employed  in  powder  or  in 
solution  with  soap  for  the  preservation  of  skins  and  natural 
history  specimens. 

For  sheep  dips  arsenic  is  much  used.  Such  dips  destroy 
ticks  and  keds  more  effectually  than  solutions  of  tobacco, 
spirit  of  tar,  alkaline  and  non-poisonous  dips,  and  are  safer 
and  more  convenient  than  mercurial  baths  or  ointments. 
Two  to  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  arsenic,  with  about  the 
same  quantities  of  soda  ash  or  impure  sodium  carbonate, 
soft  soap,  and  sulphur,  are  dissolved  in  a  hundred  gallons  of 
water.  Three,  four,  and  even  five  pounds  of  arsenic  are 
sometimes  used  without  untoward  results.  In  many  parts 
of  England,  pearl  ash  or  impure  potassium  carbonate  is  sub- 
stituted for  the  soda  ash,  and  makes  a  more  cleansing  and 
softening  ley.  Some  flock-masters  double  or  quadruple  the 
quantity  of  soap,  which,  with  the  alkaline  carbonate,  aids  in 
dissolving  the  arsenic,  while  the  sulphur  whitens  and  softens 
the  fleece,  and  also  for  a  considerable  time  prevents  attacks 
of  flies,  which  are  further  deterred  by  addition  of  a  pint  or 
two  of  naphtha,  or  of  impure  carbolic  acid.  The  ingredients 


280  CASES    OP   POISONING 

are  best  dissolved  in  five  to  ten  gallons  of  boiling  water  ; 
cold  water  is  added  to  make  up  a  hundred  gallons,  which, 
with  careful  dripping,  will  dip  about  a  hundred  sheep.  The 
sheep,  held  in  the  dip  for  forty  to  sixty  seconds,  is  lifted  on 
to  a  sparred  drainer  placed  over  a  second  tub,  or  over  a 
trough  communicating  with  the  dipping  tub,  and  the  wool 
well  squeezed  with  the  hands,  or  with  a  scraper.  The  head 
must  of  course  be  kept  out  of  the  dip. 

Serious  and  fatal  consequences  sometimes,  however,  result 
from  the  use  of  arsenical  dipping  mixtures.     A  Lincolnshire 
breeder,  twenty  hours  after  dipping  150  half-bred  Leicester 
sheep,  lost  eleven,  and  several  some  days  later.     A  greatly 
more  serious  case  occurred  at  Burton,  in  Northumberland, 
during  the  summer  of  1858.     Mr.  Black  of  Burton,  pur- 
chased  from   Mr.   J.    Elliot,    chemist,    Berwick-on-Tweed, 
fifteen  packets  of  dipping  mixture.     Every  packet  contained 
twenty  ounces  each  of  arsenic  and  soda  ash,  and  two  ounces 
of  sulphur,  and  was  directed  to  be  dissolved,  with  four  pounds 
of  soft  soap,  in  three  or  four  gallons  of  boiling  water.     With 
forty-five  gallons  of  cold  water  subsequently  added,  this 
made  sufficient  for  fifty  sheep.     Mr.  Black  had  869  sheep 
dipped  in  the  usual  manner  ;    the  apparatus  and  arrange- 
ments were  good,  and  the  dripping  was  satisfactory.     In  two 
days,  however,  the  sheep  began  to  die  ;    they  were  seized 
much  in  the  same  order  as  they  had  been  dipped,  and  within 
a  month  850  had  perished.     In  many  cases  the  symptoms 
appeared  suddenly,  and  Mr.  Bird,  veterinary  surgeon  in 
attendance,  records  that  several  died  in  twenty  minutes  after 
he  had  observed  them  eating  or  ruminating,  and  apparently 
well.     The  symptoms  were  dulness  and  nausea,  frothing  at 
mouth,  bloodshot  eyes,  pain  in  the  bowels,  discharge  of 
black  and  bloody  urine,  laboured  breathing,  blackening  of 
the  skin,  with  the  wool  falling  off  in  patches,  especially  about 
the  back  and  loins.     Post-mortem  examination  discovered 
the  bowels  inflamed,  and  covered  with  patches  of  extra- 
vasated  blood,  the  lungs  blackened  and  inflamed,  the  liver, 
black,  soft,  and  friable,  the  spleen  congested,  the  bladder 
empty.     On  analysis  arsenic  was  found  in  the  stomachs  and 
bowels. 

The  case  came  to  trial  at  Newcastle  in  February  1859,  and 


ARSENICAL  DIPS   LIABLE   TO   POISON  281 

the  jury  found  a  verdict  for  Mr.  Black,  with  damages 
amounting  to  £1400.  Mr.  Black's  case  rested  mainly  on  the 
fact  that  his  sheep  had  been  carefully  dipped  in  the  usual 
manner,  and  according  to  the  printed  instructions  sent  with 
each  packet  of  the  dipping  mixture.  It  was  sought  to  be 
proved  that  the  mixture  might  in  some  way  have  been 
improperly  made  up,  and  was  of  such  strength  that  the 
poison  had  become  absorbed  through  the  skin.  The  poison- 
ing of  a  donkey,  which  had  carried  the  skins  of  the  dead 
sheep,  some  sores  and  gangrenous  patches  on  the  hands  and 
arms  of  several  of  the  men  employed  in  the  dipping,  were 
also  adduced  as  evidence  of  the  undue  strength  of  the 
mixture. 

In  defence  of  Mr.  Elliot,  it  was  shown  on  the  other  hand, 
that  thousands  of  sheep  had  without  accident  been  dipped 
in  mixtures  of  the  same  strength  as  that  sold  to  Mr.  Black  ; 
that,  indeed,  on  the  same  day  as  the  Burton  sheep  were 
dipped  another  gentleman  in  the  neighbourhood,  without 
any  bad  effect  whatever,  used  eight  packages  of  the  same 
mixture  made  in  the  same  way  and  at  the  same  time.  John 
Gamgee  and  Stevenson  Macadam  made  various  experiments, 
using,  in  two  instances,  arsenic  in  the  proportion  of  28  and  68 
ounces  for  fifty  sheep,  instead  of  the  20  ounces  present  in  Mr. 
Elliot's  dip.  An  Oxfordshire  sheep-dipper,  who  annually 
passed  through  his  hands  several  thousand  sheep  without 
losing  one,  for  years  employed  2J  Ibs.  of  arsenic  for  fifty 
sheep,  or  exactly  double  the  strength  of  Elliot's  mixture.  In 
1859,  Dun  made  experiments  with  dips  three  and  four  times 
the  strength  of  Elliot's  ;  some  of  the  sheep  were  immersed 
for  several  minutes,  and  had  these  concentrated  solutions 
well  rubbed  into  the  skin.  Dun  abstained  in  several  in- 
stances from  pressing  or  drying  the  wool,  dipped  the  same 
sheep  twice  within  two  hours,  and  several  times  within  a 
week,  and  yet  failed  hi  destroying  or  injuring  in  the  smallest 
degree  any  one  of  the  sheep  subjected  to  these  several  trials. 
These  experiments  were  subsequently  repeated  and  verified. 
Arsenical  sheep-dipping  mixtures  obviously  are  not  ab- 
sorbed through  the  sound  skin.  Their  danger  depends  on 
the  poisonous  fluid  being  retained  by  the  fleece,  from  which 
it  drips  on  the  grass  or  other  food  over  which  the  animals 


282  PRECAUTIONS   IN   DIPPING  SHEEP 

stray.  In  this  manner  undoubtedly  the  serious  mortality  at 
Burton  can  be  explained.  The  sheep  were  rapidly  dipped 
at  the  rate  of  eighty  per  hour  ;  and,  according  to  the  usual 
calculation,  each  sheep  carries  away  in  its  fleece,  even  after 
it  has  been  reasonably  drained,  about  a  gallon  of  the  fluid, 
which,  of  Elliot's  strength,  would  contain  nearly  200  grains 
or  arsenic — a  quantity  sufficient,  if  swallowed,  to  poison 
several  sheep. 

Sheep  after  dipping  are  turned  out  hungry,  and  at  once 
begin  to  eat ;  while  the  drippings  fall  on  the  grass,  which  in 
the  Burton  case,  appears  to  have  been  still  further  contamin- 
ated by  rain,  during  the  night  following  the  dipping,  freely 
washing  the  solution  out  of  the  fleeces  on  to  the  pastures. 
Here  it  was  found  in  three  sods,  removed  ten  days  after 
and  examined  by  Douglas  Maclagan,  who  failed,  however,  to 
find  any  arsenic  in  sods  brought  from  an  adjoining  pasture, 
where  no  dipped  sheep  had  grazed.  It  is  obvious  how  the 
donkey,  two  oxen,  and  two  horses  shared  the  fate  of  the 
sheep  ;  whilst  the  drippings,  left  in  the  yards  before  the  flock 
was  turned  out,  would  account  for  the  alleged  mortality 
amongst  the  poultry. 

It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  sheep,  pigs,  or  other  animals 
refuse  to  eat  food  over  which  arsenical  dipping  mixtures 
with  their  nauseous  soft  soap  and  alkali  have  fallen.  Horses, 
pigs,  and  poultry  sometimes  die  from  gaining  access  to  yards 
where  recently-dipped  sheep  have  been  confined.  Two  colts 
were  poisoned  by  eating  vetches  carelessly  left  in  a  yard 
where  some  sheep  had  been  placed  to  drip. 

The  practical  precautions  suggested  by  such  cases  are  :— 
Yards  into  which  freshly-dipped  sheep  are  to  be  turned 
should  previously  be  cleared  of  all  green  food,  hay,  and  even 
fresh  litter  ;  if  perfectly  empty  they  are  still  safer.  When 
the  dipping  is  finished,  they  should  be  cleaned,  washed,  and 
swept,  and  any  of  the  unused  dipping  solution  at  once  poured 
down  the  drains.  Obviously,  however,  no  such  poison  should 
be  run  into  drains  emptying  into  pools  or  streams  accessible 
to  live  stock.  Dipped  sheep  should  remain,  if  possible,  in  an 
airy,  exposed  place,  as  on  a  dry  road,  or  in  a  large  open  yard. 
Overcrowding  should  be  avoided,  and  every  facility  given 
for  rapid  drying,  which  is  greatly  expedited  by  fine,  clear, 


ARSENICAL  SOLUTIONS  283 

sunny  weather.  On  no  account  should  sheep  be  returned  to 
their  grazings  until  they  are  dry,  and  there  is  no  risk  of  their 
poisoning  the  pastures. 

DOSES,  etc.  Of  Arsenic. — Horses  and  cattle  take  grs.  ij.  to 
grs.  x. ;  sheep,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  ij.  ;  and  dogs,  gr.  T]K  to  gr.  T^. 
When  it  is  desired  to  produce  local  action  on  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  small  doses  are  given  before  food  ;  when  its 
absorption  is  required,  it  is  administered  immediately  after 
meals.  It  is  usually  given  once  daily,  and  continued  for  a 
week  or  ten  days,  when  a  change  of  prescription  is  often 
desirable.  When  it  causes  acceleration  or  hardness  of  the 
pulse,  injection  of  the  conjunctiva,  indigestion,  diarrhoea,  or 
other  physiological  action,  the  drug  should  be  discontinued, 
or  the  dose  materially  reduced. 

It  is  most  active  and  uniform  in  its  effects  when  prescribed 
in  solution  with  diluted  acid  or  alkali.  The  Liquor  Arsenici 
hydroehlorieus  contains  one  grain  of  arsenic  in  110  minims. 
Liquor  Arsenicalis  or  Fowler's  solution — made  with  arsenious 
anhydride,  potassium  carbonate,  compound  tincture  of 
lavender  and  distilled  water — is  the  preparation  most  fre- 
quently used  in  veterinary  practice.  It  contains  one  grain 
of  arsenic  in  110  minims  or  about  4J  grains  to  the  ounce. 
The  dose  for  horses  and  cattle  is  from  half  an  ounce  to  an 
ounce  and  a  half.  Dogs  may  be  given  2  to  10  minims. 

The  Liquor  Arsenii  et  Hydrargyri  lodidi  or  Donovan's 
solution,  of  which  1 10  minims  correspond  to  one  grain  each 
of  arsenious  iodide  and  mercuric  iodide,  is  useful  in  chronic 
skin  and  rheumatic  complaints.  The  dose  for  horses  and 
cattle  is  ^iv.  to  §j.  Arsenical  preparations  are  frequently 
administered  in  the  drinking  water,  or  in  the  mash.  For 
hypodermic  or  intra-tracheal  injection  minimum  doses  of 
Fowler's  solution  diluted  with  two  parts  of  distilled  water 
may  be  prescribed. 

Cacodylic  acid  (Dimethyl  arsenic  acid,  AsO(CH3)2HO)  is  an 
arsenical  compound  in  which  the  arsenic  is  in  organic  com- 
bination. It  contains  54  per  cent,  of  arsenium.  It  is  a  white 
crystalline  substance,  soluble  in  four  parts  of  alcohol,  and 
readily  soluble  in  water.  Its  salts,  cacodylate  of  soda  or 
sodium  dimethylarsenate,  which  is  very  soluble  in  water 
and  cacodylate  of  iron,  have  been  employed  in  the  treatment 


284  ARSENICAL  SOLUTIONS 

of  tuberculosis,  trypanosomiasis,  piroplasmosis,  and  certain 
skin  diseases.  The  cacodylates  are  believed  to  promote 
assimilation  and  to  improve  nutrition,  and  in  anaemia  the 
sodium  salt  is  said  to  increase  the  number  of  red  corpuscles 
in  the  blood.  In  dourine  hypodermic  injections  of  sodium 
cacodylate,  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xxx.,  increasing  to  grs.  xlv.  per 
day,  have  given  very  good  results. 

DOSES  (sodium  cacodylate). — Horses,  grs.  viii.  to  grs.  xxx. ; 
dogs,  gr.  f  to  gr.  1J  per  day,  hypodermically.  These  doses 
freely  diluted  may  be  administered  daily  for  five  to  ten  days, 
then  discontinued  for  a  week,  and  repeated  if  necessary. 

Atoxyl,  the  sodium  salt  of  para-aminophenylarsenic  acid 
NH2C6H4AsO(OH)2,  a  white  crystalline  powder,  soluble  in 
six  parts  of  cold  water,  and  in  125  parts  of  alcohol ;  and 
arrhenal  or  disodium  methylarsenate,  a  colourless  crystalline 
salt,  very  soluble  in  water,  have  been  prescribed  in  the 
treatment  of  sleeping  sickness  in  man,  and  of  the  various 
trypanosomiases  (dourine,  nagana)  and  piroplasmoses  in 
animals.  Koch  states  that  atoxyl  in  trypanosomiasis  is 
equal  in  value  to  quinine  in  malaria.  Arrhenal,  given  as  a 
substitute  for  cacodylate  of  soda,  has  proved  very  beneficial 
in  the  treatment  of  bovine  and  canine  piroplasmosis. 
Atoxyl  is  much  less  toxic  than  arsenious  anhydride  ;  and  as 
it  is  decomposed  in  the  stomach  it  should  be  administered 
subcutaneously.  Foals  infested  with  sclerostomum  tetra- 
canthum  have  been  successfully  treated  by  atoxyl  ad- 
ministered subcutaneously  in  doses  gradually  increasing 
from  three  grains  to  fifteen  grains  per  day. 

The  administration  of  atoxyl  to  the  dog  requires  great  care. 
Woodridge  gave  a  bulldog  one  cubic  centimetre  of  a  10  per 
cent,  solution  on  alternate  days,  and  on  the  day  following  the 
fourth  dose  the  dog  refused  food  and  had  a  rolling  gait ;  next 
day  the  dog's  temperature  was  subnormal  (97°  Fahr.),  his 
skin  was  livid  in  patches,  and  he  died  during  the  following 
night. 

DOSES,  etc.  (atoxyl). — Horses,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  iv.,  gradually 
increasing  to  grs.  x.  or  grs.  xii.  per  day,  in  at  least  twenty 
parts  of  sterilised  solution  of  sodium  chloride.  Before 
injection  the  solution  should  be  warmed  to  blood  heat ;  and 
the  minimum  dose  may  be  injected  daily  for  a  week,  then 


MERCURY  285 

the  dose  may  be  cautiously  increased  until  toxic  symptoms 
appear,  when  the  medicine  should  be  suspended  for  a  few 
days,  or  if  desirable,  the  injections  may  be  continued  in 
diminishing  doses  until  the  degree  of  tolerance  peculiar  to 
the  patient  has  been  ascertained.  Then  the  optimum  dose 
may  be  given  once  a  week  for  the  remainder  of  the  treatment. 
Doses  of  arrhenal,  horses,  grs.  viii.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  dogs,  gr.  | 
to  grs.  ii.  per  day,  given  hypodermically  in  twenty  parts  of 
boiled  water. 

MERCURY  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 
MERCURY.     Hydrargyrum.     Quicksilver.     Hg. 

From  its  liquidity  and  volatility  this  metal  is  named 
mercury  ;  to  its  silvery  appearance  it  owes  its  synonym 
hydrargyrum  ;  to  its  liquidity  and  metallic  lustre  such 
appellations  as  aqua  argentum,  aqua  metallica,  and  quick- 
silver. Although  occasionally  found  in  metallic  globules,  its 
most  important  source  is  the  sulphide  or  cinnabar  (HgS). 
When  the  ore  is  roasted  or  heated  with  iron  or  lime,  sulphur 
is  got  rid  of  and  mercury  distils  over. 

Mercury  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  liquidity  and  silver- 
white  lustre.  It  is  tasteless  and  odourless  ;  freezes  at 
-40°  Fahr.,  forming  octahedral  crystals  ;  slowly  volatilises 
at  all  temperatures,  and  boils  at  662°  Fahr.,  forming  a  dense, 
colourless  gas.  Its  specific  gravity  at  60°  is  13*6,  its  atomic 
weight  200.  Triturated  with  fatty  or  saccharine  substances, 
as  in  the  preparation  of  mercurial  ointments,  liniments,  and 
pills,  the  metal  loses  its  fluidity  and  globular  structure,  is 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  dark-grey  powder,  while  a 
small  portion  is  oxidised. 

Mercury  forms  two  series  of  salts — the  mercurous  and 
the  mercuric. 

Mercurous  salts  in  solution  treated  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  produce  a  white  precipitate  of  calomel  (Hg2Cl2) .  Silver 
and  lead  have  similar  white,  insoluble  chlorides  ;  and  these 
three  are  distinguished  by  their  reaction  with  ammonia 
solution,  which  blackens  the  mercurous  chloride,  dissolves 
the  silver  chloride,  but  leaves  the  lead  chloride  unaltered. 

Mercuric  salts  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid  give  negative 


286  POISONING   BY   MERCURIAL   VAPOURS 

results.  To  this  acidulated  solution  hydrogen  sulphide, 
cautiously  added,  throws  down  a  white  precipitate  (HgCl2  -f 
2HgS),  which,  on  further  addition  of  the  precipitant,  becomes 
brown  and  then  black  (HgS),  and  is  insoluble  in  dilute  acids 
and  ammonium  sulphide.  Caustic  potash  yields  a  yellow 
precipitate  of  oxide  (HgO),  insoluble  in  excess.  Potassium 
iodide  gives  a  precipitate  yellow  at  first,  but  rapidly  becom- 
ing red  (HgI2),  soluble  in  excess  of  the  potassium  salt. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Mercury,  mercurous  salts,  and 
mercuric  salts  differ  in  their  local  effects,  largely  depending 
on  their  solubility.  Metallic  mercury  has  no  topical  irritant 
action,  but  is  slowly  absorbed,  and  produces  its  general 
effects  if  finely  divided,  as  in  the  case  of  mercurial  ointment, 
or  in  the  state  of  vapour.  The  chief  mercurous  salts  are 
insoluble  in  water,  and  are  but  slowly  dissolved  by  the 
tissues.  Hence  they  have  a  very  slight  topical  action,  and 
are  only  slowly  absorbed.  But  the  more  soluble  mercuric 
salts  readily  unite  with  albumin,  the  albuminate  is  dissolved 
by  excess  of  proteid,  and  so  these  salts  are  corrosive,  act  as 
irritant  poisons,  and  are  quickly  absorbed.  When  ab- 
sorbed, all  mercurials  produce,  however,  the  distinctive 
actions  of  the  drug,  and  if  continued,  the  condition  of 
mercurialism.  Calomel,  grey  powder,  and  blue  pill,  are 
prescribed  to  develop  mild  mercurialism,  to  lessen  putre- 
faction in  the  intestine,  and  to  act  as  purges.  They  are 
cathartics,  increasing  both  secretion  and  peristalsis  by  the 
irritation  they  set  up,  and  especially  when  conjoined  with 
a  small  amount  of  any  cathartic.  They  are  also  diuretic. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  the  biniodide,  and  the  double  cyanide 
of  mercury  and  zinc  are  effectual  germicides.  Ointments  of 
mercury  and  of  mercuric  iodide  are  applied  as  antiparasitics, 
absorbents,  and  counter-irritants.  Mercurials  are  excreted 
chiefly  by  the  kidneys  and  intestine,  but  also  in  the  saliva, 
bile,  and  sweat.  They  pass  into  the  milk  of  nursing  females  ; 
and  Gasparin  has  seen  lambs  die  from  mercurialism  when  the 
ewes  had  been  freely  dressed  with  ointment.  Elimination 
begins  tolerably  rapidly,  but  is  slow  and  irregular,  and  is 
often  not  completed  for  months  after  administration  has 
ceased. 

Mercury,  so  long  as  it  remains  uncombined,  like  other 


MERCURIALISM  287 

metals  is  devoid  of  physiological  action.  Several  pounds 
which  were  formerly  given  to  human  and  veterinary  patients 
for  the  removal  of  obstruction  of  the  bowels,  produce  only 
mechanical  effects.  In  a  state  of  fine  division  it  is,  however, 
oxidised  and  dissolved,  and  hence  acquires  activity.  Mer- 
curial vapours  thus  speedily  become  poisonous,  as  was 
strikingly  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  Triumph  man-of-war 
and  the  Phipps  schooner,  which  received  on  board  several 
tons  of  quicksilver,  saved  from  the  wreck  of  a  vessel  near 
Cadiz  in  1809.  From  the  rotten  bags  the  mercury  escaped, 
and  within  three  weeks  two  hundred  men  were  salivated, 
two  died,  and  all  the  animals — cats,  dogs,  sheep,  fowls,  a 
canary  bird,  and  even  the  rats,  mice,  and  cockroaches  were 
destroyed  (Pereira) .  Men  working  with  the  metal  frequently 
suffer  from  mercurial  poisoning.  Out  of  516  workmen 
employed  at  the  quicksilver  works  at  Idria,  122  were,  in 
1856,  affected  with  dyspepsia,  scrofula,  anaemia,  neuralgia, 
mercurial  gout,  tremor,  and  caries.  The  finely-divided 
mercury  so  pervaded  the  atmosphere  that  cows  feeding  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  furnaces  suffered  from  excessive 
secretion  of  saliva,  became  unthrifty,  and  aborted  ;  the 
calves  were  also  often  ailing  ;  while  trout  in  adjacent 
reservoirs,  contaminated  by  the  waste  products  of  the 
furnaces,  lost  their  red  spots  and  became  sickly. 

Mercurialism  or  chronic  poisoning  in  all  animals  consists 
in  a  persistent  condition  of  anaemia,  prostration,  and  wasting ; 
secretion  and  excretion  are  increased.  The  abundant  flow 
of  saliva  so  notable  in  man  is  not,  however,  observed  to  the 
same  extent  amongst  the  lower  animals.  The  mouth  becomes 
tender  ;  the  gums  red,  soft,  and  swollen  ;  the  breath  foetid. 
There  is  impaired  appetite,  nausea,  gradual  loss  of  condition, 
oedema,  and  general  weakness.  The  heart  action  is  enfeebled 
and  respiration  impaired.  The  faeces,  increased  in  quantity, 
are  largely  mixed  with  mucus,  and  are  very  offensive.  There 
may  be  diarrhoea  and  attacks  of  colic.  The  joints  are  often 
stiff  and  painful.  The  urine  is  often  increased,  and  it  may 
contain  albumin  and  casts.  There  is  marked  pallor  of  the 
mucous  membranes,  anaemia,  and  a  fast,  weak  pulse.  In  man 
there  occur  peculiar  tremors,  passing  into  paralysis,  and 
affecting  certain  muscles  and  groups  of  muscles.  Percivall 


288  MERCURY    OINTMENT 

and  Williams  describe  a  red  skin  rash  resembling  red-mange, 
and  occurring  especially  in  cattle  and  dogs. 

Different  species  of  animals  show  a  diminishing  suscepti- 
bility to  mercurialism  in  the  following  order  :  birds,  cats, 
sheep,  cattle,  dogs,  pigs,  and  solipeds  (Kaufmann).  Al- 
though generally  less  susceptible,  individual  horses  exhibit 
different  degrees  of  susceptibility.  Percivall  mentions  that 
ten  grains  of  calomel  given  daily  to  a  four-year-old  horse 
made  the  mouth  so  sore  by  the  fifth  day  that  he  '  cudded  ' 
his  hay  ;  while  a  mare  received  six  drachms  of  calomel,  two 
ounces  of  blue  pill,  and  had  mercurial  ointment  well  rubbed 
into  her  thighs,  without  suffering  either  from  sore  mouth  or 
salivation.  Mercurialism  occasionally  results  from  one  large 
dose,  if  this  is  slowly  absorbed,  when  it  is  apt  to  be  violent 
and  difficult  to  control,  but  is  induced  more  certainly  and 
with  less  danger  by  small  and  repeated  doses  of  calomel,  or 
any  mild  mercurial,  and  its  production  is  hastened  by  using 
the  medicine  both  externally  and  internally. 

Acute  mercurial  poisoning  is  caused  by  the  soluble  salts 
such  as  the  perchloride.  There  are  all  the  signs  of  acute 
gastro-enteritis,  and  then  collapse  and  death  from  exhaustion 
in  from  a  few  hours  to  a  few  days.  If  the  latter,  character- 
istic signs  of  mercurialism  are  seen  before  death. 

The  patient  under  the  effects  of  mercury  must  be  pro- 
tected from  cold  and  wet.  To  arrest  excessive  action  the 
drug  must  be  withheld  ;  its  excretion  hastened  by  adminis- 
tration of  potassium  iodide,  followed  by  a  saline  purge  ;  the 
mouth,  if  sore,  washed  repeatedly  with  solution  of  chlorin- 
ated lime  or  alum  ;  anaemia  and  wasting  combated  by  good 
food,  iron  salts,  and  quinine.  In  acute  poisoning  by  irritant 
mercurial  salts,  the  preliminary  treatment  consists  in 
repeated  full  doses  of  albumin  and  other  demulcents. 
Common  salt  helps  the  solution  of  mercury,  and  should 
not  be  used  as  an  emetic  in  poisoning  with  mercury  salts. 

MERCURY  OINTMENT.     Unguentum  Hydrargyri.     (B.P.) 

Mercury  or  blue  ointment  of  good  quality  cannot  be  made 
on  the  small  scale  without  immense  labour  and  loss  of  time. 
It  is  composed  of  one  pound  of  mercury,  one  pound  of  lard, 


MERCURY    OINTMENT  289 

and  one  ounce  of  suet.  Trituration  is  continued  until 
metallic  globules  cease  to  be  visible.  A  good  ointment  con- 
tains about  one  per  cent,  of  its  mercury  in  a  state  of  oxide, 
and  infriction  and  exposure  during  application  increase  this 
more  active  oxidised  portion,  which  is  dissolved  by  the  salts 
and  fatty  acids  of  the  skin.  This  strong  ointment  is  usually 
diluted  with  two  or  three  parts  of  hog's  lard  or  soft  soap  ;  or 
used  in  the  form  of  unguentum  hydrargyri  compositum, 
which  contains  ten  parts  mercury  ointment,  six  parts  each 
of  yellow  wax  and  olive  oil,  and  three  parts  of  camphor. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Mercurial  ointment,  when  merely  laid 
on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  exerts  slight  topical  effect,  and  is 
only  very  gradually  absorbed.  When  applied  with  smart 
friction  it  is  more  quickly  absorbed,  and,  in  considerable 
amount,  irritates,  vesicates,  and  induces  constitutional 
effects.  Two  ounces  of  the  strong  ointment,  rubbed  daily 
into  the  skin  of  a  horse,  salivates  in  four  or  five  days  :  but 
according  to  Bouley,  three  ounces  may,  without  fatal 
effects,  be  thus  applied  daily  for  a  week.  Lafosse  produced, 
however,  grave  constitutional  effects  in  cattle  by  rubbing 
three  ounces  into  the  throat  (Kaufmann). 

Mild  dressings  encourage  the  healing  of  indolent  ulcers, 
and  promote  a  healthier  action  in  psoriasis  and  other  per- 
sistent scaly  skin  disorders.  For  the  successful  treatment 
of  psoriasis  and  allied  complaints,  Williams  recommended 
the  internal  as  well  as  the  external  use  of  liquor  arsenii  et 
hydrargyri  iodidi.  Although  not  superior  to  many  safer 
remedies,  it  is  sometimes  used  for  destroying  ringworm  fungi, 
and  killing  lice,  the  acari  of  mange  and  scab,  and  other  skin 
parasites,  and  for  such  purposes  is  frequently  conjoined  with 
tar  oils,  sulphur,  or  iodine.  As  a  counter-irritant  and 
absorbent  the  strong  ointment  is  employed  in  reducing 
swelling  of  joints  and  tendons. 

Mercurial  ointment  is  apt,  however,  to  be  used  too  freely 
and  indiscriminately.  When  incautiously  used  it  not  only 
causes  undue  irritation,  but  is  apt  to  produce  poisoning 
after  being  absorbed.  Many  cattle  and  sheep,  dressed  for 
skin  complaints  and  skin  parasites,  suffer  from  mercurial 
poisoning,  and  some  of  these  cases  terminate  fatally.  In 
Lincolnshire  a  lot  of  scabby  sheep  were  treated  with  blue 

T 


290  MERCURIAL   LINIMENTS 

ointment,  and  forty  died,  with  symptoms  of  short  breathing, 
a  peculiar  grunt  indicative  of  pain,  and  drooping  head 
(Taylor).  The  maximum  amount  of  the  strong  ointment  to 
be  used  for  horses  is  two  ounces,  for  cattle  an  ounce,  for 
sheep  half  an  ounce,  for  dogs  thirty  grains  to  a  drachm. 
For  topical  purposes  a  second  dressing,  if  required,  should 
not  be  applied  for  two  or  three  days. 

LINIMENT  OF  MERCURY.     Linimentum  Hydrargyri. 
MERCURIC  OLE  ATE.     Hydrargyri  Oleas. 

One  part  of  mercury  ointment,  one-third  part  of  strong 
ammonia  solution,  and  one  and  a  half  of  camphor  liniment, 
thoroughly  mixed,  constitute  the  B.P.  liniment.  Its  effects 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  ointment.  Two  liniments  suitable 
for  persistent  scaly  skin  diseases,  enlarged  glands,  and  chronic 
indurations  are  subjoined  :— 

Mercurial  ointment,  2  ounces.  Mercurial  ointment,  2  ounces. 

Camphor,      .         .     1  drachm.  Creosote,        .         .     1  drachm. 

Oil  of  tar,      .         .     4  ounces.  Liquor  ammonise,       2  ounces. 

Linseed  oil,  .         .     4  ounces.  Linseed  oil,  .         .     6  ounces. 

The  oleate  is  prepared  with  one  ounce  mercuric  chloride, 
two  ounces  hard  soap,  one  drachm  oleic  acid,  and  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  distilled  water.  One  part  mixed  with  three 
parts  of  benzoated  lard  is  diffusible  and  penetrating.  It 
promotes  absorption,  and,  used  repeatedly,  acts  as  a  counter- 
irritant.  It  is  applied  in  articular  inflammation,  exostoses, 
indurations  of  the  udder,  and  other  glandular  and  indolent 
swellings.  Diluted  solutions  destroy  ringworm  and  favus, 
and  are  also  fatal  to  animal  parasites. 

MERCURIAL  PLASTER.     Emplastrum  Hydrargyri. 

Is  made  with  olive  oil,  56  grains  ;  sulphur,  8  grains  ;  mer- 
cury, 3  ounces  ;  and  lead  plaster,  6  ounces.  The  olive  oil  is 
heated,  and  the  sulphur  gradually  added  until  they  unite. 
With  this  mixture  triturate  the  mercury  until  globules  are 
no  longer  visible  ;  then  add  the  lead  plaster,  previously 
liquefied,  and  mix  thoroughly  (B.P.).  This  plaster  is  occa- 
sionally used  as  a  stimulant  for  glandular  and  chronic 
enlargements,  wind-galls,  and  other  bursal  swellings. 


MERCURY    PILL  291 

MERCURY  WITH  CHALK.     Hydrargyrum  cum  Greta.     Grey 
Powder. 

This  mixture  is  made  by  triturating  together  one  part 
mercury  with  two  of  prepared  chalk  until  globules  disappear, 
and  a  uniform  grey  colour  is  acquired.  Grey  powder  should 
be  free  from  grittiness,  and  insoluble  in  water  ;  but  its  chalk 
dissolves  in  hydrochloric  acid,  leaving  the  mercury  in  a 
finely-divided  state. 

Grey  powder  is  antacid,  laxative,  and  alterative.  It  is 
given  with  good  effect  to  young  calves  and  foals  suffering 
from  indigestion  and  diarrhoea,  in  doses  of  five  to  fifteen 
grains,  repeated  once  or  twice  a  day,  conveniently  placed  on 
the  patient's  tongue,  or  administered  with  a  drachm  of 
ginger,  in  spirit  and  water,  milk,  or  gruel.  To  allay  gastric 
irritation,  caused  by  constipation  and  putrefactive  changes 
in  the  intestine,  and  as  an  alterative  for  dogs,  one  to  three 
grains  are  prescribed  two  or  three  times  daily  ;  but  such 
treatment  is  only  advisable  for  robust  patients. 

MERCURY  OR  BLUE  PILL.     Pilula  Hydrargyri. 

This  pill,  so  much  used  in  human  medicine,  is  seldom 
employed  in  veterinary  practice.  It  consists  of  two  parts 
mercury,  three  of  confection  of  roses,  and  one  of  liquorice 
root.  Mayhew  recommended,  as  a  cathartic  for  a  medium- 
sized  dog,  five  grains  blue  pill,  six  grains  powdered  colchicum, 
and  ten  grains  colocynth  extract.  Five  grains  blue  pill  and 
eight  grains  compound  extract  of  colocynth,  flavoured  with 
a  few  drops  of  oil  of  peppermint  or  of  cloves,  make  a  con- 
venient laxative  for  a  large  dog,  or  two  or  three  doses  for  a 
small  one.  The  activity  of  mercury  pill  in  part  results  from 
its  containing  a  small  proportion  of  oxide,  which  is  readily 
dissolved  by  the  acid  gastric  juice. 

MERCUROUS  OXIDE.     Hydrargyri  Suboxidum.     Hg20. 

Mercurous,  black,  grey,  or  lower  oxide  is  prepared  by 
decomposing  calomel  (Hg2Cl2)  with  caustic  potash  solution, 
and  washing  with  water.  It  is  a  heavy  black  powder,  devoid 
of  taste  or  odour,  insoluble  in  water  and  alkalies,  but  soluble 


292  MERCUROTJS    CHLORIDE 

in  nitric  and  acetic  acids.  It  is  unstable,  and  on  exposure 
to  light  or  gentle  heat  decomposes  into  mercuric  oxide  and 
metallic  mercury.  It  is  less  active  than  the  mercuric  oxide, 
and  is  frequently  used  as  a  stimulant  for  unhealthy  wounds 
and  ulcers,  in  the  form  of  the  black  wash  (lotio  hydrargyri 
nigra),  made  by  mixing  30  grains  calomel,  half  an  ounce  of 
glycerin,  1J  ounces  of  tragacanth  mucilage,  and  sufficient 
lime-water  to  make  10  ounces  of  lotion. 


RED  MERCURIC  OXIDE.    Hydrargyri  Oxidum  Rubrum.    Red 

Precipitate.     HgO. 
YELLOW  MERCURIC  OXIDE.     Hydrargyri  Oxidum  Flavum. 

Red  mercuric  oxide  is  obtained  by  heating  mercurous 
nitrate  until  acid  vapours  cease  to  be  evolved.  Yellow 
mercuric  oxide  is  obtained  by  the  interaction  of  mercuric 
chloride  and  sodium  hydroxide  (B.P.).  The  red  oxide  occurs 
in  orange-red  crystals,  which  become  yellow  when  powdered 
and  brownish-black  when  heated,  recovering,  however,  their 
original  colour  on  cooling.  It  dissolves  sparingly  in  water, 
but  readily  in  hydrochloric  acid.  The  yellow  oxide  is  con- 
tained in  lotio  hydrargyri  flava  or  yellow  wash. 

Mercuric  oxide  is  nearly  as  active  and  irritant  as  corrosive 
sublimate.  Two  or  three  grains  given  to  dogs  cause  fatal 
gastro-enteritis.  Eight  to  fifteen  grains  caused  colic  in 
horses,  and  one  or  two  drachms  enteritis  and  death  (Hert- 
wig).  It  is  applied  externally  as  a  stimulant  and  caustic  for 
indolent  ulcers,  over-luxuriant  granulations,  chronic  scaly 
eruptions,  and  glandular  enlargements,  being  used  in  the 
form  of  powder,  lotion,  or  ointment.  Red  precipitate  oint- 
ment is  made  with  J  ounce  mercuric  oxide  and  2J  ounces  of 
yellow  paraffin  ointment. 


MERCUROUS  CHLORIDE.     Hydrargyri  Subchloridum.     Calo- 
mel.    Hg2Cl2. 

Calomel  is  found  native  in  Carniola  and  Spain,  but  in  too 
small  amount  to  be  of  commercial  value.  It  is  obtained  by 
heating  a  mixture  of  mercurous  sulphate  and  sodium 


CALOMEL  293 

chloride.  The  calomel,  rising  in  vapour,  may  be  condensed 
in  fibrous  cakes  on  the  cool  part  of  the  vessel,  or  conducted 
into  a  large  chamber,  where  it  falls  in  fine  powder.  Traces 
of  corrosive  sublimate  are  removed  by  washing  with  boiling 
distilled  water.  The  powder  is  dried  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  212°  Fahr. 

Calomel  is  a  dull- white,  heavy,  and  nearly  tasteless  powder, 
sometimes  rendered  yellowish  by  prolonged  trituration.  It 
is  inodorous,  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether.  It  is 
slowly  decomposed  by  light ;  volatilises  unchanged  when 
heated  ;  and  yields  mercurous  oxide  when  acted  on  by 
alkalies  or  lime  water. 

ACTION  AND  USES. — Calomel,  being  insoluble  in  water,  has 
no  in-contact  effect  on  the  skin,  but  it  is  in  part  dissolved 
by  the  gastric  secretions.  It  irritates  the  gastric  membrane 
and  glands,  full  doses  producing  emesis  in  man  and  carni- 
vora.  Similar  irritation  is  exerted  on  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  small  intestines,  and  it  is  consequently  a  cathartic. 
It  does  not  increase  secretion  of  bile,  but,  acting  as  an 
indirect  cholagogue,  it  removes  bile  lodged  in  the  duodenum. 
Like  other  mercurials,  repeated  doses  cause  mercurialism, 
and  increase  secretion  of  the  salivary,  pancreatic,  and  in- 
testinal glands,  and  also  of  the  kidneys.  The  earlier  stages 
of  mercurialism  are  produced  with  the  view  of  altering 
metabolism  and  nutrition,  and  promoting  especially  absorp- 
tion of  fibrinous  exudation.  Externally,  it  is  used  as  a 
desiccant,  stimulant,  and  anti-parasitic. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Tuson  showed  that  calomel  and 
distilled  water,  digested  in  a  glass  vessel  at  100*2°  Fahr.  (the 
temperature  of  the  stomach),  when  mixed  with  either  pepsin 
or  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  remained  un- 
altered, even  after  twenty-four  hours  ;  but  when  both  pepsin 
and  hydrochloric  acid  were  used,  solution  speedily  occurred, 
and  a  black  precipitate  of  mercury  sulphide  was  formed. 
The  mucus  and  fats  of  the  canal,  and  also  the  bile,  further  aid 
solution.  It  is  chiefly  absorbed  as  an  albuminate,  which, 
although  insoluble  in  water,  dissolves  in  excess  of  albumin 
and  in  sodium  chloride  solution.  Small  proportions  even  of 
small  doses  of  calomel  are  absorbed,  and  most  of  that  ab- 
sorbed, as  well  as  that  unabsorbed,  is  excreted  by  the  bowels 


294  MERCUROUS    CHLORIDE 

in  the  state  of  metallic  sulphide  and  sulphate  exerting  an 
antiseptic  effect,  and  usually  imparting  a  green  colour  to  the 
faeces  by  preventing  decomposition  changes  in  the  bile.  The 
opinion  that  calomel  undergoes  partial  conversion  into  the 
higher  chloride  before  absorption  is  not  supported  by 
evidence,  and  such  a  change  is  unnecessary,  for  the  proteid 
present  is  sufficient  to  dissolve  it  and  form  the  albuminate. 
It  is  likely  that  leucocytes  may  take  up  particles  of  the  salt 
and  transport  them  through  the  bowel  wall,  just  as  they  do 
when  calomel  is  injected  subcutaneously. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Calomel  is  less  irritant  than  mercuric 
chloride  or  nitrate,  but  irritant  effects,  usually  followed  by 
constitutional  disturbance,  are  produced  in  horses  by  three 
or  four  drachms  ;  in  cattle  by  two  or  three  drachms  ;  in 
sheep  by  fifteen  to  thirty  grains  ;  in  dogs  by  six  to  thirty 
grains.  Hertwig  found  that  these  doses,  within  twenty-four 
or  thirty-six  hours,  and  in  dogs  in  less  time,  caused  occa- 
sional colic  and  copious  discharge  of  faeces,  which  contained 
bile,  and  were  greyish-green  in  cattle,  but  darker  in  dogs. 
Such  doses,  especially  if  repeated  daily  for  three  or  four 
days,  further  induce  fluid  and  stinking  evacuations,  foetid 
breath,  soreness  of  the  mouth,  rapid  impairment  of  appetite 
and  condition,  and  fatal  low  fever  and  dysentery. 

At  the  Edinburgh  Veterinary  College  a  healthy  donkey 
was  given  a  drachm  of  calomel  daily  in  three  separate  doses. 
About  the  sixth  day  the  animal  became  excitable,  and  the 
pulse  rose  to  85.  By  the  eighth  day  secretion  of  saliva  was 
augmented,  the  breath  was  foetid,  the  gums  red  and  tender, 
and  appetite  impaired  ;  but  the  fseces  and  urine  were  normal. 
By  the  twelfth  day  these  symptoms  became  more  aggravated, 
the  pulse  softer  and  less  frequent,  the  strength  much  reduced. 
On  the  fourteenth  day  administration  of  the  calomel  was 
suspended,  but  death  occurred  two  days  later.  The  animal 
had  received  fourteen  drachms  in  fourteen  days.  Post- 
mortem examination  discovered  the  teeth  loose,  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth  and  air-passages  blanched,  while 
that  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  was  softened,  easily  torn, 
and  in  many  places  thickly  covered  with  mucus.  The  liver 
was  rather  friable,  but  the  kidneys,  spleen,  and  lungs  were 
healthy. 


ANTISEPTIC,    ELIMINATIVE,   AND    ALTERATIVE       295 

Dogs  weighing  30  Ibs.  to  40  Ibs.  receiving  three  or  four 
grains  night  and  morning  were  salivated  in  a  week,  and  died 
in  nine  days.  The  most  notable  appearance  was  inflamma- 
tion of  the  large  intestine.  Hertwig  considers  that  dogs 
and  swine,  on  account  of  their  often  getting  rid  of  the  drug 
by  vomiting,  are  less  easily  affected  than  the  other  domesti- 
cated animals,  and  that  horses  are  less  susceptible  than 
cattle. 

The  action  of  calomel  on  the  liver  was  investigated  by  a 
Committee  of  the  British  Medical  Association.  They  experi- 
mented chiefly  on  dogs  with  fistulous  openings  into  the 
duodenum,  and  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  neither 
calomel  nor  blue  pill  affects  secretion  of  bile,  unless  it  purges 
or  impairs  health,  when  the  quantity  of  bile  is  diminished. 
Rohrig  curarised  dogs,  maintained  life  by  artificial  respira- 
tion, and  placed  a  glass  tube  in  the  gall  duct.  Calomel,  even 
in  twenty-grain  doses,  did  not  re-establish  the  secretion 
when  it  had  ceased,  but  had  a  marked  power  in  increas- 
ing and  maintaining  it  beyond  the  natural  time  for  its 
cessation. 

W.  Rutherford  and  Vignal,  also  experimenting  on  curar- 
ised dogs,  found  that  doses  of  ten,  five,  or  even  two  grains  of 
calomel,  placed  in  the  duodenum  of  fasting  subjects,  pro- 
duced purging  ;  they  did  not,  however,  increase  secretion  of 
bile,  but  actually  diminished  it.  These  experiments  justify 
the  conclusion  that  calomel  and  mercurials  have  no  special 
cholagogue  action  ;  they  do  not  stimulate  secretion  of  bile, 
as  they  notably  do  of  saliva  and  pancreatic  fluid.  The 
increased  intestinal  action  sweeps  out  bile  lodged  in  the 
duodenum,  as  well  as  in  the  hepatic  ducts,  and  thus  prevents 
its  reabsorption,  and,  moreover,  abates  congestion  of  the 
portal  system.  Calomel,  therefore,  although  not  increasing 
secretion  of  bile,  notably  hastens  its  expulsion. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Few  remedies  have  been  applied  to  so 
many  and  diversified  uses,  but  neither  in  veterinary  nor  in 
human  medicine  is  it  as  much  used  as  formerly.  Gastric 
irritation,  intestinal  catarrh,  as  well  as  bilious  diarrhoea,  are 
frequently  treated  with  small  doses,  either  used  alone  or  con- 
joined with  chalk  or  opium.  For  foals  and  calves  calomel 
may  be  substituted  for  grey  powder,  when  the  bowels  are 


296  MERCUROUS    CHLORIDE 

irregular  and  the  discharges  malodorous.  In  such  cases, 
like  other  mercurials  it  owes  its  good  effects  to  its  combina- 
tion of  antiseptic  and  eliminative  properties.  Although 
useful  in  biliousness  and  congestion  of  the  liver,  and,  along 
with  laxatives,  removing  waste  bile  from  the  duodenum,  it 
has  no  special  remedial  effect  in  jaundice,  arrested  secretion 
of  bile,  or  chronic  liver  complaints.  Such  cases  are  fittingly 
treated  by  nitro-hydrochloric  acid  and  other  liver  stimulants. 
That  type  of  influenza  in  horses  complicated  with  gastric 
derangement  and  yellow  mucous  membranes  is  often  success- 
fully treated  in  the  early  stages  with  calomel  grs.  xx.,  and 
opium  3ss->  with  or  without  oil,  repeated  twice  or  thrice,  at 
intervals  of  twelve  hours,  and  alternated  with  or  followed  by 
salines. 

It  is  a  useful  adjuvant  cathartic.  Four  drachms  of  aloes, 
with  half  a  drachm  of  calomel,  purge  most  horses  as  effectu- 
ally as  eight  drachms  of  aloes.  Such  a  combination  is 
advantageously  used  in  lymphangitis  and  other  cases  where 
prompt  and  full  catharsis  is  desired.  But  as  an  adjuvant 
purgative  it  is  more  serviceable  in  cattle  than  in  horses.  As 
an  anthelmintie,  combined  sometimes  with  santonin,  and 
followed  by  a  laxative,  it  removes  entozoa.  In  acute 
rheumatism  calomel  is  given  with  a  purgative  ;  in  chronic 
cases,  and  also  in  malarial  disorders,  small  doses  are  some- 
times used  with  quinine  sulphate.  Dogs  and  pigs  frequently 
have  calomel  conjoined  with  jalap  or  with  oils  as  a  cathartic 
and  febrifuge,  and  occasionally  with  ipecacuanha  as  an 
emetic. 

As  an  alterative  and  febrifuge  it  is  not  as  much  used  as 
formerly,  but  some  practitioners  still  prescribe  it  hi  acute 
localised  inflammation,  particularly  in  pneumonia,  pleurisy, 
peritonitis,  laminitis,  iritis.  It  is  most  effectual  when  such 
cases  are  complicated  with  gastric  derangement,  and  its 
curative  action  probably  depends  upon  its  combination  of 
antiseptic,  cathartic,  and  diuretic  effects,  these  latter  being 
increased  by  the  laxatives  and  salines  with  which  it  is  usually 
conjoined.  In  chronic  inflammation  it  reduces  enlarged 
glands,  removes  recently  formed  deposits,  and  sometimes 
prevents  adhesions,  in  iritis  and  pleurisy.  For  such  objects, 
small,  frequently  repeated  doses  are  used,  conjoined  with 


DESICCANT,    STIMULANT,    AND    ANTIPARASITIC       297 

opium  to  delay  excretion,  while  constitutional  effects  may  be 
hastened  by  in-rubbing  of  the  ointment.  In  muco-enteritis, 
whether  in  horses  or  cattle,  Barlow  sometimes  used  half  a 
drachm  of  calomel  with  an  ounce  of  laudanum,  repeated  at 
intervals  of  one  or  two  hours,  until  three  or  four  doses  were 
taken.  Calomel,  chalk,  and  opium  are  frequently  prescribed 
in  dysentery. 

Calomel  has  diuretic  effects  ;  it  notably  increases  the 
diuresis  caused  by  resinous  or  saline  drugs. 

Externally,  calomel  destroys  the  acari  of  scab  and  mange, 
kills  lice,  abates  the  itching  of  those  eczematous  eruptions 
of  the  limbs  of  underbred  cart  horses,  and  of  eczema  in 
dogs.  Although  of  small  benefit  in  soothing -the  itching 
of  urticaria,  it  relieves  the  irritation  of  prurigo,  removes  the 
scales  and  heals  the  cracks  of  psoriasis,  hastens  removal  of 
warts,  and  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  for  thrush  in  the 
horses'  frog.  It  must  be  used  discreetly,  for  if  freely  applied 
it  may  be  absorbed,  and  cause  untoward  constitutional 
effects. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  an  alterative  and  febrifuge,  horses  and 
cattle  take  grs.  x.  to  3i-  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xxx.  ; 
dogs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  iij.,  usually  given  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
frequently  with  an  equal  weight  of  opium,  to  prevent  too 
rapid  removal  by  the  bowels.  As  a  cathartic,  calomel  is 
not  used  alone,  and  the  dose  is  consequently  regulated  by 
that  of  the  drug  with  which  it  is  combined.  For  the  horse 
a  full  purgative  consists  of  calomel  3i->  with  aloes  ^iv.  ; 
for  cattle,  3*-  to  39  •>  with  Epsom  or  common  salt,  Ib.  1,  or 
oil,  Oj.  ;  for  dogs,  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  iv.,  with  jalap,  grs.  xx.  to 
grs.  xl.  As  a  vermifuge  for  the  horse,  the  following  com- 
bination is  given  before  feeding  for  three  or  four  consecutive 
mornings  : — One  drachm  each  of  calomel,  extract  of  male 
fern,  and  aloes,  with  four  drachms  of  ginger,  made  into 
bolus  with  linseed  meal  and  treacle.  As  an  emetic  for  dogs 
or  pigs,  two  or  three  grains  are  given,  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  tartar  emetic,  or  with  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xx.  of  ipecacuanha. 
To  allay  irritation,  and  promote  healthy  cutaneous  action, 
or  to  destroy  skin  parasites,  calomel  is  used  in  powder,  or 
in  ointment,  1  in  10  of  vaseline,  conjoined  sometimes  with 
iodine,  boric  acid,  or  wood-tar  oils. 


298  MERCURIC    CHLORIDE 

MERCURIC  CHLORIDE.  HydrargyriPerchloridum.  Bichloride 
of  Mercury.     Corrosive  Sublimate.     HgCl2. 

Corrosive  sublimate  and  calomel  are  both  chlorides  of  mer- 
cury ;  corrosive  sublimate  contains  twice  as  much  chlorine 
as  calomel,  is  the  higher,  per-,  or  mercuric  chloride  (HgCl2), 
and  is  a  soluble  and  actively  corrosive  poison  ;  while  calomel, 
the  lower  or  mercurous  chloride  (Hg2Cl2),  is  an  insoluble, 
and  therefore  comparatively  mild  agent.  By  using,  in 
speaking  or  writing,  the  vernacular  names,  risk  of  mistaking 
these  chlorides  is  diminished. 

Corrosive  sublimate  may  be  prepared  by  heating  a  mixture 
of  mercuric  sulphate,  sodium  chloride,  and  a  little  black 
oxide  of  manganese. 

It  occurs  in  heavy,  colourless  masses  of  prismatic  crystals, 
devoid  of  odour,  but  with  an  acrid,  metallic  taste.  When 
heated  it  sublimes  without  decomposition,  leaving  only  a 
trace  of  fixed  residue.  It  is  soluble  in  about  three  parts  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  four  parts  of  ether,  two  parts  of 
glycerin,  two  of  boiling  water,  and  sixteen  of  cold  water, 
or  nearly  four  grains  to  the  ounce.  Its  solubility  is  increased 
by  the  presence  of  certain  salts,  such  as  the  chlorides  of 
sodium  and  ammonium.  Its  antiseptic  properties  recom- 
mend it  for  preserving  anatomical  preparations.  It  is  nqt 
subject  to  intentional  adulteration. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  a  corrosive  and  irritant  poison  ; 
is  occasionally  prescribed  as  an  alterative  and  antiseptic  ; 
repeated  doses  cause  mercurialism.  Externally,  it  is  used 
as  an  antiseptic,  astringent,  caustic,  and  parasiticide. 

Corrosive  sublimate  precipitates  albumin,  the  precipitate 
being  dissolved  by  excess  of  proteid,  and  hence  in  powder 
or  concentrated  solution  is  irritant  and  corrosive,  for  the 
protective  scum  of  albumin  is  removed,  and  the  drug  pene- 
trates farther.  Dissolved  in  water,  it  is  the  most  energetic 
antiseptic  ;  one  part  in  25250  prevents  the  development  of 
bacteria  taken  from  meat  infusion  ;  one  part  in  10250 
prevents  the  development  of  spores  in  boiled  meat  infusion  ; 
one  part  in  6500  prevents  reproduction  of  spores  (Koch). 
Spores  placed  in  one  per  thousand  solution  in  water  are 
effectually  destroyed  in  one  to  two  days.  Solution  of  one 


AN   IRRITANT    CORROSIVE    POISON  299 

to  two  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water  effectually  destroys 
vegetable  and  animal  parasites  infesting  the  skin.  It  must, 
however,  be  used  with  caution,  for  it  not  only  irritates  and 
corrodes  locally,  but  is  readily  absorbed,  and  hence  liable 
to  produce  constitutional  effects. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Swallowed  in  strong  solution  it  is  an 
irritant  corrosive  poison,  producing  gastro-enteritis  and 
collapse.  Smaller  or  more  diluted  doses  produce  mercurial- 
ism.  Seven  or  eight  grains  destroyed  dogs  in  seven  to  thirty 
hours  ;  four  drachms  dissolved  in  three  pounds  of  water 
killed  a  horse  in  twelve  hours  ;  twTo  drachms  caused  in  cattle 
great  emaciation,  and  death  in  fourteen  days  ;  one  drachm 
proved  fatal  to  a  sheep  within  twelve  hours  (Hertwig). 
Larger  quantities,  however,  appear  to  be  tolerated  when  the 
poison  is  first  given  in  small  doses.  Thus,  Percivall,  ex- 
perimenting upon  a  horse,  commenced  with  ten  grains,  and 
gradually  increased  the  dose  to  five  drachms  before  the 
appetite  or  pulse  became  affected.  Injurious  effects  occur 
whatever  the  channel  by  which  poisonous  doses  enter  the 
body.  Shepherds  using  strong  solutions  for  foot-rot  or  for 
scab  have  suffered  from  its  irritant  and  also  from  its  con- 
stitutional effects.  Dogs  dressed  with  it  for  mange  have 
occasionally  died  from  gastro-enteritis  and  collapse. 

Compared  with  arsenical  poisoning,  the  acute  symptoms 
with  large  doses  come  on  more  rapidly  ;  there  is  more 
chemical  and  corrosive  action,  whilst  in  chronic  cases 
salivation  usually  ensues. 

Post-mortem  examination  discovers  the  mucous  lining  of 
the  alimentary  canal  softened  and  bluish-grey  ;  where  large 
doses  have  been  given  it  is  disorganised  by  chemical  action  ; 
where  death  is  postponed  for  a  day,  patches  of  inflammation 
and  sloughing  are  found  ;  the  kidneys  are  inflamed,  the 
tubules  plugged  with  casts,  and  other  urinary  organs  are 
congested  ;  the  lungs  are  usually  spotted  with  effused  blood. 

The  treatment  consists  in  the  free  use  of  albumin,  which 
forms  an  insoluble  mercuric  albuminate.  One  egg  suffices  to 
neutralise  four  grains  of  sublimate.  When  eggs  cannot  be 
had,  wheat  or  barley  flour,  milk,  or  other  albuminoids  should 
be  given,  followed  by  astringent  solutions.  Unless  the  drug 
has  caused  vomiting,  the  stomach  must  be  emptied  either 


300  MERCURIC   CHLORIDE    SOLUTIONS 

by  emetics  (avoiding  common  salt),  the  stomach  pump,  or 
syphon. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — For  internal  use,  milder  mercurials  are 
preferred,  and  it  is  dangerous  to  use  it  for  the  production  of 
the  alterative  effects  of  mercury.  For  horses  it  has  been 
prescribed  in  chronic  skin  eruptions,  and  swollen,  cedematous 
legs  resulting  from  repeated  attacks  of  lymphangitis.  Half 
or  even  a  quarter  of  a  grain,  repeated  every  three  hours, 
sometimes  arrests  the  slimy,  bloody,  reducing  discharges  of 
persistent  diarrhrea  and  dysentery  in  cattle.  Conjoined 
with  opium,  hemlock,  and  salines,  it  has  been  advised  in 
rheumatism. 

As  an  effectual  antiseptic  it  is  used  for  many  surgical 
purposes.  Its  antiseptic  power  is  diminished  or  destroyed 
in  presence  of  albumin,  with  which  it  forms  an  insoluble 
albuminate.  To  prevent  this  change  Laplace  suggested  the 
addition  of  tartaric  acid  to  sublimate  lotions.  Fifteen  grains 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  seventy-five  grains  of  tartaric  acid  and 
thirty-five  ounces  of  distilled  water,  form  a  useful  antiseptic 
solution.  Foul  wounds  washed  with  one  part  mercuric 
chloride  dissolved  in  500  to  1000  of  water,  are  rendered 
aseptic.  Instruments,  sponges,  towels,  as  well  as  the  hands, 
are  disinfected  by  washing  in  a  one  to  a  thousand  solution. 
But  sublimate  lotions  damage  most  metal  instruments,  and 
irritate  and  roughen  the  operator's  hands.  Solutions  of 
average  strength  destroy  the  fungi  of  ringworm,  kill  lice, 
and  acari,  and  allay  the  itching  of  urticaria.  For  the  last- 
named  disease  Robertson  prescribed  mercuric  chloride  grs. 
xii.,  diluted  hydrocyanic  acid  ^iv.,  glycerin  39 •>  an(l  water 
§x.  A  solution  of  one  part  in  1000  or  2000  of  water  is 
injected  into  the  uterus  in  metritis,  and  in  cases  of  abortion. 
The  spread  of  contagious  abortion  may  be  prevented  by 
washing  with  the  solution,  twice  daily,  the  external  genital 
organs  and  the  tail  of  aborted  cows.  Warm  solutions 
are  much  more  active  than  cold.  An  aqueous  solution  of 
one  part  in  500  is  used  to  arrest  necrosis  in  bone  and  cartilage, 
and  10  to  15  grains  rolled  in  tissue  paper  (or  a  sublimate 
crayon),  and  introduced  deeply  into  sinuses  or  fistulse 
in  four  to  eight  days,  slough  out  the  fibrous  walls.  As  a 
synovial  styptic,  sublimate  in  fine  powder  is  applied  to  the 


MERCURIC    CHLORIDE   SOLUTIONS  301 

wound  in  cases  of  open  joint.  In  conjunctivitis  and  keratitis 
a  solution  containing  one-tenth  to  half  a  grain  per  ounce 
of  distilled  water  is  used  as  an  astringent  antiseptic. 

For  most  external  purposes  the  B.P.  liquor  hydrargyri 
perchloridi  containing  10  grains  in  20  ounces  of  distilled 
water,  will  be  found  convenient.  Two  parts  of  sublimate 
and  four  of  glycerin  form  a  '  stock  solution,'  which  may  be 
diluted  as  required.  Van  Swieten's  solution  is  composed  of 
one  part  mercuric  chloride,  900  of  water  and  100  of  alcohol. 
Lotio  hydrargyri  flava,  or  yellow  wash,  is  made  with  40 
grains  corrosive  sublimate  and  a  pint  of  lime  water.  To 
prevent  accidents  which  sometimes  attend  the  use  of  un- 
coloured  lotions,  pastils,  lotiforms,  and  compressed  discs, 
containing  mercuric  chloride  and  sodium  chloride  and  col- 
oured with  magenta  or  methyl- violet,  may  be  used.  Wool, 
lint,  gauze,  and  other  wound  dressings  impregnated  with 
corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in  glycerin  or  water  are 
frequently  employed. 

With  suitable  precautions,  watery  solutions  are  used  for 
disinfecting  infected  premises,  and  the  carcases  of  animals 
which  have  died  of  anthrax  or  other  contagious  disease. 
Sublimate  solution  has,  however,  one  great  disadvantage 
in  that  it  is  not  volatile,  but,  on  the  contrary,  coagulates 
albumin,  and  so  forms  a  protective  surface  layer,  beyond 
which  the  drug  does  not  penetrate.  Thus  it  is  inferior  to 
phenol  for  disinfecting  anthrax  blood,  fleeces,  or  other 
material  containing  albumin. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  grs.  v.  to  grs.  viij.  ; 
sheep  and  large  pigs,  gr.  j. ;  dogs,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  ^.  It  is  best 
given  freely  dissolved  in  water  or  other  simple  fluid.  To 
relieve  itching,  especially  amongst  dogs,  one  grain  corrosive 
sublimate  and  one  minim  prussic  acid  are  dissolved  in  an 
ounce  of  water.  An  ointment  containing  one  part  of 
sublimate  to  twenty  or  thirty  parts  of  fatty  matters  is 
sometimes  used  cautiously  for  skin  complaints,  and  for 
destroying  skin  parasites. 

Ammoniated  mercury,  or '  white  precipitate,'  is  an  opaque, 
white,  insoluble  powder,  made  by  mixing  corrosive  sublimate 
solution  with  excess  of  ammonia  solution,  and  washing  and 
drying  the  precipitate  (NH2HgCl).  It  is  devoid  of  irritant 


302  MERCUROUS    IODIDE 

action.  An  ointment,  made  of  one  part  precipitate  to  nine 
of  white  paraffin  ointment,  is  used  as  a  parasiticide,  and  as 
a  mild  mercurial  in  skin  diseases. 

Mereuro-zinc  cyanide,  a  combination  of  mercuric  cyanide 
and  zinc  cyanide,  has  been  much  used  in  human  surgery. 
It  is  a  white  powder,  recommended  by  Lord  Lister  as  a  non- 
irritating  and  very  powerful  antiseptic. 

MERCTJROUS  IODIDE.     Green  Iodide.     Hydrargyri  lodidum 

Viride  Hg2I2.     (Not  official.) 
MERCURIC  IODIDE.       Red  Iodide.       Hydrargyri  lodidum 

Rubrum.     Biniodide  of  mercury.     HgI2.     (B.P.) 

Mercurous  iodide  is  an  unstable  salt,  prepared  by  tritu- 
rating together  iodine  and  an  excess  of  mercury  with  a  little 
alcohol,  or  by  mixing  solutions  of  mercurous  nitrate  and 
potassium  iodide.  Although  not  so  active  as  the  higher 
iodide,  twenty  grains  destroyed  a  rabbit  within  twenty-four 
hours,  and  a  drachm  a  pointer  dog  in  five  days  (Cogswell). 

Mercuric  or  red  iodide,  formed  by  the  interaction  of 
mercuric  chloride  and  potassium  iodide,  is  a  vermilion- 
coloured,  heavy,  crystalline  powder,  with  a  disagreeable 
metallic  taste.  It 'is  almost  insoluble  in  water,  sparingly 
soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  ether,  acids,  solution 
of  potassium  iodide,  and  most  saline  fluids. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Mercuric  iodide  is  as  irritant  as 
mercuric  chloride  or  nitrate.  But  the  presence  of  iodine 
increases  the  solubility  of  albuminates,  and,  compared 
with  the  chloride,  the  iodide  is  more  quickly  absorbed  and 
excreted.  Twenty  grains  given  to  a  rabbit  induced  gastro- 
enteritis, collapse,  and  death  in  twenty-four  hours.  It  is 
used  internally,  combined  with  potassium  iodide,  to  arrest 
the  growths  of  actinomycosis  and  scirrhous  cord,  and  solu- 
tions are  applied  externally  as  antiseptics,  and  ointments 
as  stimulants,  counter-irritants,  and  caustics. 

The  biniodide,  dissolved  in  water,  by  the  aid  of  potassium 
iodide,  in  ether,  and  alcohol  is  frequently  used  for  the  same 
antiseptic  and  stimulant  purposes  and  in  the  same  strength 
as  the  perchloride.  The  B.P.  ointment,  of  20  grains  iodide 
to  480  grains  of  benzoated  lard,  is  not  sufficiently  strong  for 


MERCURIC   NITRATE  303 

veterinary  purposes,  and  a  more  effective  preparation  is 
made  by  mixing  one  part  iodide  with  six  or  eight  of  lard. 
This  '  red  ointment '  is  very  effectual  for  condensing  and 
reducing  splints,  spavins,  ring-bones,  and  other  bony 
enlargements.  It  penetrates  deeply,  arrests  chronic  in- 
flammation, and  aids  removal  of  chronic  swellings  and  in- 
durations of  strained  tendons,  bursse,  and  joints.  It  is 
occasionally  used  as  a  counter-irritant  in  sore-throat,  chronic 
cough,  and  roaring,  relieving  cases  that  have  resisted  milder 
blisters.  When  effusion  has  occurred  in  pleuro-pneumonia 
in  horses,  and  other  irritants  are  ineffectual,  an  ounce  of  bin- 
iodide  ointment  (1  to  16)  rubbed  (if  need  be)  into  each  side 
is  stated  sometimes  to  give  relief.  It  is  frequently  applied 
with  advantage  to  the  rheumatic  joints  of  cattle.  Repeated 
dressings  are  serviceable  in  arresting  induration  of  the  udder, 
lymphatic,  and  other  glands.  When  absorbent  and  counter- 
irritant  effects  are  to  be  produced,  it  is  sometimes  used 
diluted  with  iodine  ointment.  The  strong  red  iodide  oint- 
ment requires  to  be  used  with  care,  otherwise  it  destroys  the 
hair-roots,  causes  sloughing  and  blemishing,  and  produces 
constitutional  effects. 


MERCURIC  NITRATE.     Mercury  Nitrate.     Hg(N03)2. 
UNGUENTUM  HYDRARGYRI  NITRATIS.     Citrine  Ointment. 

When  mercury  is  dissolved  in  diluted  nitric  acid,  and  the 
solution  boiled  gently  for  fifteen  minutes,  there  is  produced 
the  B.P.  hydrargyri  nitratis  liquor  acidus,  a  colourless, 
strongly  acid,  caustic  solution. 

The  unguentum  hydrargyri  nitratis,  or  citrine  ointment, 
is  prepared  by  mixing  a  cold  solution  of  mercury  in  nitric 
acid  with  lard  and  olive  oil.  It  has  a  lemon-yellow  colour, 
a  nitrous  acid  odour,  and  is  apt  to  spoil  unless  well  made 
and  kept  in  earthenware  vessels  secluded  from  light.  One 
part  of  this  ointment  and  four  parts  of  soft  yellow  paraffin, 
constitute  the  B.P.  diluted  mercuric  nitrate  ointment. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  stronger  mercuric  nitrate  solutions 
are  caustics.  They  and  the  ointments  are  applicable  for 
many  of  the  purposes  of  corrosive  sublimate,  and  used  for 
reducing  and  destroying  malignant  growths,  and  stimulating 


304  PHOSPHORUS 

such  specific  sores  as  canker  in  the  feet  of  horses  and  foot-rot 
in  sheep.  Milder  solutions  and  citrine  ointment  are  good 
remedies  for  eczema,  especially  after  heat  and  pain  have  been 
subdued  and  desquamation  has  set  in,  and  are  usefully 
alternated  with  tar  preparations.  With  good  feeding  and 
alkaline  washes,  they  are  applied  in  those  cases  of  pityriasis 
not  uncommon  amongst  cattle  in  poor  condition.  They 
destroy  lice  and  other  skin  parasites,  and  the  cryptogamic 
growths  of  ringworm.  Being  easily  absorbed,  if  too  freely 
applied  they  induce  the  usual  specific  effects  of  mercury. 
Diluted  with  olive  or  almond  oil,  or  lard,  citrine  ointment  re- 
lieves irritable,  swollen,  discharging  conditions  of  the  eyelids. 


PHOSPHORUS 

A  solid  non-metallic  element  obtained  from  Calcium  Phos- 
phate.    (B.P.) 

Phosphorus  is  prepared  by  the  digestion  of  bones  in 
sulphuric  acid  ;  the  acid  calcium  phosphate  remaining  in 
solution  is  evaporated,  mixed  with  charcoal,  and  distilled, 
when  phosphorus  comes  over,  and  is  condensed  under  water. 
Two  allotropic  forms  occur.  The  first  is  wax-like,  easily  cut 
with  a  knife,  of  a  yellow-white  colour,  volatile,  readily 
oxidisable  and  inflammable,  luminous,  and  soluble  in  carbon 
disulphide,  eighty  parts  of  olive  oil,  twenty-five  parts  of 
chloroform,  and  in  sixty  of  oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  an  irritant 
corrosive  poison.  The  second — prepared  by  keeping  the 
yellow  phosphorus  for  a  considerable  period  at  a  temperature 
of  450°  Fahr.  in  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  anhydride  or 
nitrogen — is  red,  amorphous  ;  at  ordinary  temperatures  has 
little  affinity  for  oxygen  ;  is  not  volatile,  luminous,  or  soluble 
in  carbon  disulphide  ;  heated  to  the  boiling  point  it  reverts 
to  the  vitreous  form.  It  is  innocuous  when  given  by  the 
mouth,  but  both  forms  are  poisonous  if  injected  under  the 
skin. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Phosphorus  is  an  active  member  of 
the  group  of  pentad  elements,  comprising  nitrogen,  antimony, 
arsenic,  and  bismuth.  Phosphorus  is  slowly  dissolved  and 
absorbed,  unchanged,  but  best  if  in  finely  divided  form  or 


TOXIC    EFFECTS  305 

dissolved  in  oil,  stimulates  growth  of  bones,  and  is  occasion- 
ally prescribed  as  a  nerve  tonic,  alterative,  and  aphrodisiac. 
These  effects  on  the  nervous  system  are  by  no  means  reliable. 
Its  effect  on  bone  formation  is  more  important.  With 
minute  but  continued  doses  cancellous  bone  becomes  denser 
and  the  outer  compact  layer  of  bone  is  thickened.  If  an 
excess  is  given  the  bones  are  deformed,  the  medullary  cavity 
enlarged,  and  an  appearance  like  rickets  is  produced.  Full 
doses  when  swallowed  cause  gastro-enteritis.  Repeated 
doses  break  up  the  albuminoid  textures  by  accelerating 
normal  autolysis  and  induce  fatty  degeneration. 

Toxic  EFFECTS.— A  piece  of  yellow  phosphorus,  or  a  strong 
solution  applied  to  the  skin,  abstracts  oxygen  and  produces 
limited  inflammation,  sometimes  terminating  in  gangrene. 
When  swallowed  most  of  it  is  slowly  dissolved  by  the  bile  and 
any  fatty  matters  with  which  it  comes  into  contact,  whilst 
some  of  the  drug  is  converted  into  phosphoretted  hydrogen 
gas.  It  exerts  on  the  alimentary  tract  its  local  irritant 
effects  ;  minute  doses  are  gastro-intestinal  tonics  ;  larger 
doses  cause  diarrhoea  and  emesis  in  animals  that  vomit ; 
while  fifteen  grains  cause  gastro-enteritis  in  horses  and  cattle. 
Often  these  acute  symptoms  may  pass  off  to  reappear  in  two 
or  three  days'  time,  when  the  drug  is  being  excreted.  There 
is  a  peculiar  characteristic  smell  of  garlic  in  vomited  material 
which  may  be  phosphorescent  in  the  dark.  Larger  doses, 
such  as  thirty  grains  in  horses  or  cattle,  and  half  a  grain  to  a 
grain  in  dogs  or  men,  produce  paresis,  convulsions,  coma, 
and  death  usually  within  two  or  three  days.  The  paresis 
occasionally  affects  the  heart,  causing  sudden  death. 
Moderate  to  full  doses,  repeated  several  times  daily,  within 
a  few  days  produce  fatty  degeneration  of  the  albuminoid 
tissues,  hypertrophy  of  connective  structures,  and  acute 
cirrhosis.  The  toxic  doses  are  :  horses,  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xxiv. ; 
dogs,  grs.  1J  to  grs.  jv.  It  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys  and 
lungs,  chiefly  as  phosphorus  and  phosphoric  acids.  But 
these  acids  and  the  salts  they  form  have  not,  however,  the 
specific  action  of  phosphorus. 

The  antidotes  consist  in  emptying  the  stomach  by  emetics 
(copper  sulphate,  ipecacuanha),  or  the  pump,  or  by  washing 
it  out  with  potassium  permanganate  solution,  which  forms 

u 


306  LECITHIN 

the  less  active  phosphoric  acid,  administering  mucilaginous 
fluids,  but  avoiding  milk,  oils,  and  eggs,  which  dissolve  the 
poison,  and  prescribing  frequently  repeated  doses  of  old 
turpentine  and  of  copper  sulphate.  Turpentine  forms  with 
it  the  non-poisonous  terebinthino-phosphoric  acid,  a  non- 
poisonous  solid  body.  Copper  sulphate  unites  with  it  to 
form  copper  phosphide  which  is  insoluble,  whilst  some  of  the 
metal  is  precipitated  on  the  particles  of  phosphorus,  so 
hindering  absorption. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Small  doses  promote  tissue  growth, 
and  replace  spongy  texture  of  bones  with  denser  tissue. 
Phosphorus  is  prescribed  in  rickets,  bone  softening,  after 
fractures,  and  in  chronic  malnutrition.  It  has  been  sub- 
stituted for  arsenic  in  persistent  skin  disorders.  It  is 
empirically  administered  in  epilepsy,  chorea,  and  general 
paralysis,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  sometimes  applied  as  a 
topical  irritant. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  hi. ;  sheep 
and  pigs,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  ^  ;  dogs,  gr.  ^  to  gr-  eV*  given 
in  pill  or  electuary,  or  dissolved  in  almond  oil  or  vaseline. 
Phosphorus  may  be  prescribed  in  the  form  of  elixir  phosphor!, 
made  with  compound  tincture  of  phosphorus  and  glycerin, 
and  containing  gr.  -^  in  each  drachm.  The  minimum  dose 
should  be  administered  daily  for  a  week,  then  suspended  for 
a  week,  and  repeated  if  required.  For  external  purposes  a 
liniment  is  made  with  one  part  phosphorus  to  one  hundred 
parts  olive  or  almond  oil.  The  paste  for  the  destruction  of 
rats  usually  consists  of  one  part  phosphorus  to  sixty  each  of 
water  and  flour. 

Lecithin,  a  natural  phosphoglyceride,  containing  phos- 
phorus in  organic  combination,  is  found  in  yolk  of  egg,  the 
brain,  liver,  suprarenal  gland,  milk,  beans,  peas,  etc. 
Lecithin  obtained  from  yolk  of  egg  is  a  brownish-yellow 
resin-like  mass,  with  a  characteristic  odour  ;  insoluble  in 
water,  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform.  It  is 
readily  and  completely  assimilated  by  the  tissues,  stimulat- 
ing cell-multiplication,  improving  appetite,  increasing  weight 
and  promoting  growth  in  young  animals.  Its  administra- 
tion is  indicated  in  all  derangements  due  to  lack  of  organic 
phosphorus.  It  is  recommended  in  the  treatment  of 


GLYCEBOPHOSPHORIC  ACID  307 

anaemia,  rickets,  diabetes,  tuberculosis,  and  of  nervous 
affections  associated  with  lowered  vitality.  In  convales- 
cence following  canine  distemper  it  is  especially  valuable. 
Doses  for  the  dog,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  v.  ;  in  pill  or  mixed  with  the 
food. 


GLYCEROPHOSPHORIC  ACID.     Glycerophosphates. 

Glycerophosphoric  acid  may  be  prepared  by  heating 
glycerin  with  phosphoric  acid,  and  subsequently  neutralising 
the  product  with  calcium  carbonate.  It  is  a  pale,  yellowish, 
syrupy  fluid,  with  a  sour  taste,  seldom  employed  medicinally. 
Its  salts,  the  glyeerophosphates  of  calcium,  iron,  potassium, 
sodium,  magnesium,  and  quinine,  are  frequently  prescribed 
and  are  of  great  value  in  the  treatment  of  debilitating  and 
nervous  diseases.  Glycerophosphate  of  calcium,  prepared  by 
heating  together  bicalcic  phosphate,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
glycerin,  is  a  light  white  powder,  soluble  in  20  parts  cold 
water,  forming  a  neutral  solution.  Recent  investigations 
suggest  that  this  salt  merits  extended  trial  in  tuberculosis, 
rickets,  and  other  diseases  depending  on  malnutrition  ;  and 
in  all  cases  requiring  the  administration  of  a  tonic  restorative 
the  glycerophosphate  is  preferable  to  the  phosphate  as  it  is 
much  more  easily  assimilated.  The  glyeerophosphates  of 
sodium  and  potassium  are  alkaline  syrupy  liquids  which  are 
usually  prescribed  in  combination  with  other  salts .  Glyeero- 
phosphate  of  quinine  is  especially  indicated  in  cases  associated 
with  indigestion  and  low  fever ;  and  glycerophosphate  of 
iron,  which  occurs  in  greenish-yellow  scales,  soluble  in  five 
parts  of  cold  water — promotes  nutrition  by  furnishing 
phosphoric  acid  and  iron  in  a  very  assimilable  form.  It  is 
an  excellent  tonic  (Kaufmann).  Doses  of  calcium  and  iron 
glyeerophosphates,  horses,  3*9 •  5  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xv. 
per  day.  Quinine  glycerophosphate  is  prescribed  in  the 
same  doses  as  quinine  sulphate.  Hypodermically,  a  five 
per  cent,  solution  of  the  calcium  salt,  or  a  twenty  per  cent, 
solution  of  the  sodium  salt  may  be  injected  in  doses  of  H\v. 
to  3ij-  Per  dav  m  the  dog.  Glyphocal  emulsion  with 
almond  oil  (Squire  and  Sons),  containing  the  glycerophos- 
phates  of  calcium,  iron,  potassium,  and  sodium,  with  pepsin 


308  BROMIDES 

and  diastase,  is  a  valuable  tonic  and  restorative  for  weakly, 
unthrifty  foals  and  puppies,  in  doses  of  3Jv.  to  §ij.  per  day. 

BROMINE  AND   BROMIDES 

BROMINE.  BROMUM.  A  liquid,  non-metallic  element  ob- 
tained from  sea- water,  and  from  some  saline  springs. 
(Not  official.) 

BROMIDE  OF  POTASSIUM.  POTASSII  BROMIDUM.  KBr.  (B.P.) 

Bromine,  like  its  analogues  chlorine  and  iodine,  has  a 
great  affinity  for  hydrogen,  removes  it  from  its  several  com- 
binations, and  hence  is  antiseptic  and  indirectly  an  oxidising 
agent.  It  is  very  diffusible.  These  three  halogens  are  anti- 
septic, disinfectant,  and  topically  irritant  and  stimulant. 

BROMINE  is  a  dark,  red-brown,  volatile  liquid,  has  a  strong 
disagreeable  odour  and  taste,  and  produces  a  yellow  colour 
when  added  to  cold  solution  of  starch  :  soluble  in  thirty 
parts  of  water.  It  is  occasionally  used  as  a  caustic  in  malig- 
nant and  fungoid  diseases,  one  part  being  dissolved  in  ten  to 
fifteen  parts  of  rectified  spirit.  Diluted  Hydrobromie  Acid 
containing  ten  per  cent,  by  weight  of  hydrogen  bromide,  is 
devoid  of  irritant  action,  and  is  occasionally  prescribed  as  a 
nerve  sedative,  but  is  not  so  convenient  or  effectual  as 
potassium  bromide. 

THE  BROMIDES,  including  those  of  potassium,  sodium,  and 
ammonium,  do  not  differ  materially  in  their  action.  They 
have  very  slight  topical  effect  on  the  skin  or  mucous  surfaces, 
but  are  rapidly  absorbed,  and  readily  decomposed,  the  potas- 
sium bromide  forming  in  the  stomach  sodium  bromide  and 
potassium  chloride.  They  are  quickly  eliminated  by  all  the 
excreting  channels,  chiefly  by  the  kidneys,  but  also  to  some 
extent  in  the  milk,  sweat,  and  from  the  lungs.  Large  doses 
act  as  depressants  of  the  spinal  cord  and  reflex  portions  of  the 
brain,  impairing  afferent  conductivity  of  nerves.  They  are 
devoid  of  true  hypnotic  action,  such  as  that  of  chloral 
hydrate,  but  diminish  cerebral  excitability  by  reducing  the 
activity  of  the  reflex  parts  of  the  brain. 

POTASSIUM  BROMIDE  is  the  salt  in  general  use.  It  is  pre- 
pared by  heating  bromine  and  caustic  potash  with  charcoal, 
and  contains  67  per  cent,  of  bromine.  It  occurs  in  colourless, 


BROMIDES  309 

cubical,  odourless  crystals,  which  have  a  pungent  saline  taste ; 
soluble  in  two  parts  cold  water,  and  in  two  hundred  parts  of 
rectified  spirit.  Horses  receiving  about  an  ounce,  or  dogs 
45  grains,  become  listless,  exhibit  muscular  feebleness,  un- 
steadiness of  gait,  impaired  reflex  movements  ;  the  pulse  is 
feeble,  respiration  slowed,  rectal  and  cutaneous  temperatures 
are  diminished,  and  secretion  of  urine  increased.  Some  of 
these  effects,  notably  cardiac  and  muscular  depression,  how- 
ever, are  possibly  due  in  part  to  the  potassium  rather  than 
to  the  bromine.  In  addition  these  salts  develop  the  usual 
'  salt-action,'  and  so  vomiting,  diuresis,  and  sometimes 
diarrhoea  may  occur.  In  animals  receiving  repeated  full 
doses  of  bromides,  mechanical  irritation  of  the  cortical 
substance  of  the  brain  fails  to  produce  epileptic  convulsions 
(Brunton).  From  the  lessened  movement  induced  there 
may  be  a  fall  of  temperature.  Full  doses  continued  for 
some  time  induce  bromism,  a  form  of  chronic  poisoning, 
characterised  by  depression  of  the  cerebral  faculties,  in- 
creased secretion  from  the  mucous  glands,  feebleness, 
anaemia,  and  wasting,  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  and  eczematous 
eruptions  produced  as  portions  of  the  drug  are  excreted 
through  the  skin.  Toxic  doses  kill  by  asphyxia. 

Potassium  bromide  is  used  in  nervous  disorders  to  allay 
excitement  and  relieve  spasm,  and  thus  indirectly  may  pro- 
duce sleep.  It  alleviates  and  wards  off  epileptic  convulsions 
in  dogs,  whether  connected  with  distemper  or  other  cause, 
and  is  serviceable  in  violent  cases  of  chorea.  It  has  no 
constant  or  decided  influence  in  controlling  the  spasms  of 
tetanus  in  horses.  Kaufmann  records  that  Vogel  gave  nine 
horses  suffering  from  tetanus  three  to  six  ounces  daily 
without  moderating  the  spasms.  It  is  of  little  use  in 
asthma,  sometimes  checks  persistent  vomiting,  and  has 
considerable  anaphrodisiac  effect.  It  is  occasionally  used 
with  digitalis  to  quiet  cardiac  excitement.  Sodium  bromide 
only  differs  in  not  producing  the  depressant  effects  on  the 
heart  and  muscles  which  potassium  bromide  may  induce. 
Strontium  bromide  has  the  advantage  of  disturbing  diges- 
tion less  than  potassium  bromide.  Hydrobromic  acid  has 
the  same  bromide  action  as  the  salts,  but  is  irritant  locally. 

DOSES,  etc.— Of  potassium  bromide  horses  and  cattle  take 


310  CHLORINE 

3iv.  to  §i.  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  lx.,  in  bolus,  electuary,  or 
watery  solution,  repeated  three  or  four  times  daily.  Where 
cerebral  excitement  is  great,  and  sleep  is  sought,  chloral 
or  other  hypnotic  is  conjoined  with  the  bromide.  Bromide 
of  zinc  has  been  introduced  for  epileptic  cases  in  the  belief 
that  it  unites  the  actions  of  bromine  and  zinc.  Bromol,  or 
Tribromophenol,  a  crystalline  product  of  the  action  of 
bromine  on  phenol,  is  used  as  a  caustic,  disinfectant,  and 
intestinal  antiseptic.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether .  and 
glycerin,  and  not  affected  by  the  gastric  secretion. 


CHLORINE 

Chlorine  may  be  obtained  by  the  interaction  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  manganese  peroxide.  It  is  a  yellow-green 
gas,  with  a  peculiar  suffocating  odour  and  an  astringent 
taste.  Water  charged  with  two  volumes  of  chlorine  gas 
constitutes  the  liquor  chlori — a  yellow-green,  chlorine- 
smelling  liquid,  readily  decomposed  by  air  and  sunshine. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Chlorine,  whether  as  gas  or  in  solution, 
is  irritant,  antiseptic,  deodorant,  disinfectant,  and  parasiti- 
cide. 

One  part  in  8540  of  a  watery  solution  arrests  the  action  of 
ptyalin  on  starch  paste  ;  one  in  7411  part  arrests  the  action 
of  diastase  ;  one  in  27167  part  arrests  the  action  of  pepsin. 
Although  not  so  active  as  corrosive  sublimate,  one  22768 
part  kills  developed  bacteria  ;  but  one  1431  part  is  required 
to  prevent  their  reproduction,  and  1008  to  prevent  reproduc- 
tion of  spores.  One  part  to  1500  prevents  development  of 
anthrax  bacilli.  The  bleaching,  antiseptic,  and  other  actions 
of  chlorine  result  from  the  breaking  up  of  complex  organic 
substances  by  the  chlorine  seizing  their  hydrogen,  while  the 
nascent  oxygen  thus  liberated  exerts  active  oxidation. 

Applied  to  the  skin  or  mucous  surfaces,  it  causes  irritation, 
which  is  relieved  by  lime-water,  white  of  egg,  soap,  or  diluents. 
One  part  in  100,000  of  air  inhaled  for  some  time  causes  great 
irritation  of  the  bronchial  mucous  membrane,  and  haemor- 
rhage from  the  lungs.  Irritation  of  the  air-passages,  induced 
by  the  insufficiently  diluted  gas,  is  counteracted  by  inhala- 


IODINE  311 

tion  of  ether,  weak  ammonia,  or  the  vapour  of  warm  water 
or  of  alcohol. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Diluted  chlorine  gas  has  been  used 
as  an  inhalation,  or  the  freshly-prepared  solution  applied  in 
spray,  to  increase  bronchial  secretion,  to  stimulate  and 
disinfect  ulcerated  sore-throat  in  horses,  and  abate  the  dis- 
charge and  fee  tor  from  disease  of  the  facial  sinuses. 
Both  gas  and  solution  are  used  for  the  destruction  of 
strongyli  infesting  the  air-passages  of  calves  and  lambs, 
and  the  liquor  chlori,  and  the  equally  effectual  but  less 
irritant  sulphurous  acid  solution,  are  also  employed 
intratracheally.  As  a  mouth  wash  for  dogs  with  foul 
condition  of  the  gums  and  teeth,  the  mixture  of  chlorine 
and  its  oxides  obtained  by  the  action  of  strong  hydrochloric 
acid  on  potassium  chlorate  with  subsequent  dilution  in 
water,  is  very  useful. 

For  disinfecting  or  deodorising,  the  materials  for  evolving 
chlorine  should  be  placed  in  earthenware  vessels  in  the 
upper  parts  of  the  boxes  or  sheds  in  order  to  facilitate 
diffusion  of  the  heavy  vapour.  One  part  each  of  common 
salt  and  manganese  black  oxide,  intimately  mixed,  are 
treated  with  two  measures  of  oil  of  vitriol,  diluted  with 
two  measures  of  water.  For  more  gradual  production  of 
the  gas,  bleaching  powder  is  mixed  with  potash  alum. 
Where  chlorine  is  used  for  thorough  disinfection,  the  build- 
ings must  be  cleared  of  animals  ;  large  volumes  of  gas 
liberated  ;  sunlight  admitted  to  intensify  the  action  ;  and  the 
walls  and  woodwork  washed  with  a  strong  watery  solution. 
It  may  be  fittingly  used  in  conjunction  with  the  tar  acids, 
but  is  incompatible  with  sulphurous  acid. 


IODINE 

IODUM.  A  solid  non-metallic  element,  obtained  from  the 
ashes  of  seaweeds,  and  from  native  iodides  and  iodates. 
(B.P.) 

Iodine  is  present  in  sea-water,  and  is  thence  taken  up 
by  sea  plants  and  animals.     It  is  prepared  from  kelp,  and 


312  IODINE— IODISM 

from  the  mother-liquors  of  the  Chili  nitre  mines  iodine  is 
also  obtained. 

PROPERTIES. — Iodine  occurs  in  soft,  friable,  black  or  blue- 
black,  rhombic  prisms  or  octahedrons  of  a  metallic  lustre. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  4-95.  It  has  an  acrid,  disagreeable 
taste,  and  a  pungent,  unpleasant  odour,  resembling  that  of 
chlorine  or  sea-water.  Applied  to  the  skin  it  produces  a 
brown  stain,  readily  removed  by  alkalies.  At  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere  it  slowly  evaporates  ;  at  237°  Fahr. 
it  melts  ;  at  392°  Fahr.  it  boils,  volatilising  entirely  in  violet- 
coloured,  irritating,  antiseptic  vapours,  nine  times  as  heavy 
as  air.  With  water  it  forms  a  brownish-yellow  solution, 
containing,  however,  only  '05  per  cent.  It  is  dissolved  by 
twelve  parts  of  rectified  spirit,  and  still  more  readily  by 
ether,  volatile  oils,  chloroform,  carbon  disulphide,  and  also 
by  solution  of  potassium  iodide,  and  other  salts.  It  readily 
unites  with  metals  ;  the  iodides  of  the  alkalies  closely 
resemble  iodine  in  their  actions  ;  the  iodides  of  the  heavy 
metals  exhibit  chiefly  the  properties  of  the  base. 

Iodine  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  characteristic  odour, 
by  the  brown  stain  it  leaves  on  the  fingers,  by  the  violet- 
coloured  vapour  it  evolves  when  heated,  and  by  the  blue 
colour  it  forms  with  cold  solution  of  starch.  This  starch 
test  is  inapplicable  when  iodine  is  in  combination,  from 
which,  however,  it  is  readily  set  free  by  a  drop  of  weak 
chlorine  solution,  or  of  diluted  nitric  acid.  Iodine  is  liable 
to  intentional  adulteration  as  well  as  accidental  impurities. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Iodine  resembles  the  other  halogens, 
alike  in  chemical  and  physiological  actions.  Its  notable 
affinity  for  hydrogen,  and  its  combining  with  albumin, 
determine  its  stimulant,  irritant,  and  caustic  effects,  as  well 
as  its  antiseptic,  alterative,  and  resolvent  actions.  It  acts 
notably  on  mucous  membranes,  skin,  and  lymphatic  glands. 
It  is  almost  a  specific  for  diabetes  insipidus  in  horses.  Full 
doses  persisted  with  produce  a  state  of  debility  and  emacia- 
tion termed  iodism.  Externally,  it  is  applied  as  an  anti- 
septic, stimulant,  counter-irritant,  and  parasiticide.  It  is 
employed  for  the  several  purposes  of  an  antiseptic,  deodorant 
and  disinfectant. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — It  is  an  active  antiseptic,  whether  used 


GENERAL   ACTIONS  313 

in  the  gaseous,  fluid,  or  solid  state.  One  part  in  4125  parts 
of  water  arrests  the  action  of  diastase  and  ptyalin  ;  one  part 
in  7817  arrests  the  action  of  pepsin  ;  one  part  in  7000 
destroys  both  bacilli  and  their  spores  (Wernitz  and  Koch). 
Iodine  stains  the  skin  yellow-brown,  and  is  almost  the  only 
substance  that  penetrates  the  unbroken  skin  ;  after  local 
application  traces  can  always  be  found  in  the  urine  ;  strong 
solutions  cause  hypersemia,  irritation,  and  desquamation 
of  the  cuticle  ;  but  the  irritant  action  can  readily  be  regu- 
lated. The  skin  and  nutritive  processes  may  be  stimulated  ; 
absorption  of  inflammatory  products  is  assisted,  and  the 
congestion  and  pain  in  some  distal  part  may  be  relieved. 
(See  Counter-irritants.)  A  gradual  and  fairly  prolonged 
effect  is  produced  when  iodine  is  brought  into  contact  with 
either  skin  or  mucous  surfaces  ;  for  it  is  volatile,  slowly 
penetrating,  and  so  active  for  considerable  periods  on  parts 
with  which  it  is  placed  in  contact.  Large  doses  if  swallowed 
cause  gastro-enteritis,  and  if  inhaled  produce  rhinitis, 
laryngitis,  and  bronchitis.  In  the  stomach  it  is  converted 
into  iodides  and  iodates  ;  and  it  differs  from  the  action  of 
iodides  only  in  the  fact  that  it  is  more  irritant  in  the  stomach. 
Medicinal  doses  are  absorbed,  stimulate  glandular  activity, 
and  promote  metabolism.  In  the  tissues  iodine  may  again 
be  set  free,  and  combine  with  serum  albumin,  but  iodine 
albuminates  are  unstable,  and  hence  readily  removed.  This 
appears  to  explain  the  action  of  iodine  and  its  compounds 
in  the  liquefaction  and  absorption  of  pathological  products. 
It  combines  with  lead,  mercury,  or  other  metals  present  in 
the  body,  and  hastens  their  removal.  It  is  excreted  by 
the  mucous  surfaces  and  glands,  notably  in  the  saliva, 
perspiration,  bronchial  secretion,  milk,  and  urine,  while  full 
doses  during  excretion  irritate  the  excreting  channels. 

Although  the  element  itself  is  less  active  than  chlorine  or 
bromine,  its  compounds  are  more  active,  probably  because 
they  are  more  readily  decomposed.  The  iodides  of  potas- 
sium, sodium,  and  ammonium  chiefly  produce  the  effects 
of  the  iodine,  but  are  less  irritant,  less  active  as  thyroid 
gland  stimulants,  although  more  prone  to  affect  the  kidneys 
than  the  element  itself.  The  iodides  of  iron,  copper,  lead, 
and  mercury  exhibit  in  addition  the  actions  of  their  power- 


314  TOXIC    EFFECTS 

ful  bases.  In  stimulating  the  skin  and  mucous  surfaces 
iodine  shows  some  resemblance  to  arsenic  and  sulphur. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Hertwig  gave  horses  forty  to  sixty  grains 
of  solid  iodine  twice  daily  for  fourteen  days,  with  the  effect 
of  causing  slight  diarrhoea,  with  black  evacuations  and  in- 
creasing emaciation.  Dick  repeatedly  gave  larger  quan- 
tities for  several  weeks,  without  observing  any  other 
symptom  than  the  total  refusal  of  water.  To  one  horse 
he  administered  for  three  weeks  doses  of  two  drachms  per 
day,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  experiment  doses  amounting 
to  two  ounces  daily.  Several  ounces  have  also  been  given 
to  cattle  with  the  like  negative  results.  In  many  of  these 
cases  the  iodine,  having  been  given  in  the  solid  form,  must 
have  been  slowly,  perhaps  only  partially,  dissolved  and 
absorbed,  and,  during  tardy  solution,  may  in  great  part 
have  been  neutralised  by  contact  with  starch  food. 

Dogs  receiving  two  or  three  drachms  of  solid  iodine 
speedily  get  rid  of  it  by  vomiting  ;  but  when  the  oesophagus 
is  tied  such  doses  cause  fatal  gastro-enteritis  in  two  to  seven 
days,  leaving  numerous  yellow  spots  and  little  ulcers  in  the 
stomach,  and  a  peculiar  rose  tint  of  the  liver  (Cogswell). 
Hertwig  found  that  such  doses  killed  every  dog  to  which 
they  were  given,  inducing  sero-sanguineous  exudation  and 
hsematuria.  Frohner  states  that  intravenous  injection 
causes  solution  of  the  red  globules,  inducing  hsemoglobinuria, 
anaemia,  lung  oedema,  haemorrhagic  inflammation  of  the 
pleura  and  peritoneum,  and  bloody  discharges  from  the 
bowels  and  kidneys. 

lodism,  produced  by  prolonged  administration  of  full 
doses,  is  characterised  by  loss  of  appetite,  an  irritable, 
catarrhal  condition  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nostrils, 
eyes,  throat,  and  digestive  organs,  a  vesicular  skin  eruption, 
abstinence  from  water,  diminution  of  the  urinary  secretion, 
languor,  inaptitude  for  exertion,  elevation  of  temperature 
and  emaciation.  Such  effects  are  produced  in  some  animals 
by  full  doses  given  for  eight  or  ten  days.  But  in  ordinary 
practice  iodism  is  exceedingly  rare  in  the  lower  animals, 
although  not  uncommon  in  man.  Where  it  occurs,  it  is 
arrested  by  withholding  the  medicine,  exhibiting  starch,  in 
order  to  convert  any  unabsorbed  iodine  into  the  innocuous 


MEDICINAL    USES  315 

starch  iodide,  and  giving  mineral  tonics,  bitters,  and  nutri- 
tive diet. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Iodine  is  prescribed  as  an  alterative  and 
resolvent  in  enlargement  of  glands,  and  of  the  udder,  in 
chronic  rheumatism,  especially  involving  the  joints,  in 
hydro  thorax  and  ascites,  and  in  persistent  cases  of  psoriasis. 
Some  American  practitioners  conjoin  iodine  with  carbolic 
acid  in  febrile  attacks,  especially  when  depending  upon 
malaria.  Dry,  congested  conditions  of  the  respiratory 
mucous  membrane  are  sometimes  relieved,  and  secretion 
of  mucus  encouraged,  by  inhalation  of  steam  or  warm  air, 
medicated  with  a  little  iodine  tincture,  and  by  potassium 
iodide  internally.  Similar  inhalations  are  also  beneficial 
in  checking  muco-purulent  discharges  from  the  nostrils 
or  sinuses  of  the  head,  and  in  infective  sore-throat. 
In  purpura  haemorrhagica,  Dieckerhoff  recommends  the 
intra-tracheal  injection  of  eight  to  twelve  drachms,  twice 
daily,  of  a  solution  of  one  part  iodine,  five  of  potassium 
iodine,  and  one  hundred  of  water.  Injections  carefully  and 
slowly  made  are  not  followed  by  coughing.  Many  British 
veterinary  surgeons  testify  to  the  value  of  this  treatment  in 
reducing  the  swellings  of  the  disease. 

Iodine  is  pre-eminently  useful  in  diabetes  insipidus, 
or  polyuria,  affecting  horses  in  which  twenty  or  thirty 
pints  of  urine  are  sometimes  passed  daily,  thirst  is  in- 
satiable, and  strength  and  flesh  are  rapidly  lost.  Iodine 
given  night  and  morning  seldom  fails  to  arrest  this  disease 
in  two  or  three  days.  How  it  does  so  is  not  satisfactorily 
explained.  Its  antiseptic  effects  may  control  excessive 
production  of  injurious  enzymes.  But  neither  quinine  nor 
iron,  although  possessed  of  notable  antiseptic  properties,  is 
as  effectual  as  iodine  in  this  form  of  diabetes.  Neither 
potassium  nor  iron  iodide  is  as  trustworthy  as  the  crude  drug. 
Dollar  has  experimented  with  various  more  correct  chemical 
combinations,  but  finds  none  so  reliable  as  iodine  3ss->  iron 
sulphate  3iJ->  an(i  powdered  gentian  ^iv.,  made  into  bolus 
with  treacle,  syrup,  or  meal  and  water.  This  is  repeated 
once,  in  bad  cases  twice,  daily.  R/arely  are  more  than  six 
doses  required  to  effect  a  cure. 

Externally,  iodine  is  used  as  an  antiseptic,  stimulant,  and 


316  IODINE   SOLUTIONS 

resolvent  for  chronic  synovitis,  bursal  swellings,  muscular 
pains,  slight  strains  of  tendons,  thickening  of  periosteum, 
and  indurations  of  the  udder  and  other  glands.  It  is  also 
used  as  a  counter-irritant  in  sore  throat  in  horses,  in 
limited  lung  consolidation,  especially  in  dogs,  and  in  sub- 
acute  attacks  of  pleurisy.  It  is  a  serviceable  antiseptic  and 
deodoriser  for  unhealthy  and  malignant  wounds.  Indolent 
ulcers  are  sometimes  healed  by  application  of  a  piece  of  lint, 
spread  with  simple  cerate,  sprinkled  with  one  to  five  grains 
of  iodine,  and  covered  with  a  piece  of  oiled  silk  or  tinfoil. 
But  excess  of  iodine  must  be  avoided,  otherwise  corrosive 
effects  are  produced.  Dilute  iodine  solutions  are  injected, 
as  stimulating  antiseptics  and  promoters  of  adhesion,  into 
cysts  and  abscesses  from  which  the  contents  have  been  with- 
drawn. Conjoined  with  potassium  iodide,  and  oil  of 
turpentine,  it  is  injected  into  the  trachea  in  hoose  in 
calves.  A  solution  of  one  drachm  in  sixteen  drachms  of 
rectified  spirit  is  employed  after  withdrawing  the  dropsical 
fluid,  as  an  injection  for  hydrocele,  thoropins,  and  bursal 
distensions.  On  account  of  its  penetrating  the  hair  follicles 
and  ducts,  it  is  serviceable  in  persistent  cases  of  mange, 
eczema,  and  psoriasis,  in  all  forms  of  ringworm,  and  in  such 
cases  is  sometimes  mixed  or  alternated  with  wood-tar  oils, 
sulphur,  or  mercurials.  Like  most  effectual  antiseptics,  it 
destroys  skin  parasites,  oestrus  larvae,  and  entozoa.  It  is  an 
effective  but  expensive  deodoriser  and  disinfectant. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses,  grs.  xx.  to  3*-  5  cattle,  3SS-  *° 
3iss.  ;  sheep,  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xl.  ;  pigs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.  ; 
dogs,  grs.  iij.  to  grs.  viij.  Such  doses  are  repeated  once  or 
twice  daily,  given  a  couple  of  hours  after  feeding,  in  order  to 
diminish  the  proportion  otherwise  converted  into  the  mild, 
insoluble  starch  iodide,  continued  for  a  week  or  ten  days, 
withheld  for  a  day  or  two,  and,  if  necessary,  again  resumed. 
Larger  doses,  although  they  may  be  given  with  impunity,  do 
not  ensure  better  curative  results. 

Iodine  is  administered  in  bolus  ;  but,  handy  though  this 
form  is  for  horses  and  dogs,  it  is  less  certain  than  a  good 
aqueous  solution,  such  as  is  obtained  by  mixing  two  parts  of 
iodine  and  one  of  potassium  iodide  with  six  or  eight  of  water. 
The  potassium  iodide  ensures  perfect  solution  and  full  action 


IODINE    SOLUTIONS  317 

of  the  iodine.  This  concentrated  solution  is  diluted  with 
water  as  required  ;  the  dose  is  easily  ascertained,  for  the 
iodide  is  about  half  as  powerful  as  the  iodine.  For  intra- 
tracheal  injections,  iodine  grs.  xxxii. ;  potassium  iodide,  grs. 
clx.,  are  dissolved  in  three  ounces  of  distilled  water,  and  of 
this  solution  fl^xxx.  diluted  with  fl\xlv.  of  distilled  water  are 
injected  daily  for  two  or  three  days,  when  the  quantity  of 
diluent  may  be  gradually  reduced  and  the  dose  of  the  pure 
solution  gradually  increased  to  four  or  five  drachms. 

For  external  purposes  the  tincture  and  compound  aqueous 
solution  are  generally  suitable.  When  gentle  stimulation 
and  absorption  are  desired  weak  solutions  are  used.  As  a 
counter-irritant  about  two  parts  iodine  and  one  of  potassium 
iodide  are  dissolved  in  sixteen  of  water  or  fatty  matters. 
For  reducing  bony  enlargements  iodine  ointment  is  some- 
times mixed  in  equal  proportion  with  mercury  biniodide 
ointment.  For  wounds  ten  grains  each  of  iodine  and  potas- 
sium iodide  to  an  ounce  of  water  usually  suffice.  Two  parts 
iodine,  one  part  potassium  iodide,  four  wood-tar  oil,  and 
thirty-two  of  lard  or  oil,  make  a  serviceable  mange  dressing. 

Tincture  of  iodine  is  made  with  half  an  ounce  each  of 
iodine,  potassium  iodide,  and  water,  and  sufficient  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.)  to  produce  twenty  ounces  of  the  tincture. 
Liquor  iodi,  or  Lugol's  solution,  contains  iodine  two,  potas- 
sium iodide  three,  and  water  forty  parts.  Unguentum  iodi 
contains  20  grains  each  of  iodine  and  potassium  iodide,  60 
grains  of  glycerin,  and  400  grains  of  lard.  Glycerin  of  iodine 
contains  1  of  iodine  to  50  of  glycerin.  An  injection  for 
bursse  is  made  with  16  grains  each  of  iodine  and  potassium 
iodide,  dissolved  in  an  ounce  of  sterilised  glycerin,  or  dis- 
tilled water.  Tinctura  iodi  decolorata  is  made  with  250  grains 
of  iodine  dissolved,  with  a  gentle  heat,  in  5|  ounces  of  rectified 
spirit ;  when  cold,  add  10  drachms  of  strong  solution  of 
ammonia  ;  and,  when  decolorised,  dilute  with  sufficient 
spirit  to  form  1  pint.  Tinctura  iodi  oleosa  is  composed  of 
iodine  one,  rectified  spirit  nine,  and  castor  oil  two  parts. 
This  tincture  applied  as  a  pigment  does  not  crack  the  skin 
(Extra  Pharmacopoeia) . 

lodipin  (Merck)  is  a  compound  of  iodine  with  oil  of  sesame. 
It  is  supplied  in  two  strengths,  one  containing  ten  per  cent., 


318  POTASSIUM   IODIDE 

the  other  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  iodine.  lodipin  (10  per 
cent.)  is  a  light  yellow  liquid  with  a  sp.  gr.  of  1025  ;  while 
the  25  per  cent,  iodipin  is  a  thick,  oily  fluid  with  a  sp.  gr. 
of  1227.  Both  preparations  are  soluble  in  ether  and  chloro- 
form, and  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Given  by  the  mouth  iodipin 
is  stated  to  pass  unchanged  through  the  stomach,  and  in  the 
intestine  a  small  proportion  is  decomposed,  the  greater  part 
being  absorbed  as  an  intact  fat.  On  the  oxidation  of  iodipin 
the  iodine  is  taken  up  by  the  alkalies  of  the  blood  and  tissues. 
Administered  subcutaneously  iodipin  is  slowly  but  regularly 
absorbed  and  oxidised.  Iodine  may  be  detected  in  the 
urine  within  fifteen  minutes  after  the  first  dose,  and  it 
continues  to  be  excreted  for  several  weeks  following  the  last 
injection.  lodipin  is  employed  as  a  substitute  for  the  alka- 
line iodides.  It  is  a  valuable  medicine  in  the  treatment  of 
actinomycosis,  shoulder  abscess,  scirrhous  cord,  bronchitis, 
pulmonary  emphysema,  purpura,  and  acute  infectious 
diseases.  It  is  also  used  as  a  routine  antiseptic. 

DOSES. — lodipin  25  per  cent.,  subcutaneously,  horses  and 
cattle,  §j.  to  §ij.  per  day  ;  dogs,  iodipin  10  per  cent.,  per 
os,  one  to  three  teaspoonfuls  per  day,  administered  in 
milk,  or  mixed  with  gum  acacia  and  treacle  and  given  as  an 
electuary. 

POTASSIUM  IODIDE.  Potassii  lodidum.  Potassic  Iodide.  KI. 

The  iodide  is  prepared  by  slowly  adding  iodine  to  a  solu- 
tion of  potash,  until  it  acquires  a  brown  colour,  evaporating 
to  dryness,  mixing  the  residue  with  one- tenth  of  its  weight 
of  powdered  charcoal,  and  fusing  in  a  red-hot  crucible.  The 
fused  mass  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  filtered  and  evaporated 
until  a  film  appears  on  the  surface,  when  it  is  set  aside  to 
crystallise. 

PROPERTIES. — Cubical  crystals,  colourless,  generally 
opaque,  with  a  faint  odour  of  iodide,  a  saline  taste,  decrepit- 
ating when  heated,  fusing  at  a  red-heat,  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture volatilising  unchanged,  soluble  in  two-thirds  of  its 
weight  of  cold  water,  in  twelve  parts  of  rectified  spirit,  and 
in  three  parts  of  glycerin.  These  agents  dissolve  iodine 
freely,  and  are  hence  useful  vehicles  for  its  exhibition. 


ALTERATIVE,    DEOBSTRUENT,    AND    DIURETIC       319 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Potassium  iodide  closely  resembles 
iodine,  but  is  less  powerful  and  devoid  of  local  irritant  action. 
Medicinal  doses  are  antiseptic,  alterative,  deobstruent, 
expectorant,  and  diuretic.  Sodium  iodide  has  the  same 
actions. 

It  is  readily  soluble,  and  is  quickly  absorbed  ;  in  the  tissues 
it  undergoes  decomposition  ;  the  iodine,  when  liberated, 
apparently  combines  with  albuminoids,  and  acts  specially 
on  the  thyroid  gland  and,  in  fact,  on  glands  generally,  modify- 
ing nutrition,  hastening  metabolism,  and  promoting  absorp- 
tion. It  is  doubtless  in  this  way  that  it  also  unites  with  lead 
and  mercury  albuminoid  compounds  deposited  in  the  tissues, 
renders  them  soluble,  carries  them  into  the  circulation,  and 
causes  their  elimination.  It  is  quickly  excreted  by  the 
mucous  and  skin  surfaces,  in  all  the  secretions,  but  chiefly 
by  the  kidneys.  Full  doses  increase  both  the  solids  and 
fluids  of  the  urine. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Large  doses,  such  as  three  ounces  in 
horses  or  cattle,  or  a  drachm  in  dogs,  enfeeble  the  heart,  and 
also  the  spinal  and  cerebral  functions.  It  causes  iodism, 
especially  when  it  is  mixed  with  iodates  ;  but  this  chronic 
poisoning  is  much  rarer  in  animals  than  in  man.  Dogs 
receiving  two  or  three  drachms  dissolved  in  water  vomited, 
showed  great  depression,  and  died  in  a  few  days  from  the 
effects  of  the  salt  action  and  irritation ;  rabbits  were 
similarly  affected  by  one  drachm  ;  three  drachms,  injected 
beneath  the  skin  of  the  back  of  a  dog,  caused  extensive 
subcutaneous  inflammation,  and  death  in  three  days. 
Iodine  is  detected  after  death  in  the  blood  and  urine,  in  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord,  in  most  of  the  internal  organs,  and 
even  in  the  muscles  and  bones  (Cogswell). 

MEDICINAL  USES. — It  is  given,  either  alone  or  with  iodine, 
to  promote  absorption  of  morbid  products,  as  in  lymphan- 
gitis in  horses,  pleuritic  and  other  serous  effusions,  enlarged 
glands  and  lung  consolidations  in  ah1  animals.  For  such 
purposes  full  doses  are  generally  prescribed  twice  or  thrice 
daily  for  a  fortnight,  and,  where  the  lesions  are  superficial, 
iodine  and  soap  liniments  are  also  used  externally.  It  is 
useful  in  cases  of  enlarged  thyroid — simple  goitre — where  the 
secretion  is  scanty  and  the  gland  grows  to  supply  the 


320  POTASSIUM   IODIDE 

deficiency.  The  iodide  stimulates  the  gland  to  normal 
activity  and  so  removes  the  hypertrophy.  Trasbot,  from 
fourteen  years'  study  of  the  action  of  potassium  iodide,  was 
satisfied  that  in  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  pulmonary 
congestion,  especially  in  horses,  a  few  doses  diminish  the 
frequency  and  force  of  the  pulse,  the  difficulty  and  quick- 
ness of  breathing,  and  the  abnormal  temperature.  These 
benefits  are  ensured,  and  congestion  and  dryness  of  the 
bronchial  membrane  relieved,  by  conjoining  the  iodide  with 
ammonium  acetate  solution.  Like  digitalis,  potassium 
iodide  is  serviceable  in  troublesome  cough  and  in  chronic 
cardiac  cases.  These  latter  effects  probably  depend  mainly 
upon  its  action  as  a  potassium  salt.  In  roaring,  Robertson 
prescribed  potassium  iodide  and  arsenic.  Atheroma  and 
aneurism,  in  man,  are  often  benefited  by  potassium  iodide, 
but  this  is  due  to  the  action  of  iodides  in  cases  of  syphilis, 
the  common  cause  of  these  two  conditions.  Thomassen  and 
Nocard,  after  extensive  experience,  relied  implicitly  on  the 
iodide  in  aetinomycosis,  especially  in  those  hitherto  un- 
satisfactory cases  affecting  the  tongue  of  cattle.  Ninety 
grains  in  about  a  pint  of  water  are  given  daily  for  eight  or 
nine  days  ;  within  that  period  swelling  and  pain  abate,  the 
animal  is  able  to  eat,  and  the  cure  is  '  always  successful,' 
usually  within  a  month.  Similar  treatment,  though  less 
certain,  has  proved  beneficial  in  discomycosis  of  the  testicular 
cord,  withers,  and  poll,  and  in  cases  of  chronic  abscess  of  the 
shoulder.  Dieckerhoff  recommended  the  intratracheal  in- 
jection of  dilute  iodine  solutions  in  equine  purpura  hsemorr- 
hagica,  and  other  German  practitioners  have  approved  of 
the  treatment.  The  solution  used  consists  of  five  parts 
potassium  iodide,  one  part  iodine,  and  100  parts  water. 
Five  drachms  of  the  solution  are  injected  into  the  trachea 
with  a  hypodermic  syringe.  It  constitutes  the  chief 
agent  in  Schmidt's  treatment  of  parturient  toxaemia  in 
cows.  Grains  110  to  160  of  the  iodide  are  dissolved  in  35 
ounces  of  boiling  water  ;  and  a  fourth  part  of  the  solution, 
cooled  to  blood  heat,  is  injected  into  each  teat.  Asthma, 
rheumatism,  and  eczema  are  frequently  benefited  by  a 
course  of  the  iodide.  In  chronic  poisoning  with  lead  and 
mercury  it  removes  the  metal  from  the  tissues  and  from  the 


SULPHUR  321 

body.  It  should  not  be  prescribed  with  bismuth  subnitrate, 
liquorice,  nitrous  ether  or  any  drug  containing  starch. 

Externally,  usually  with  soap  liniment  and  laudanum,  it  is 
applied  to  painful,  swollen  rheumatic  joints,  and  to  the 
inflamed  udder  in  cows  and  ewes.  A  solution  of  five  grains 
in  one  ounce  of  water  is  recommended  as  an  application  for 
recent  corneal  opacities.  It  is  much  used  for  increasing  the 
solubility  of  iodine,  both  in  water  and  alcohol. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  3J-  to  3VJ-  J  sheep 
and  pigs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  Ix.  ;  dogs,  grs.  jv.  to  grs.  xx., 
repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and  given  either  in  bolus 
or  solution,  in  water  or  spirit.  Its  effects  are  increased  when 
it  is  given  with  common  salt,  more  iodine  being  thus  liber- 
ated. A  convenient  solution  for  intratracheal  use  is  made 
with  30  grains  of  iodine,  2J  drachms  potassium  iodide, 
dissolved  in  4  ounces  of  distilled  water.  The  dose  is  Tl\30 
to  IT\60,  mixed  with  an  equal  measure  of  water. 

Iodide  of  sulphur  is  a  stimulant  and  parasiticide.  It  is 
prepared  by  mixing,  in  a  Wedgwood  or  glass  mortar,  four 
parts  iodine  with  one  of  sublimed  sulphur,  and  gently  heating 
until  the  mixture  liquefies.  The  red-brown  liquid,  as  it 
cools,  becomes  a  grey-black  crystaUine  mass,  insoluble  in 
water  and  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  glycerin  and  fats,  with 
eight  or  ten  parts  of  which  it  is  mixed  for  liniments  or 
ointments,  which  are  suitable  for  chronic  scaly  skin  com- 
plaints, ringworm,  and  mange. 


SULPHUR 

Sulphur,  or  brimstone,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  articles 
of  the  Materia  Medica.  It  occurs  in  many  animal  substances 
as  sulphates,  and  notably  also  in  bile  and  the  albuminoids  ; 
in  the  strong-smelling  volatile  oils  of  the  Cruciferse  and  Um- 
belliferse  ;  in  various  mineral  waters  as  hydrogen  sulphide, 
and  in  the  pyrites  or  metallic  sulphides,  from  which  it  is 
extracted  by  roasting.  The  extensive  supplies  of  sulphur 
required  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  sulphurous 
acid,  gunpowder,  lucifer  matches,  and  vulcanised  india- 
rubber,  are,  however,  chiefly  obtained  from  the  native 


322  SULPHUR 

sulphur,  occurring  as  a  product  of  volcanic  action  in  beds 
of  blue  clay  in  Sicily  and  Italy. 

The  crude  sulphur  is  purified  by  distillation,  and  when  run 
into  wooden  moulds  forms  the  stick  or  roll  sulphur,  which 
is  yellow,  crystalline,  and  so  bad  a  conductor  of  heat  that  it 
often  cracks  when  held  in  the  warm  hand. 

Sublimed  sulphur,  also  called  flowers  of  sulphur,  is  prepared 
by  distilling  the  crude  sulphur,  and  conducting  it  in  the  state 
of  vapour  into  large  chambers,  where  it  condenses  in  a  fine 
yellow  powder  consisting  of  spherical  granules. 

Precipitated  sulphur,  or  milk  of  sulphur,  is  prepared  by 
boiling  sublimed  sulphur  with  slaked  lime,  when  calcium 
sulphide  and  thiosulphate  are  formed,  and  when  treated  with 
diluted  hydrochloric  acid  are  decomposed,  sulphur  being 
precipitated  in  a  finely  divided  yellowish- white  powder. 

Sulphur  vivum,  caballum,  or  horse  sulphur,  the  residue 
left  in  the  subliming  pots,  must  be  used  with  caution,  for, 
besides  other  impurities,  it  contains  arsenic. 

PROPERTIES. — Sulphur  occurs  in  three  allo tropic  forms, 
manifesting  differences  in  physical  condition,  specific  gravity, 
fusing  point,  solubility  in  carbon  disulphide,  and  electric 
affinities.  Most  varieties  have  a  yellow  colour,  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  2%  have  little  or  no  taste,  are  insoluble  in 
water  and  cold  alcohol,  and  are  freely  soluble  in  benzol, 
carbon  disulphide,  fixed  and  volatile  oils.  All  varieties 
melt  at  240°  Fahr.,  are  entirely  volatilised  by  heat,  inflame  at 
500°  Fahr.,  burning  with  a  pale  blue  flame,  and  giving  off 
suffocating  fumes  of  sulphurous  anhydride  (S02).  As  it  is 
raised  from  the  melting  to  the  boiling  point  it  exhibits 
various  curious  changes. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Sulphur  applied  to  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces  is  a  feeble,  mechanical  stimulant,  and  an  irritant 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  sulphide  liberated.  The 
addition  of  an  alkali  increases  the  proportion  of  sulphide 
present,  and  therefore  the  action  of  the  drug.  It  destroys 
parasites  infesting  the  skin.  Administered  internally  it  is 
laxative  and  alterative. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS.— It  destroys  fungi  on  vines,  and  kills 
similar  parasites  affecting  plants  and  animals.  This  toxic 
effect  depends  not  so  much  on  the  sulphur  acting  as  sulphur, 


MEDICINAL   USES  323 

as  on  the  alkaline  sulphides,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and 
sulphurous  acid,  into  which  it  is  gradually  converted. 
Sulphur  when  swallowed  is  slowly  acted  upon  by  the  alkaline 
secretions  of  the  intestines,  and  small  quantities  are  con- 
verted into  sulphides,  which  irritate  and  stimulate  the 
intestinal  mucous  membrane.  A  further  change  liberates 
sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Thus  a  part  of  the  sulphur  taken 
by  the  mouth  is  absorbed  in  the  form  of  sulphides.  During 
excretion  this  imparts  its  disagreeable  smell  to  the  breath, 
secretions  of  the  skin,  and  bowels.  The  mutton  of  sheep 
receiving  daily  several  ounces  of  sulphur  is  stated  to  acquire 
a  distinct  sulphurous  flavour.  The  greater  part,  however, 
is  removed  unchanged  by  the  bowels,  and  of  that  absorbed 
the  bulk  is  excreted  in  the  urine  as  sulphates.  The  alkaline 
sulphides  are  sometimes  substituted  for  sulphur,  and,  like 
it,  are  laxative  and  parasiticide. 

Toxic  ACTIONS. — One  pound  given  to  horses  causes  colic, 
purging,  prostration,  and  sometimes  fatal  gastro-enteritis 
(Moiroud).  A  horse  affected  with  glanders  received  doses 
beginning  with  an  ounce,  and  gradually  increased  by  addi- 
tion of  an  ounce  daily  until  the  sixteenth  day,  when  he  had 
got  136  ounces.  Diarrhoea  supervened  on  the  seventh  day  ; 
but  appetite  remained  throughout  unimpaired,  the  urinary 
secretion  unaffected,  the  pulse  and  breathing  normal.  By 
the  third  day  the  perspiration  had  a  sulphurous  smell,  and 
a  piece  of  paper,  moistened  with  lead  acetate  and  laid  on  the 
skin,  became  grey.  The  muco-purulent  discharge  from  the 
nostrils  increased  daily ;  the  patient,  though  well  fed, 
became  gradually  emaciated,  and  so  debilitated  that  by  the 
seventh  day  he  was  unable  to  rise.  After  the  tenth  day, 
the  blood,  even  in  the  arteries,  became  dark-coloured,  thin, 
and  slow  to  coagulate.  On  the  seventeenth  day  the  animal 
was  destroyed.  The  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach,  colon, 
and  caecum  was  reddish-blue,  soft,  and  easily  torn.  The 
lungs,  muscles,  and  intestinal  contents  smelt  strongly  of 
hydrogen  sulphide,  but  the  blood  had  no  such  odour 
(Her  twig). 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Sulphur  is  given  to  the  several  domestic 
animals  as  a  laxative  where  more  powerful  purgatives  might 
irritate — as  in  pregnancy,  convalescence  from  acute  diseases 


324  MEDICINAL  USES 

in  young  animals,  and  in  piles.    Its  alterative  and  stimulant 

effects  on  the  skin  have  led  to  its  use  in  rheumatism,  eczema, 
and  cutaneous  diseases.  Some  practitioners  affirm  that  it 
benefits  dry,  congested  conditions  of  the  respiratory  mem- 
brane by  stimulating  its  epithelial  cells  and  increasing  move- 
ments of  the  cilia.  It  has  no  special  vermicide  action.  The 
piece  of  roll  sulphur  frequently  placed  in  the  dog's  trough, 
being  insoluble  in  water,  has  no  effect  in  preventing,  as  is 
popularly  believed,  distemper  and  other  canine  disorders. 

Sulphur  dusted  on  the  skin  slightly  stimulates,  but  when 
dissolved  by  admixture  with  an  alkali  or  oil,  and  smartly 
rubbed  in,  it  more  actively  stimulates  the  cells  of  the  rete 
Malpighii,  and  thus  hastens  desquamation  ;  while  it  also 
increases  the  skin  circulation.  It  thus  promotes  a  healthier 
action  in  chronic  eczema  and  psoriasis,  and  in  such  cases 
sulphur  dressings  are  with  benefit  conjoined  or  alternated 
with  iodine  or  tar  acids,  and  are  aided  by  the  internal  use 
of  sulphur  and  arsenic.  Infriction  of  sulphur  ointment  is 
stated  to  relieve  the  pain  of  rheumatic  muscles  and  joints. 

For  the  prompt  and  effectual  cure  of  mange  and  scab  it 
is  essential  to  reach  the  female  parasites  in  their  burrows. 
Hair  or  wool  must  be  closely  clipped  or  shaved  ;  the  affected 
parts  freely  rubbed  with  soft  soap,  allowed  to  remain  on  for 
twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour  ;  crusts  and  scales  are  thus 
softened,  and  removed  by  subsequent  thorough  scrubbing 
with  warm  water.  These  preliminary  measures  are  requisite 
to  enable  any  parasiticide  to  reach  the  sarcoptes.  Kiichen- 
meister  demonstrated  that  the  parasites,  although  they 
lived  for  several  days  in  sulphur  ointment,  perished  in 
fifteen  minutes  in  mixtures  of  sulphur  and  potash  solution. 
This  combination  quickly  produces  hydrogen  and  other  toxic 
sulphides.  Numerous  formulae  are  in  use.  Two  parts 
sulphur  and  one  part  potassium  carbonate  are  dissolved, 
with  the  aid  of  gentle  heat,  in  ten  or  twelve  of  lard  or  oil. 
A  still  more  effectual  sarcopticide  is  made  by  addition  of 
two  parts  of  benzine.  Sulphur  iodide  is  very  useful  for 
such  cases.  In  chronic  mange  and  scab  a  second  or  third 
soaping,  scrubbing,  and  dressing,  at  intervals  of  a  week, 
may  be  requisite  ;  and  in  inveterate  cases  some  of  the 
penetrating  tar  oils,  or  a  mercurial,  may  be  used.  Sulphur 


SULPHUR  325 

is  a  useful  antidote  in  poisoning  by  lead  and  mercury 
oxides. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  a  laxative,  horses  take  §j.  to  §iv. ;  cattle, 
giij.  to  §vi. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  3iv.  to  gj. ;  dogs,  3j.  to  ^iv. 
As  an  alterative,  one-fourth  of  these  doses  may  be  given. 
The  precipitated  being  more  finely  divided  than  the  sublimed 
sulphur,  is  somewhat  more  certain  and  active  as  a  laxative, 
and  is  in  addition  free  from  admixture  with  arsenic  and  other 
impurities.  Sulphur  is  conveniently  administered  sus- 
pended in  gruel,  or  treacle  and  water,  or  dissolved  in  milk 
or  oil,  and  is  often  conjoined  with  aromatics,  salines,  or 
mercurials.  For  horses  or  cattle  a  laxative  mixture  is  made 
with  one  to  two  ounces  each  of  sulphur  and  cream  of  tartar, 
dissolved  in  water,  with  half  a  pound  of  treacle  ;  one-third 
of  this  dose  suffices  for  sheep  and  pigs  ;  one-sixth  part  for 
dogs.  A  convenient  alterative  for  horses  or  cattle  consists 
of  an  ounce  each  of  sulphur  and  ginger,  and  half  an  ounce 
of  nitre,  repeated  once  or  twice  daily.  For  torpid  liver  in 
house  dogs,  Garrod's  sulphur  lozenges  may  be  used. 

The  ointment  usually  consists  of  one  part  of  sulphur  and 
four  of  vaseline  or  lard  ;  one-fourth  part  mercury  ointment 
is  sometimes  added.  A  liniment  is  made  with  one  part  of 
sulphur  and  six  or  eight  of  linseed  or  other  fixed  oil ;  one 
part  of  tar  oil  or  of  Barbados  tar  is  often  added.  Inveterate 
cases  of  grease  have  been  treated  with  eight  parts  of  sulphur, 
four  of  potassium  carbonate,  one  of  carbolic  acid,  with  thirty- 
two  each  of  lard  and  olive  oil.  The  dressing  is  freely  rubbed 
in,  allowed  to  remain  on  for  two  or  three  days,  and  then 
washed  off  with  soap  and  warm  water.  For  itch  papules 
and  vesicles  in  human  patients,  Fox  recommends  a  drachm 
of  sulphur,  eight  grains  each  of  ammoniated  mercury  and 
creosote,  twenty  minims  chamomile  oil,  thoroughly  mixed 
with  two  ounces  lard.  This  prescription  answers  well  for 
similar  cases  in  dogs. 

ACIDS-ACIDA 

The  mineral  acids,  with  acetic  and  tartaric  acids,  resemble 
each  other  in  their  actions  and  uses,  and  may  be  conveniently 
grouped  together.  Boric,  sulphurous,  carbolic,  salicylic, 


326  ACIDS — ACIDA 

tannic,  and  hydrocyanic  acids  differ  chemically  and  physio- 
logically, and  will  be  dealt  with  separately. 

Acids  are  hydrogen  salts  which  in  presence  of  an  alkali 
exchange  for  it  their  hydrogen,  or  a  portion  of  it.  They 
redden  various  blue  and  violet  colouring  matters,  and  most 
have  a  sour  taste.  In  virtue  of  their  affinity  for  basic  sub- 
stances and  for  water,  acids,  especially  when  concentrated, 
form  new  compounds  with  the  animal  tissues.  Their  primary 
effects  are  (1)  to  unite  with  and  neutralise  the  free  alkali 
which  is  present  in  most  normal  tissues,  thus  acting  as  proto- 
plasmic poisons  ;  (2)  the  stronger  often  displace  weaker 
acids  ;  (3)  they  precipitate  albumin,  while  all  the  mineral 
acids,  except  nitric,  again  dissolve  albumin.  When  intro- 
duced directly  into  the  blood,  they,  moreover,  destroy  the 
red  cells,  decompose  haemoglobin,  forming  methsemoglobin, 
a  substance  which  parts  with  oxygen  much  less  readily. 
They  coagulate  myosin,  and  hence  cause  muscular  rigidity, 
whilst  even  one  in  twenty  thousand  lessens  the  height  of 
a  muscle  contraction.  The  stronger  acids,  especially  when 
concentrated,  are  caustics  and  escharotics.  Weaker  and 
more  diluted  acids  act  as  rubefacients,  cause  temporary 
congestion,  and,  if  freely  or  continuously  applied,  inflame  the 
dermis,  producing  vesication.  They  destroy  enzymes  and 
check  proliferation  of  organised  ferments,  in  proportion  to 
their  acidity. 

Acids,  when  swallowed,  are  corrosive,  irritant  poisons. 
As  with  other  irritants,  they  are  more  active  and  fatal  in 
horses  and  dogs  than  in  cattle  or  sheep,  in  which  their  toxic 
effects  are  diminished  by  admixture  with  the  bulky  food 
usually  present  in  the  stomachs  of  these  ruminants.  '  In 
cases  of  acute  poisoning,  where  death  has  not  occurred  too 
quickly,  much  albumin,  hsematin,  and  indican  have  appeared 
in  the  urine,  and  fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver,  muscles,  and 
kidneys  has  been  found  '  (Sir  Lauder  Brunton).  Their  ap- 
propriate antidotes  are  alkaline  bicarbonates,  or  calcium  and 
magnesium  carbonates,  given  with  such  diluents  and  demul- 
cents as  milk,  oil,  and  linseed  gruel,  and  followed  by  opium 
and  fluid  nutrients. 

Acids  in  the  mouth  reflexly  increase  the  saliva  from  the 
parotid  and  submaxillary  glands,  and  effectually  moisten  the 


GENERAL  ACTION   OF  ACIDS  327 

fauces  and  allay  thirst.  They  further  exert  some  astrin- 
gent and  antiseptic  effects  by  precipitating  a  scum  of 
proteid  on  the  mucous  membrane.  If  not  neutralised 
before  they  reach  the  intestines,  they  increase  especially  the 
pancreatic  secretion,  and  to  a  less  extent  the  bile.  The 
pancreas  is  stimulated  to  secrete  by  the  absorption  into  the 
blood  stream  of  secretin.  This  substance  is  developed  by 
the  action  of  acids  on  the  duodenal  mucous  membrane,  the 
cells  of  which  manufacture  prosecretin,  the  antecedent  of 
secretin.  Thus  the  pancreatic  secretion  is  proportional  to 
the  amount  of  acid  leaving  the  stomach  in  the  chyme,  and 
if  this  is  naturally  deficient,  a  mineral  acid  must  be  given 
by  the  mouth. 
Acids  assist  digestion  in  several  ways. 

(1)  They  furnish  the  gastric  juice  with  its  acid    con- 
stituent, which,  unlike  the  pepsin,  is  not  capable  of  repro- 
duction,  and  without  which  the  digestive  power  of  the 
gastric  solvent  is  impaired.     Hydrochloric  acid,  being  the 
chief  natural  gastric  acid,  is  generally  prescribed  when  the 
acidity  of  the  gastric  fluid  is  believed  to  be  deficient,  as  it 
sometimes  is  in  young  animals  living  chiefly  on  milk,  in 
febrile,  enfeebled,  or  old  subjects,  or  in  those  suffering  from 
gastric  catarrh.     To  aid  digestion,  acids  are  given  shortly 
after  food.     Where  there  is  want  of  appetite  and  irregular 
action   of    the    bowels,    acids    are    given    conjoined   with 
bitters. 

(2)  Acids,  by  their  astringent  action,  check  gastric  secre- 
tion when  this  is  excessive,  as  it  appears  to  be  in  cases  of 
indigestion,  where  the  fluids  in  the  mouth  are  sour,  not  only 
after,  but  before  feeding,  and  where  animals  instinctively 
lick  the  walls,  or  eat  alkaline  earthy  matters.     In  such 
cases   the   alkaline  treatment  frequently  adopted  affords 
temporary  relief  ;   but  a  laxative,  followed  by  acids,  gener- 
ally removes  the  conditions  on  which  the  dyspepsia  depends. 
To  such  patients  acids  are  given  before  feeding,  and  a  pro- 
tective film  of  albumin  is  deposited  on  the  mucous  membrane 
so  that  useless  secretion  is  arrested. 

(3)  Acids   acting  antiseptically  check  fermentation,  and 
thus  prevent  formation  of  gases  and  irritating  organic  acids. 
This  is  an  important  use  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  normally 


328  MINERAL   ACIDS 

present.     In  this  way  they  are  serviceable  not   only  in 
indigestion,  but  in  certain  cases  of  diarrhoea. 

Before  reaching  the  general  circulation,  acids  must  pass 
through  the  liver,  where  they  alter  processes  of  tissue  change, 
and  check  formation  of  urea  (Brunton).  As  hepatic  tonics 
and  stimulants,  nitric  and  nitro-hydrochloric  acids  are 
preferred. 

When  they  enter  the  blood,  their  acidity  has  been  neutral- 
ised, and  they  are  present  as  salts.  The  blood  is  made  less 
alkaline,  but  cannot  become  acid  during  life  or  it  would  cease 
to  be  able  to  carry  the  carbon  dioxide  from  the  tissues. 
To  prevent  this  dangerous  acid  intoxication  in  carnivora, 
the  ammonia  liberated  from  the  tissues  as  a  result  of  the 
breaking  down  of  proteid  food  combines  with  the  acid  in 
the  portal  vein  and  the  resulting  ammonia  salts  are  excreted 
in  the  urine.  In  herbivora  there  is  little  available  ammonia 
but  more  potassium  and  sodium  in  the  blood,  and  so  these 
fixed  alkalies  have  to  combine  with  the  dangerous  acid  and 
are  excreted  in  the  form  of  salts  in  the  urine,  causing  some 
amount  of  diuresis.  Thus  acids  reduce  the  alkalinity  of 
the  blood  more  seriously  in  herbivora  than  in  carnivora  and 
man.  They  are  excreted  from  the  body  in  part  through 
the  intestinal  mucous  membrane,  but  chiefly  by  the  kidneys 
in  combination  with  ammonia  and  other  bases.  Full  or 
repeated  doses  diminish,  however,  the  alkalinity,  or  increase 
the  normal  acidity  of  the  urine,  by  the  presence  in  it  of  acid 
salts,  and  these  cause  some  irritation  in  the  urinary  passages. 
Acetic,  citric,  and  tartaric  acids,  being  readily  oxidised  into 
carbonates,  exert  a  primary  acid,  but  a  secondary  alkaline 
effect,  notably  on  the  urine. 

On  account  of  their  astringent  effect  on  the  gastric 
mucous  membrane,  acids  should  not  be  prescribed  for  more 
than  a  week  or  ten  days  at  a  time.  They  must  be  given 
freely  diluted,  and  are  often  conjoined  with  bitters,  iron 
salts,  and  alcoholic  stimulants. 

The  several  acids,  although  possessing  properties  in 
common,  have  distinguishing  characteristics.  Hydrochloric 
being  volatile,  and  possessing,  whether  in  the  gaseous  or 
fluid  state,  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  is  most  destructive  to 
vegetation,  browning  and  shrivelling  plant  tissues.  Nitro- 


SULPHURIC   ACID  329 

hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  phosphoric,  and  hydrochloric  acids 
are  the  most  powerfully  corrosive.  Nitric  acid  does  not  so 
readily  re-dissolve  the  precipitated  albumin,  and  hence  is 
scarcely  so  penetrating  as  other  mineral  acids.  Sulphuric 
acid,  when  applied  to  the  skin  or  swallowed,  causes  blacken- 
ing or  browning  of  the  parts  with  which  it  comes  in  contact ; 
nitric  acid  leaves  a  yellow  stain  ;  hydrochloric,  a  white  film 
of  precipitated  albumin. 

Sulphurous,  boric,  benzoic,  lactic,  and  salicylic  acids,  are 
used  for  their  antiseptic  rather  than  for  their  special  acid 
properties.  Carbolic  acid  is  also  an  antiseptic,  and  an  alco- 
hol rather  than  an  acid.  Arsenious  acid  is  not  a  true  acid, 
but  an  anhydride.  Tannic  and  gallic  acids,  although  they 
have  acid  reactions,  are  glucosides.  The  striking  actions  of 
hydrocyanic  acid  distinguish  it  from  all  other  acids.  These 
acids  will  accordingly  receive  separate  notice  under  their 
English  names. 


SULPHURIC  ACID 

ACIDUM  SULPHURICUM.  Oil  of  vitriol.  An  acid  produced 
by  the  combustion  of  sulphur  or  pyrites,  and  the 
oxidation  and  hydration  of  the  resulting  sulphurous 
anhydride  by  means  of  nitrous  and  aqueous  vapours. 
It  should  contain  about  98  per  cent.,  by  weight,  of 
hydrogen  sulphate.  H2SO4.  (B.P.) 

PROPERTIES. — The  strong  acid  of  commerce  is  oily-looking, 
colourless,  odourless,  with  an  intensely  acid  and  acrid  taste. 
It  freezes  about  30°  Fahr.,  boils  at  640°  Fahr.,  absorbs 
moisture  from  the  air,  and  hence,  if  kept  in  unstoppered 
bottles,  speedily  becomes  diluted.  Specific  gravity  1*843. 
It  has  great  affinity  for  water,  mixes  with  it  in  all  proportions 
with  evolution  of  much  heat.  Thus,  combining  with  water 
and  albumin,  it  decomposes  and  chars  organic  substances 
and  soft  animal  tissues.  When  heated  with  charcoal, 
sulphur,  or  metals,  it  rapidly  parts  with  oxygen,  and  is 
converted  into  sulphurous  acid. 

The  acidum  sulphuricum  dilutum,  or  medicinal  acid, 
should  contain  13-65  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  sulphate.  The 


330  TOXIC   AND   MEDICINAL  ACTIONS 

acidum  sulphuricum  aromaticum  contains  tincture  of 
ginger  10  PL  ounces  ;  spirit  of  cinnamon  half  an  ounce  ; 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  29|  Fl.  ounces  ;  and  sulphuric  acid 
3  Fl.  ounces. 

Its  impurities — nitric  acid,  lead,  arsenic — seldom  interfere 
with  its  medicinal  uses. 

Incompatibles,  alkalies,  their  carbonates,  lead  and  calcium 
salts. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Sulphuric  acid  is  a  corrosive,  irritant 
poison  when  given  in  concentrated  form  ;  is  used  medicinally 
as  a  refrigerant,  antiseptic,  and  astringent ;  and  externally 
as  a  caustic,  stimulant,  and  astringent.  In  aqueous  solu- 
tion— 5  to  10  per  1000 — it  diminishes  the  secretion  of 
mucous  membranes,  neutralises  the  alkalinity  of  the  saliva, 
bile,  and  pancreatic  juice,  and  after  absorption  it  diminishes 
the  alkalinity  of  the  blood.  It  is  excreted  in  the  urine  as  a 
sulphate. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Its  local  actions  depend  upon  its  affinity 
for  water  and  bases,  and  its  coagulating  albumin.  Swallowed 
in  concentrated  form,  it  almost  immediately  produces 
retching,  with  emesis  in  animals  that  vomit.  The  vomited 
matters  stain  and  corrode,  are  acid,  often  dark,  viscid,  and 
bloody,  and  contain  shreds  of  mucous  membrane.  The 
lips,  mouth,  and  fauces  are  red,  inflamed,  and  swollen. 
From  irritation  and  swelling  of  the  throat  breathing  is 
frequently  difficult,  and  when  a  strong  acid  has  been 
swallowed  by  human  patients,  or  given  to  rabbits  experi- 
mentally, death  from  suffocation  has  resulted  in  an  hour, 
or  even  less  time  (Taylor).  In  other  cases  there  is  great 
abdominal  pain,  rapidly  increasing  prostration,  and  death 
usually  in  twelve  to  twenty  hours.  The  mouth,  fauces, 
gullet,  and  stomach  exhibit  brown  and  black  stains,  and 
patches  of  corrosion,  and  there  is  sometimes  perforation  of 
the  stomach.  When  the  acid  has  been  diluted,  and  death 
does  not  occur  for  several  hours,  the  digestive  mucous 
membrane  is  softened,  swollen,  and  inflamed,  but  not  so 
blackened  or  charred  as  when  the  acid  has  been  concen- 
trated, and  death  more  rapid.  Injection  into  the  veins 
proves  fatal  by  coagulation  of  blood  and  thrombosis 
(Orfila). 


USES   OF   SULPHURIC   ACID  331 

Sulphuric  and  other  acids  are  sometimes  given  by  grooms 
and  carters,  with  the  idea  of  improving  the  appearance  of 
horses.  Acute  poisoning  occasionally  occurs  from  over- 
doses, chronic  irritation  of  the  bowels  not  infrequently 
results  ;  and  horses  which  for  a  season  have  thus  been 
senselessly  doctored,  usually  continue  for  months  and  even 
for  years  thriftless,  and  difficult  to  keep  in  health. 

The  antidotes  are  alkaline  bicarbonates,  soap,  chalk,  or 
magnesia,  given  diluted  in  milk  or  water,  in  small  quantity 
at  short  intervals.  Demulcents  as  milk,  oil,  linseed  tea, 
are  subsequently  administered.  Where  breathing  is  diffi- 
cult, tracheotomy  should  be  performed. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Sulphuric  acid  is  prescribed  as  a  tonic, 
astringent,  and  haemostatic.  It  is  given  in  chronic  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery,  usually  with  laudanum  in  starch  gruel  or 
mucilage.  In  influenza  in  horses,  with  a  tendency  to  oedema, 
or  purpura,  thirty  drops  of  the  medicinal  acid  are  sometimes 
given  in  gruel  or  ale  several  times  a  day,  with  an  ounce  each 
of  ether  and  powdered  cinchona  bark.  In  purpura  Eobertson 
prescribed  fl\xx.  to  ll\xxx.,  with  grs.  xxx.  iron  sulphate, 
in  cold  water  thrice  daily.  In  relaxed  and  ulcerated  sore- 
throat,  a  diluted  solution,  slowly  given,  exerts  a  beneficial 
influence  as  a  local  astringent.  Sulphuric  acid  checks 
bleeding  from  the  stomach,  abates  the  itching  of  nettle-rash 
and  lichen,  and  is  an  antidote  in  poisoning  by  lead,  carbolic 
acid,  and  alkalies. 

Externally  it  may  be  used  for  cauterising  irregular,  sinuous, 
and  poisoned  wounds,  and  as  a  styptic  and  astringent. 
Three  parts  strong  acid,  thoroughly  mixed  with  one  of 
asbestos,  and  rubbed  to  fine  powder,  have  been  used  for 
removing  cancerous  and  other  growths.  It  is  used  to 
destroy  warts,  which,  from  their  shape  or  situation,  cannot 
readily  be  removed  by  knife  or  ligature.  It  hastens  disin- 
tegration of  necrosed  bone.  Mixed  with  linseed  oil,  it  is 
sometimes  applied  to  shrink  the  skin  and  reduce  umbilical 
hernia  ;  but  ligatures,  clamps,  or  needles  are  safer  and 
more  effectual.  A  mixture  of  one  part  in  12  to  20  of 
alcohol  is  employed  as  an  application  for  seborrhceic  derma- 
titis. It  is  occasionally  added  to  blistering  ointments,  but, 
unless  in  small  amount,  is  apt  to  cause  blemishing.  A 


332  SULPHUROUS   ACID 

weak  solution  is  useful  in  the  treatment  of  chronic  pruritus 
of  the  tail.  A  few  drops,  given  with  Epsom  salt  and  other 
saline  purgatives,  diminish  their  disagreeable  taste  and 
rather  increase  their  activity. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  medicinal  acid  horses  take  f3J-  to 
f  3ij.  ;  cattle,  f  3ij.  to  f  3iv.  ;  sheep,  f  3ss.  to  f  3j.  ;  pigs,  H\v. 
to  H\xx.  ;  dogs,  H\ij.  to  fl\x.,  repeated  several  times  a  day, 
given  freely  diluted,  and  often  conjoined  with  aromatics  and 
bitters.  As  an  external  astringent,  ten  to  twenty  drops  of 
medicinal  acid  are  mixed  with  an  ounce  of  water. 


SULPHUROUS  ACID 

ACIDUM  SULPHUROSTJM.  An  aqueous  solution  containing 
6-4  per  cent,  hydrogen  sulphite,  H2SO3,  corresponding 
to  5  per  cent,  by  weight  of  sulphurous  anhydride,  S02. 
(B.P.)  Sulphurous  anhydride  may  be  prepared  by 
burning  sulphur  in  air  or  oxygen,  or  by  boiling  sul- 
phuric acid  with  carbon,  mercury,  or  copper  (B.P.). 

The  aqueous  solution  is  colourless,  has  a  pungent  sul- 
phurous odour,  reddens  litmus,  bleaches  colouring  matter, 
leaves  no  residue  when  heated,  and  has  the  specific  gravity 
I" 025.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  odour  ;  from  its  salts  it 
is  liberated  by  hydrochloric  acid. 

ACTIONS. — Sulphurous  acid  is  antiseptic,  disinfectant, 
and  deodorant,  and  is  used  as  a  parasiticide.  Concen- 
trated doses,  whether  in  the  gaseous  or  liquid  state,  are 
irritant. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Its  value  in  medicine  depends  on  its 
affinity  for  oxygen  or  powerful  reducing  action,  and  its 
arresting  the  growth  of  micro-organisms,  and  not  mainly  on 
its  acid  properties.  A  solution  of  one  part  in  8000  of  water 
destroys  diastase  and  pytalin  ;  but  although  smaller  quan- 
tities arrest  the  action  of  emulsin  and  myrosin,  one  part  in 
1317  is  required  to  destroy  pepsin.  Developed  bacteria  are 
killed  by  one  part  in  2000  of  water  ;  but  to  prevent  repro- 
duction of  the  spores  one  part  in  325  is  needful.  Christison 
found  that  one-fifth  of  a  cubic  inch,  diluted  with  10,000 
volumes  of  air,  destroyed  the  leaves  of  plants  in  forty-eight 


SULPHUROUS    ACID  333 

hours.  It  prevents  putrefaction  of  the  gelatin  used  in 
paper-making,  and  destroys  the  effluvia  of  the  cochineal  dye 
manufacture.  Its  antiseptic  properties  are  shared  by  the 
sulphites  and  thiosulphates. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Dewar,  Kirkcaldy,  greatly  extended 
its  application  in  human  medicine  and  surgery.  With 
solution,  fumigation,  and  spray,  he  successfully  treated  nasal 
catarrh,  sore-throat,  bronchitis,  typhoid  fever,  as  well  as 
wounds.  In  rheumatism  he  directed  the  bed-clothes  to  be 
exposed  to  the  vapours  of  burning  sulphur,  and  laid  over 
the  patient,  when  refreshing  perspiration  was  evoked.  In 
analogous  cases  amongst  the  lower  animals,  sulphurous  acid 
has  also  proved  useful.  Robertson  employed  it  to  check 
the  muco-purulent  discharge  of  equine  influenza.  Williams 
recommended  its  inhalation  in  nasal  gleet.  It  is  serviceable 
in  catarrh,  pharyngitis  and  laryngitis  in  horses  when  the 
membrane  is  irritable  and  relaxed,  and  the  discharges  are 
profuse.  It  has  been  prescribed  in  hoven  in  cattle  and 
tympanites  in  horses  ;  but  two-ounce  doses  of  the  solution 
do  not  give  the  prompt  relief  which  can  be  obtained  by 
giving  ammonia  or  ether.  In  calves,  flatulent  from  hasty 
or  careless  feeding,  ounce  doses,  however,  arrest  undue  fer- 
mentation. For  dogs,  ll\xxx.  to  TT[lx.,  in  water,  cheek 
gastric  irritation  and  vomiting.  In  husk  or  hoose  of  calves 
and  lambs  the  parasites  are  destroyed  by  two  fumigations 
made  at  an  interval  of  a  few  days.  The  affected  subjects 
are  placed  in  a  loose  box  ;  sulphur  is  burned  six  feet  distant 
from  them,  to  dilute  the  gas  before  it  is  breathed  ;  unless 
bronchial  irritation  is  excessive,  they  may  remain  in  the 
medicated  atmosphere  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  solution, 
used  alone  or  with  '  Sanitas  '  fluid,  or  glycerin,  is  a  good 
antiseptic  dressing  for  wounds.  It  is  useful  in  the  early 
irritable  stage  of  eczema,  especially  in  dogs.  In  limited 
mange,  ringworm,  and  scab  the  solution  is  used  as  a  para- 
siticide. 

Officers  of  health,  both  in  Britain  and  America,  bear 
testimony  to  the  efficacy  of  sulphurous  acid  as  a  disinfectant. 
Outbreaks  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  are  believed  to  have 
been  arrested  by  it.  The  gas  is  readily  evolved  in  the  stable 
or  premises  to  be  disinfected  by  scattering  flowers  of  sulphur 


334  ACTIONS   AND    USES 

over  a  few  embers  in  a  shovel,  iron  basin  or  brazier.  It 
burns  best  when  previously  mixed  with  about  one-fourth 
part  of  finely-divided  charcoal,  or  when  each  charge  of  one 
and  a  half  pounds  of  sulphur  is  treated  with  an  ounce  of 
alcohol,  which  in  burning  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  steam, 
and  thus  increases  the  penetrating  and  disinfectant  power  of 
the  gas.  Sulphurous  acid,  even  when  diluted,  causes  irrita- 
tion and  coughing  when  breathed  either  by  men  or  animals, 
and  consequently  for  thorough  disinfection  of  infected  pre- 
mises animals  must  be  removed,  doors  and  windows  closed, 
and  one  and  a  half  pounds  sulphur  burned  for  each  thousand 
feet  of  cubic  space.  Articles  of  saddlery  and  clothing 
should  be  cleansed  by  steam-heat,  or  washed  with  corrosive 
sublimate  solution.  Such  articles,  freely  exposed  to  sul- 
phurous gas,  are  bleached,  and  eventually  damaged,  from 
condensation  of  sulphurous  acid. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  B.P.  solution  horses  and  cattle  take 
f  Ji.  to  f  §ij.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  f3ss.  to  f  3JJ-  \  dogs,  lT[xx.  to 
TT[lx.,  given  every  three  or  four  hours,  diluted  with  water 
or  other  cold  bland  fluid.  It  may  be  continued  until  the 
system  is  saturated  and  the  skin  gives  off  its  odour.  It  is 
conjoined  as  required  with  aromatics,  alcohol,  ether,  or 
opium.  For  surgical  purposes  it  is  diluted  usually  with 
three  or  four  parts  of  water  ;  with  this  the  lint  or  other 
dressing  is  kept  saturated ;  admixture  with  glycerin 
renders  it  more  soothing.  For  disinfectant  purposes  it 
may  be  used  with  carbolic  acid,  but  not  with  chlorine  or 
bleaching  powder,  which  neutralises  it. 


HYDROCHLORIC  ACID 
ACIDUM  HYDROCHLORICUM.     Muriatic  Acid.     Spirit  of  Salt. 

A  liquid  containing  3T79  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  chloride, 
HC1,  and  68-21  per  cent,  of  water  (B.P.). 

Hydrochloric  acid  is  obtained  by  dissolving  in  water  the 
gas  produced  by  the  interaction  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
sodium  chloride.  It  is  colourless,  intensely  sour  and  acrid, 
emits  white,  pungent  fumes  of  the  gas,  and  has  the  specific 
gravity  1'160.  The  B.P.  acid  urn  hydrochloricum  dilutum  is 


HYDROCHLORIC    ACID  335 

made  by  mixing  six  fluid  ounces  of  the  stronger  acid  with 
water  until  the  mixture  at  60°  Fahr.  measures  twenty  fluid 
ounces.  It  has  the  specific  gravity  1*052,  and  contains  10' 58 
per  cent,  of  hydrogen  chloride.  The  test  for  hydrochloric 
acid  is  silver  nitrate,  with  which  it  produces  a  curdy  white 
precipitate,  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  soluble  in  excess  of 
ammonia.  Its  chief  impurities  are  sulphuric  and  sulphurous 
acids,  nitrous  compounds,  chlorine,  iron,  and  occasionally 
traces  of  arsenic. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Concentrated  doses  are  corrosive  and 
irritant ;  medicinal  doses  are  astringent,  antiseptic,  and 
tonic.  Topically  it  is  used  as  a  caustic,  stimulant,  astringent 
and  antiseptic. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Concentrated  solutions  have  a  strong 
affinity  for  the  water,  bases  and  albuminoids  of  the  tissues. 
They  leave  upon  them  a  white  film.  When  swallowed  they 
cause  gastro-enteritis.  Independently  of  irritant  or  cor- 
rosive effects,  they  appear  to  destroy  life  by  neutralising 
the  alkali  of  the  blood.  Rabbits  and  herbivora  are  stated  to 
suffer  in  this  way  more  readily  than  dogs  or  other  carnivora. 
Seven  or  eight  grammes  per  kilogramme  of  body- weight  may 
be  given  to  rabbits  in  twenty-four  hours  without  serious 
results,  but  nine  grammes  prove  fatal  in  a  few  hours,  causing 
frequent  laboured  breathing,  quick  pulse,  imperfect  power 
of  moving,  and  death,  depending  upon  fatal  diminution  of 
the  alkali  in  the  blood,  determining  first  stimulation,  and 
soon  paresis  of  the  respiratory  centre.  That  these  toxic 
effects  directly  depend  upon  neutralisation  of  the  alkali  in 
the  blood  appears  to  be  demonstrated  by  experiments,  in 
which  animals  nearly  dying  from  acid  poisoning  promptly 
revived  when  sodium  carbonate  was  injected  into  the  veins. 
The  alkaline  antidote  proves  effectual  even  when  three  times 
the  ascertained  fatal  dose  of  acid  has  been  administered 
(Phillips). 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Hydrochloric  acid,  made  into  an 
electuary  with  glycerin,  treacle,  or  honey,  or  diluted  with 
water  (2  to  5  per  1000),  exerts  astringent  and  antiseptic 
effects  on  irritable,  relaxed,  or  ulcerated  condition  of  the 
mouth  and  throat.  Stimulating  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  mouth,  it  reflexly  evokes  secretion  of  saliva,  moistening 


336  MEDICINAL   USES 

the  parched  mouth  and  abating  thirst.  Like  other  acids,  it 
specially  stimulates  the  pancreatic,  and  other  alkaline 
secretions.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  the  special  acid  of  the 
gastric  juice  ;  in  herbivora  it  amounts  to  1  to  2  per  1000. 
When  the  natural  acid  of  this  fluid  is  deficient,  digestion  is 
performed  tardily  and  imperfectly,  the  food  ferments  and 
acrid  acids  are  evolved.  For  obviating  or  removing  such 
conditions,  hydrochloric  acid  is  specially  suitable  ;  it  aids 
digestion,  especially  of  albuminoids,  controls  acid  fermenta- 
tion common  in  young  animals,  and  due  to  lactic  acid  and 
other  organisms  in  the  milk,  and  hence  often  checks  diarrhoea. 
In  young  calves  or  foals,  digesting  their  food  indifferently, 
and  scouring,  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  may  be  given 
with  the  milk,  exerting  both  antiseptic  and  digestive  effects  ; 
and  acids  are  usually  preferable  to  alkalies,  being  given  either 
immediately  before  or  about  an  hour  after  feeding.  Acids 
conjoined  with  bitters  are  also  useful  for  convalescents  from 
exhausting  disease,  for  show  beasts  that  have  been  systemati- 
cally over-fed,  and  for  young  and  weakly,  as  well  as  for  old, 
enfeebled  subjects.  The  acid  treatment  is  equally  appropri- 
ate in  the  totally  different  gastric  condition  of  undue  acidity 
depending  upon  excessive  but  weak  secretion,  for  here  the 
astringent  effects  tend  to  rest  the  mucous  membrane  ; 
but  in  such  case  the  acid  should  be  administered  half  an  hour 
before  feeding.  Given  alone  or  with  ferric  chloride,  it 
promotes  a  healthier  state  of  the  bowels  in  animals  infested 
with  intestinal  worms,  and  sometimes  expels  ascarides. 
Like  other  mineral  acids,  it  increases  the  acidity  of  the  urine 
during  excretion. 

Externally  it  is  used  to  destroy  warts,  and,  as  a  caustic 
and  antiseptic  for  wounds,  for  foot-rot  in  sheep,  and  occa- 
sionally as  a  styptic.  A  tepid  solution,  diluted  until  only 
faintly  acid  to  the  tongue,  is  sometimes  used,  instead  of 
vinegar  and  water,  for  rapidly  sponging  the  skin  of  febrile 
patients. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  diluted  or  medicinal  acid,  horses  take 
f  3ss.  to  f3ij-  ;  cattle,  f3ij-  to  f3iv.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  Tf\xv. 
to  lT\xx.  ;  dogs,  Tl\iij.  to  H\xx.,  usually  prescribed  with  forty 
or  fifty  parts  of  water  ;  often  given  along  with  bitters  and 
iron  salts. 


NITRIC   ACID  337 


NITRIC  ACID 

ACIDUM  NITRICUM.  Aquafortis.  A  liquid  containing  70 
per  cent,  by  weight  of  hydrogen  nitrate,  HN03,  and  30 
per  cent,  of  water.  (B.P.) 

Nitric  acid  is  prepared  by  the  interaction  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  potassium  or  sodium  nitrate.  Specific  gravity 
1-42.  The  B.P.  Acidum  Nitrieum  Dilutum  contains  17-44 
per  cent,  of  hydrogen  nitrate.  HN03.  Specific  gravity 
1-101. 

PROPERTIES. — Nitric  acid,  in  tolerably  concentrated  solu- 
tion, is  colourless  ;  emits  pungent,  corrosive,  suffocating 
fumes  ;  has  an  intensely  sour  taste  ;  oxidises,  corrodes,  and 
dissolves  many  organic  substances  ;  has  great  affinity  for 
water  ;  in  imperfectly  stoppered  bottles  it  quickly  increases 
in  quantity  and  diminishes  in  strength  ;  diluted  with  water 
it  evolves  much  heat. 

Its  tests  are  the  production  of  an  orange-red  colour  with 
a  solution  or  crystal  of  morphine  or  brucine  ;  copper, 
mercury,  and  some  other  metals  deoxidise  strong  solutions, 
with  evolution  of  ruddy  nitric  peroxide  fumes  (N02) ;  it 
gives  a  yellow  stain  of  picric  acid  to  wool  and  to  the  skin — 
a  discoloration  deepened  by  alkalies,  and  removed  from  the 
skin  only  by  its  desquamation. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Nitric  acid  is  irritant  and  corrosive, 
and  especially  destructive  when  in  concentrated  solution 
and  containing  the  volatile  nitrous  acid.  It  leaves  yellow  or 
brown  stains  on  the  skin  and  throat,  but  in  the  stomach 
this  discoloration  is  usually  obscured  by  inflammation  or 
extravasation  of  blood.  Besides  acting  like  the  other  mineral 
acids,  it  exerts  oxidising  effects,  notably  when  used  locally, 
and  probably  also  when  given  internally.  It  has  some 
reputation  as  a  hepatic  stimulant  and  tonic,  frequently 
indicated  in  horses  recovering  from  influenza,  jaundice,  and 
other  debilitating  disorders,  and  is  alternated  with  arsenic, 
in  eczema  and  chronic  skin  diseases,  but  is  not  so  good  for 
these  affections  as  dilute  nitro-hydrochloric  acid. 

Externally  the  medicinal  acid  is  applied  for  extirpating 
warts,  fungous,  and  malignant  growths  which  cannot  be 

Y 


338  DILUTED    NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC   ACID 

removed  by  the  knife  ;  for  dissolving  the  hardened  scurf, 
and  promoting  a  healthier  condition  of  skin  in  mallenders 
and  chronic  eczema  ;  and  as  a  caustic  in  poisoned  wounds, 
necrosis,  canker,  and  foot-rot.  As  an  escharotic  it  is  gener- 
ally applied  on  a  glass  rod  ;  surrounding  tissues  are  protected 
by  lard  or  oil,  and  undue  action  arrested  by  subsequent 
washing  with  an  alkaline  solution.  Freely  diluted  in  hot 
water,  it  abates  the  itching  of  nettlerash.  Dissolved  in 
two  or  three  hundred  parts  of  water,  it  is  used  for  sponging 
the  skin,  and  for  relieving  the  tenderness  and  tension  of  piles 
in  dogs.  Nitric  acid  preserves  putrescible  substances,  and 
prevents  evolution  of  hydrogen  sulphide  more  effectually 
than  either  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid  ;  but  as  a  dis- 
infectant, it  cannot  be  recommended,  owing  to  its  action  on 
organic  and  metallic  substances,  and  the  irritant  effects  of 
its  fumes. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  diluted  medicinal  acid,  horses  or 
cattle  take  f3i-  to  f3ij. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  H\x.  to  3J-  ;  dogs, 
fl\ij.  to  U\xx.  It  must  be  largely  diluted  with  water  or  other 
bland  fluid,  and  is  often  conjoined  with  bitters.  For  ex- 
ternal application,  a  drachm  of  strong  acid  in  a  pint  of  water 
suffices  for  all  except  escharotic  purposes.  An  ointment  is 
occasionally  used,  made  by  melting  together  in  a  glass  vessel 
a  pound  of  olive  oil,  four  ounces  of  lard,  and  when  the 
mixture  is  nearly  concrete,  adding  six  drachms  of  nitric 
acid,  and  stirring  briskly  with  a  glass  rod  till  the  whole 
solidifies.  A  paste  made  with  sulphur  and  lard  is  used  for 
extirpating  warts,  and  stimulating  patches  of  scurfy  skin. 

DILUTED  NITBO-HYDBOCHLORIC  ACID 

ACIDUM  NITRO-HYDROCHLORICUM  DILUTUM.  Nitro- 
Muriatic  Acid.  Aqua  regia.  An  aqueous  solution  of 
free  chlorine,  hydrochloric,  nitric  and  nitrous  acids. 

The  diluted  nitro-hydroehlorie  acid  of  the  B.P.  is  prepared 
by  adding  to  twenty-five  fluid  ounces  of  distilled  water  in 
a  glass-stoppered  bottle  three  fluid  ounces  of  nitric  acid  and 
four  of  hydrochloric,  and  allowing  the  mixture  to  stand 
for  fourteen  days  before  it  is  used.  It  contains  free  chlorine, 
and  has  the  specific  gravity  T07. 


PICRIC   ACID  339 

ACTION,  USES,  AND  DOSES.— The  strong  acid  is  very 
corrosive  and  irritant,  but  it  is  not  used  as  a  caustic.  Medi- 
cinal doses  are  said  to  exert  special  tonic  and  stimulant 
actions  on  the  liver  and  intestinal  glands,  and  are  used 
in  hepatic  torpidity,  catarrhal  jaundice,  rickets,  and  occa- 
sionally in  equine  influenza.  The  presence  of  free  chlorine 
may  help  to  explain  this  action  on  the  liver.  It  is  prescribed 
with  the  same  precautions  as  to  dilution  as  nitric  acid. 
Doses,  horses  and  cattle,  3J-  to  3ij-  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  u\x. 
to  3J-  ;  dogs,  H\ij.  to  ll\xx.,  in  drench. 

PICRIC  ACID 

Acidum  picricum  or  trinitrophenic  acid,  prepared  by  the 
action  of  fuming  nitric  acid  on  phenol,  occurs  in  yellow, 
shining,  odourless  crystals,  having  a  very  bitter  taste  ; 
slightly  soluble  in  water  ;  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform.  Heated  slowly  with  free  access  of  air  picric 
acid  burns  ;  heated  rapidly  it  explodes.  It  precipitates 
albumin  in  acid  solution,  stains  the  skin,  and  hair,  or  wool 
yellow,  and  with  bases  forms  salts,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant in  veterinary  practice  is  potassium  picrate.  Picric 
acid  is  a  powerful  antiseptic  and  vermicide,  and  a  very  active 
desiccant.  Applied  externally  in  suitable  cases  it  promotes 
the  formation  of  epidermis  and  hastens  the  cicatrisation  of 
cutaneous  wounds,  and  in  solution  or  ointment  it  has  been 
used  in  the  treatment  of  eczema,  pruritus,  and  burns.  It 
is  seldom  prescribed  as  an  anthelmintic  as  it  is  liable  to 
produce  fatal  gastro-enteritis.  The  toxic  dose  for  the  dog 
is  ten  grains  (Kaufmann). 

Picrate  of  potash,  which  is  much  less  irritant  and  toxic 
than  the  acid,  has  been  employed  as  a  vermicide  in  sheep 
and  pigs. 

DOSES  (picric  acid). — Lambs,  grs.  jss  to  grs.  iijss ;  (picrate 
of  potash),  lambs,  grs.  vii.  to  grs.  xv.  per  day  ;  young  pigs, 
grs.  iijss  to  grs.  viii.,  per  day,  in  gruel,  mucilage,  or  in  bolus. 

CONCENTRATED  PHOSPHORIC  ACID 

Acidum  phosphoricum  concentratum,  a  liquid  containing 
66- 3  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  orthophosphate  H3P04,  with 


340  CHROMIC   ACID 

33'7  per  cent,  of  water.  Prepared  by  treating,  with  water 
and  nitric  acid,  the  residue  left  after  burning  phosphorus 
in  air  (B.P.).  Specific  gravity  1*5.  It  is  a  colourless,  sour, 
syrupy  liquid,  with  an  acid  reaction.  In  diluted  solution 
it  gives,  with  ammonia-silver  nitrate,  a  canary-coloured 
precipitate,  soluble  in  ammonia  and  dilute  nitric  acid.  The 
acidum  phosphoricum  dilutum  contains  13-8  parts  of  hydro- 
gen orthophosphate  and  86*2  parts  of  water.  It  is  a  colour- 
less liquid  of  specific  gravity  1*08. 

Compared  with  the  other  mineral  acids  it  is  less  corrosive, 
but  it  may  be  used  for  many  of  the  purposes  for  which  nitric 
and  hydrochloric  acids  are  employed.  Internally,  phos- 
phoric acid  is  believed  to  be  less  apt  to  derange  digestion 
when  prescribed  for  a  considerable  time.  In  human  medi- 
cine it  has  been  given  in  diabetes  and  various  cachectic  con- 
ditions, to  supply  a  supposed  deficiency  of  phosphates,  but 
with  little  success.  In  canine  practice  it  is  sometimes  useful 
in  the  convalescent  stage  of  distemper.  Doses  (dilute  acid), 
horses  and  cattle,  3J-  to  3JV-  ">  sheep  and  pigs,  ll\xxx.  to 
3J.  ;  dogs,  11\v.  to  n\xxx. 


CHROMIC  ACID 
CHROMIC  ANHYDRIDE  (Cr03). 

Acidum  chromicum  produced  by  the  interaction  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  potassium  bichromate,  occurs  in  crimson, 
deliquescent,  needle-shaped  crystals,  and  is  very  soluble 
in  water  and  in  ether.  The  liquor  acidi  chromiei  is  made 
with  one  part  of  acid  and  three  of  water.  It  readily  parts 
with  oxygen,  oxidises  organic  matter,  coagulates  albumin, 
destroys  low  organisms,  and  decomposes  ammonia  and  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  and  though  not  prescribed  internally, 
it  is  used  as  a  caustic,  antiseptic,  deodoriser,  and  disinfec- 
tant, and  to  harden  the  replacing  horn  after  operations  on 
the  horse's  foot.  In  the  treatment  of  '  canker,'  Sheather 
has  been  very  successful  with  pure  chromic  acid  applied  on 
carbolised  cotton  wool.  For  snake-bites,  Kaufmann  recom- 
mends the  injection  round  the  wounds  of  four  or  five  drops 
of  a  one  per  cent,  solution  of  chromic  acid. 


HYDROBROMIC   ACID  341 

HYDROBROMIC  ACID 
ACIDTJM  HYDROBROMICUM  DILTJTUM. 

Diluted  hydrobromic  acid  is  an  aqueous  solution  contain- 
ing 10  per  cent,  by  weight  of  hydrogen  bromide  (HBr). 
Prepared  by  the  distillation  of  potassium  bromide  with 
concentrated  phosphoric  acid.  A  colourless,  odourless  acid 
liquid.  Specific  gravity  1*077.  It  is  occasionally  employed 
in  human  medicine  as  a  nerve  sedative,  and  it  has  been 
recommended  as  an  anodyne  for  nervous  diseases  of  dogs  in 
doses  of  H\xx.  to  H\lx.  (See  Bromides.) 

CARBONIC  ACID 

ACIDUM  CARBONICUM.     Carbon  Dioxide.     Carbonic  Anhy- 
dride.    Choke  Damp.     After  Damp.     (C02). 

When  air,  containing  more  than  ^^  parts  by  volume  of 
carbonic  acid,  is  inhaled,  by  either  man  or  the  domestic 
animals,  discomfort  and  languor  are  produced.  An  atmo- 
sphere containing  T^  promptly  prevents  removal  of  the  car- 
bonic acid  from  the  blood,  interferes  with  oxidation  of  the 
tissues,  and  hence  impairs  their  functions  ;  ^  shortly  causes 
unconsciousness  and  anaesthesia ;  -J-  does  so  more  rapidly, 
renders  the  blood  markedly  venous,  but  if  respiration  of  the 
mixture  has  been  continued  only  for  a  few  minutes,  re- 
covery gradually  occurs  on  removal  to  the  fresh  air. 
If  the  amount  of  oxygen  is  increased  in  the  mixture 
whilst  the  percentage  of  carbon  dioxide  remains  the 
same,  asphyxia  does  not  occur,  but  only  narcosis  from  the 
direct  action  of  carbon  dioxide  in  depressing  the  central 
nervous  system.  Asphyxia,  when  it  occurs,  is  referable  to 
the  absence  of,  or  decrease  in,  the  amount  of  oxygen.  Equal 
parts  of  carbonic  acid  and  air  quickly  produce  death  by 
asphyxia,  exhibiting  the  three  stages  characteristic  of  such 
poisoning,  namely — (1)  dyspnoaa,  (2)  convulsions,  and  (3) 
paralysis.  Examination  after  death  discovers  general 
venous  congestion,  the  blood  dark-coloured,  the  right  side 
of  the  heart  much  distended  with  blood,  the  brain  con- 
gested, and  sometimes  exhibiting  exudation  and  extravasa- 
tion. In  treating  such  cases,  endeavour  is  made  to  oxygen- 


342  ACETIC   ACID 

ate  the  stagnating  venous  blood  by  bringing  the  animal  into 
a  pure  atmosphere,  stimulating  respiratory  effort  by  dashing 
cold  water  over  the  head  and  neck,  employing  artificial 
respiration,  and,  if  the  action  of  the  heart  is  failing,  relieving 
its  engorgement  by  drawing  blood  from  the  jugular  vein. 
Carbonic  acid  in  solution  applied  to  the  skin  or  stomach 
produces  mild  irritation  and  stimulation.  Effervescent 
drinks  increase  gastric  and  intestinal  secretion,  hasten 
metabolism,  and  are  excreted  from  the  kidneys  more  rapidly 
than  corresponding  quantities  of  non-aerated  water. 

ACETIC  ACID 

Glacial  acetic  acid  is  prepared  by  heating  sodium  acetate 
with  sulphuric  acid.  One  hundred  parts  by  weight 
should  contain  ninety-nine  parts  of  hydrogen  acetate, 
CHg.COOH.  Specific  gravity  1-058.  The  glacial  acid  is 
mobile,  oily,  and  colourless,  with  a  pungent  acetous  odour 
and  taste,  and  a  corrosive  action  upon  organised  tissues. 
It  boils  at  243°  Fahr.,  distils  unchanged,  is  combustible, 
miscible  in  all  proportions  with  water  and  alcohol,  crystal- 
lises into  radiating  pearly  plates  when  cooled,  and  remains 
crystalline  until  the  temperature  rises  above  60°  Fahr. 

Acetic  acid  (acidum  aceticum)  is  a  product  of  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  wood,  or  of  the  oxidation  of  ethylic 
alcohol.  One  hundred  parts  by  weight  should  contain 
thirty- three  parts  of  hydrogen  acetate,  and  sixty-seven  of 
water.  Specific  gravity  1-044.  It  is  colourless,  strongly 
acid,  with  a  pungent  odour.  Acetic  acid  is  about  one- 
third  the  strength  of  the  glacial  acid  (B.P.).  An  imperfectly 
purified  acid  containing  some  residual  tarry  matters  is  sold 
as  pyroligneous  acid.  The  acidum  aeeticum  dilutum  is  acetic 
acid  diluted  with  distilled  water  until  it  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  1-006.  It  should  contain  4-27  per  cent,  hydrogen  acetate. 

Acetic  acid,  even  when  considerably  diluted,  reddens 
litmus,  dissolves  volatile  oils,  resins,  camphor,  and  most 
alkaloids,  and  unites  with  bases  to  form  the  crystallisable 
and  soluble  acetates,  which  are  distinguished  by  the  acetous 
odour  they  emit  when  heated  with  sulphuric  acid  ;  the 
pleasant  odour  of  acetic  ether  they  evolve  when  heated  with 


CORROSIVE,    IRRITANT,    AND    VESICANT          343 

alcohol  and  sulphuric  acid  ;  and  the  red-brown  colour  they 
produce  in  neutral  solution  when  treated  with  ferric  chloride 
—a  colour  which  changes  on  boiling  to  a  brown  precipitate 
of  basic  acetate  of  iron. 

Vinegar  (acetum)  is  diluted  acetic  acid,  sometimes  con- 
taining traces  of  colouring  matter,  mucilage,  alcohol,  ethers, 
sulphuric  acid,  and  calcium  sulphate.  Besides  being  got 
from  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood,  it  is  also  obtained 
from  the  oxidation  of  impure  alcohols,  by  exposing  them  to 
the  air  at  a  temperature  of  about  80°  Fahr.,  and  in  contact 
with  a  ferment.  In  this  way  vinegars  are  manufactured  in 
this  country  from  malt,  grain,  cider,  or  solutions  of  sugar  or 
spirit ;  in  France,  by  exposing  the  poorer  wines  in  half-filled 
casks  ;  and  in  Germany,  by  what  is  termed  the  quick  vinegar 
process,  from  weak  spirit  mixed  with  about  1- 1000th  part 
of  yeast,  or  beetroot  juice,  and  allowed  slowly  to  trickle  at 
a  temperature  of  from  75°  to  80°  Fahr.  over  a  large  surface 
of  wood  shavings  previously  soaked  in  vinegar.  There  is 
shortly  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  shavings  a  gelatinous 
mould — the  mycoderma  aceti — which  favours  attraction  of 
oxygen  from  the  air,  supplies  it  to  the  alcohol,  and  hastens 
its  conversion  into  acetic  acid. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Acetic  acid  is  corrosive,  irritant,  and 
vesicant.  It  is  seldom  used  internally.  Diluted,  usually  in 
the  form  of  vinegar,  it  is  employed  externally  as  a  stimulant 
and  refrigerant,  and  in  pharmacy  as  a  solvent. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — An  ounce  of  acetic  acid  destroyed  a 
medium-sized  dog  in  an  hour,  with  symptoms  of  uneasiness, 
abdominal  pain,  vomiting,  and  collapse  ;  a  quarter  of  an 
ounce  was  fatal  in  five  to  nine  hours  ;  four  or  five  ounces 
of  vinegar  in  ten  to  fifteen  hours  (Christison).  Horses  take 
six  to  twelve  ounces  of  vinegar,  and  cattle  three  or  four 
pounds,  without  apparent  injury  (Hertwig).  A  goat  weigh- 
ing 44  Ibs.  got  five  ounces,  and  died  in  twenty-six  hours, 
the  lesions  consisting  of  hypersemia  and  oedema  of  the  lungs, 
and  inflammation  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  digestive  tract, 
the  kidneys,  and  liver  (Frohner). 

Antidotes. — Magnesia,  soap  and  water,  lime  water,  chalk 
and  water. 

EXTERNAL    USES. — Rubbed    into    the    skin,    acetic    acid 


344  TARTARIC   AND    LACTIC   ACIDS 

speedily  causes  redness,  and  eruption  of  large  blisters 
resembling  those  produced  by  boiling  water  ;  but  as  a  vesi- 
cant, mustard  or  cantharides  is  preferable.  As  an  astringent 
or  caustic  it  is  rarely  used.  Dissolving  albumin,  fibrin,  and 
gelatin,  it  removes  warts  as  well  as  corns  in  the  human  sub- 
ject, softens  scurf,  destroys  cryptogamic  parasites  and  acari, 
and  hence  is  sometimes  found  in  prescriptions  for  mallenders, 
ringworm,  scab,  and  mange.  Along  with  either  hot  or  cold 
water,  vinegar  is  used  for  contusions  and  strains,  and  for 
sponging  the  skin  and  checking  excessive  perspiration  in 
febrile  disorders.  Once  in  high  repute  as  an  antidote  for 
many  poisons,  vinegar  is  now  employed  only  in  poisoning 
by  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  carbonates.  It  dissolves  the 
active  principles  of  various  drugs,  and  enters  into  the 
composition  of  aceta,or  vinegars  of  cantharides,  ipecacuanha, 
and  squill.  Oxymel  is  made  by  heating  together  forty 
ounces  of  sugar  or  honey,  and  five  each  of  acetic  acid  and 
distilled  water. 

TARTARIC  ACID,  H2C4H406. 

Acidum  tartaricum  is  prepared  from  acid  potassium  tar- 
trate.  The  crystals  are  colourless,  monoclinic  prisms,  longer 
than  those  of  citric  acid,  with  an  acid  taste,  soluble  in  less 
than  their  own  weight  of  water,  and  less  than  three  times 
their  weight  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  Either  watery  or 
spirituous  solution  not  too  diluted,  when  stirred  with  potas- 
sium acetate,  yields  a  white  crystalline  precipitate. 

Tartaric  acid  is  devoid  of  irritant  and  poisonous  properties. 
Christison  gave  drachm  doses  to  cats  without  causing  them 
apparent  inconvenience.  Like  other  organic  acids,  it  is 
burnt  within  the  body,  and  the  resulting  carbonates  exert 
their  usual  alkaline  effects.  It  closely  resembles  citric  acid, 
and,  like  it,  is  used  as  a  cooling  antipyretic.  Doses,  horses 
and  pattle,  3ij-  to  3JV-  ;  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx. 

LACTIC  ACID,  CHg.CHOH.COOH. 

Acidum  lacticum  produced  by  the  fermentation  of  lactose, 
from  the  action  of  the  lactic  acid  bacillus,  is  a  colourless, 


CITRIC    ACID  345 

syrupy  liquid,  which  the  B.P.  states  contains  75  per  cent, 
of  hydrogen  lactate,  with  25  per  cent,  of  water.  Specific 
gravity  1*21.  It  is  miscible  in  all  proportions  with  water, 
alcohol  and  ether. 

It  is  present  in  the  gastric  juice,  while  sarcolactic  acid, 
which  is  isomeric  with  it,  is  found  in  the  juice  of  flesh  and  in 
the  bile.  It  has  a  special  power  of  dissolving  false  mem- 
branes, and  in  human  patients  has  accordingly  been  used 
as  spray  or  vapour  in  the  treatment  of  croup  and  diphtheria. 
Diluted  and  sweetened,  it  is  occasionally  substituted  for 
hydrochloric  acid  in  dyspepsia.  It  is  a  good  intestinal 
antiseptic,  and  is  prescribed  for  diarrhoea  following  distemper 
of  the  dog,  and,  with  bismuth  subnitrate,  for  muco-enteritis 
in  calves.  Doses,  horses  and  cattle,  3^3  •  to  3JV-  >  dogs, 
lT\xx.  to  3J- 

Lactic  acid,  as  a  remedy  for  disease  arising  within  the  in- 
testine, has  received  considerable  attention  since  Metchnikoff 
attributed  the  remarkable  longevity  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Bulgaria  (where  deaths  at  ages  of  110  to  120  are  fairly 
common)  to  their  habit  of  drinking  sour  milk.  Soured  milk, 
containing  active  lactic  acid  bacilli,  and  lactic  acid  derived 
from  the  lactose  of  the  milk,  by  inhibiting  the  growth  of  in- 
testinal bacteria  and  arresting  putrefaction,  is  believed  to 
prevent  those  diseases  which  are  due  to  absorption  of  toxins 
from  the  bowel.  Various  proprietary  preparations,  Lactillin, 
Lactone,  Trilactine,  Lactobacilline,  etc.,  containing  lactic 
acid  bacilli  are  now  supplied  for  souring  sterilised  milk 
prior  to  its  administration. 

CITRIC  ACID,  C3H4.OH.(COOH)3.H20. 

Acidum  citricum,  or  hydrogen  citrate,  obtained  from  the 
juice  of  the  fruit  of  various  species  of  citrus,  occurs  in  large, 
colourless,  trimetric  prisms.  Soluble  in  water,  glycerin, 
alcohol,  and  ether.  A  solution  of  citric  acid,  thirty-five 
grains  in  an  ounce  of  water,  forms  a  convenient  substitute 
for  lemon- juice,  which  has  been  used  as  a  refrigerant  in 
canine  distemper.  Citric  acid  is  employed  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  granular  effervescing  citrates.  Doses,  horses  and 
cattle,  3ij-  to  3JV-  \  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx. 


346  OLEIC   AND    BORIC   ACIDS 


OLBIC  ACID,  CH3(CH2)7CH  :  CH(CH2)7COOH. 

Acid um  oleicum,  or  hydrogen  oleate,  is  obtained  by  the 
saponifying  action  of  alkalies  and  subsequent  action  of  acids, 
or  by  the  action  of  superheated  steam  upon  the  olein  of  fats. 
Usually  not  quite  pure  (B.P.).  It  is  a  straw-coloured  liquid, 
occasionally  with  a  faintly  rancid  smell,  and  a  slight  acid 
reaction.  Becomes  brown  and  more  acid  on  exposure  to  the 
air.  Insoluble  in  water  ;  readily  soluble  in  alcohol  (90  per 
cent.),  chloroform,  or  ether.  Specific  gravity,  0-890  to 
0*910.  Oleic  acid  is  used  in  pharmacy  for  dissolving  various 
metallic  oxides  and  the  alkaloids  morphine,  aconitine, 
atropine,  veratrine,  and  cocaine.  It  is  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  mercuric  oleate  and  of  various  ointments.  (Squire.) 

BORIC  ACID 

ACIDUM    BORICUM.      Hydrogen    Borate.      Boracic    Acid. 
H3B03. 

Boric  acid  is  obtained  from  borax  by  the  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid.  In  volcanic  regions  in  Italy  and  in  the  Lipari 
Islands,  through  natural  fissures  or  holes  bored  in  the  earth, 
there  issue  vapours  and  jets  of  steam,  which  are  passed 
through  water,  and  the  solution,  subsequently  evaporated, 
yields  colourless,  pearly,  lamellar  crystals  of  boric  acid. 
They  are  feebly  acid,  and  bitter,  with  a  sweetish  after-taste, 
and  dissolve  in  thirty  parts  of  cold  water,  in  three  of  boiling 
water,  in  sixteen  of  rectified  spirit,  and  five  of  glycerin,  and 
communicate  a  green  colour  to  an  alcoholic  flame.  The 
addition  of  borax  increases  the  solubility  of  boracic  acid. 
Aiding  the  fusion  of  other  bodies,  it  is  much  used  as  a  blow- 
pipe test :  mixed  with  seven  parts  of  acid  potassium 
tartrate,  it  constitutes  the  soluble  cream  of  tartar  of  the 
shops.  When  heated,  three  molecules  of  water  are  driven 
off,  and  anhydrous  vitreous  boric  acid  remains  (B203). 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Boric  acid  is  a  non-volatile,  non-irri- 
tating but  rather  feeble  antiseptic,  which  has  more  effect  on 
organised  than  on  chemical  ferments.  Ingested,  it  is 
readily  absorbed  by  the  digestive  mucous  membrane,  and 


BORIC   ACID  347 

in  the  blood  it  is  transformed  into  borate  of  soda.  Small 
doses  produce  no  appreciable  effect  on  circulation  or  respira- 
tion ;  but  large  doses  (1  gramme  per  kilogramme  of  live 
weight)  cause  gastro-enteritis,  with  nausea,  vomiting, 
muscular  feebleness,  albuminuria,  and  collapse.  These 
symptoms  may  follow  the  injection  of  strong  solutions  into 
wounds,  or  into  the  uterus.  It  is  occasionally  prescribed  in 
fermentative  diarrhoea  in  foals,  calves,  and  dogs,  but 
estimation  of  the  aromatic  sulphates  in  the  urine,  the  measure 
of  intestinal  putrefaction,  shows  that  it  has  little  effect  on 
this.  In  weak  solution  it  is  useful  for  washing  out  the 
stomach  and  for  douching  wound  cavities  after  operations. 
It  is  excreted  in  the  saliva,  sweat,  and  urine,  and  exerts 
slight  antiseptic  effects  in  cystic  catarrh. 

As  an  antiseptic  it  is  much  less  powerful  than  carbolic  acid. 
Koch  found  that  one  part  in  1250  of  water  hindered,  and 
one  part  in  800  prevented,  development  of  anthrax  bacillus. 
The  carcase  of  a  horse,  which  had  lain  four  months  in  a 
Californian  soil  rich  in  borax,  was  completely  preserved  and 
free  from  odour  (Robottom).     It  is  used  for  the  preservation 
of  milk,  fish,  and  other  articles  of  food.     Being  non- volatile, 
its  effects  are  confined  to  the  parts  with  which  it  comes  into 
actual  contact.     Even  in  concentrated  form,  it  is  not  so 
irritant  and  caustic  as  carbolic  acid,  and  hence  is  adapted 
for  wounds  which  for  some  time  have  been  treated  with 
carbolic  acid,  and  in  which  granulation  has  become  tardy. 
A  foul  wound  or  ulcer  of  moderate  size,  after  thorough 
washing    with    corrosive    sublimate    or    zinc    chloride,    or 
repeated  dressing  with  carbolic  acid,  may  usually  be  kept 
aseptic  by  boric  acid.     Extensive  wounds  as  those  of  the 
withers  and  poll  after  operation  may  be  stuffed  with  crystal- 
lised boric  acid,  which  acts  as  a  powerful  antiseptic  (Busy). 
A  warm  3  per  cent,  solution  has  been  used  to  irrigate  the 
chest  in  septic  pleurisy.     In  the  form  of  lotion  or  ointment, 
spread  on  gauze  or  lint,  it  proves  a  soothing  dressing  for 
burns  and  blistered  surfaces  ;  as  a  spray,  it  relieves  aphthous, 
irritable,  ulcerated  throat,  and,  like  borax,  checks  excessive 
salivary  or   pharyngeal  secretion.     Alternated  with  weak 
alkaline  lotions  or  zinc  oxide  dressings,  boric  acid,  con- 
veniently mixed  with  six  or  eight  parts  of  starch  and  one 


348  FORMIC    ACID 

part  of  iodoform  abates  the  erythema  and  itching  of  eczema 
in  dogs  and  horses.  Catarrhal  conjunctivitis  and  keratitis 
are  benefited  by  spraying  the  surface  three  or  four  times  a 
day  with  a  solution  containing  three  to  six  grains  boric  acid, 
one  drachm  of  aqueous  solution  of  opium,  and  an  ounce  of 
water. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  3U-  to  3V-  5  foals 
and  calves,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  dogs,  to  which  it  is  usefully 
given  in  distemper,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx. 

A  saturated  solution  is  made  with  one  part  of  acid  to 
sixteen  of  water,  and  for  surgical  purposes  is  used  diluted 
as  required.  A  few  grains  of  salicylic  acid  are  sometimes 
added.  An  ointment  is  prepared  by  melting  nine  parts 
white  paraffin  ointment,  and  adding  one  part  boric  acid  in 
fine  powder.  Boric  dressings  are  made  by  soaking  lint, 
gauze,  cotton  wool,  or  oakum  in  a  saturated  boiling  watery 
solution,  from  which  the  acid  crystallises,  adhering  to  the 
fibrous  material.  Four  to  ten  layers  of  lint  are  applied, 
either  wet  or  dry,  over  the  wound  ;  and  in  order  to  prevent 
evaporation  and  access  of  micro-organisms,  a  piece  of 
mackintosh  is  laid  on  the  lint  and  secured  by  a  bandage. 
Unless  the  wound  discharges  are  excessive,  a  properly 
applied  dressing  does  not  require  to  be  disturbed  for  several 
days.  A  few  layers  of  boric  lint  applied  wet  to  a  wound 
or  ulcer,  and  covered  with  oiled  silk  or  mackintosh,  acts  as 
an  antiseptic  compress,  and  its  effects  may  be  kept  up  by 
pouring  the  lotion  from  time  to  time  between  the  folds  of 
lint.  Boric  gauze  is  charged  with  20  per  cent,  of  boric  acid. 

Boro-glyeeride  is  made  by  heating  ninety-two  parts 
glycerin  with  sixty-two  boric  acid.  Solutions  of  one  to 
twenty  of  hot  water  are  used  as  antiseptic  gargles,  lotions 
for  purulent  ophthalmia,  urethritis,  and  dressings  for 
wounds. 


FORMIC  ACID-FORMATES 

Formic  or  aminic  acid  (H2C02)  is  obtained  by  oxidation 
from  various  organic  substances  (albuminoids,  fatty  bodies, 
acid  fats,  sugar,  etc.).  It  is  a  volatile,  colourless  fluid,  with 
an  irritating  odour  and  a  caustic  taste  ;  very  soluble  in 


CARBON   BISULPHIDE  349 

water.  By  saturation  with  carbonates,  or  oxides,  it  forms 
salts  which  are  known  as  formates.  Formic  acid  is  anti- 
septic, caustic,  and  musculo-tonic.  It  improves  the  nutri- 
tion of  the  tissues,  promotes  muscular  energy,  and  is  specially 
valuable  in  convalescence  following  influenza,  pneumonia, 
strangles,  purpura,  or  other  systemic  disease.  As  a 
general  tonic  it  is  prescribed  as  a  formate  or  as  a  combina- 
tion of  glycerophosphates  and  formates  of  soda,  calcium, 
strychnia,  and  quinine. 

Glyphocal  with  formates  (Squire  and  Sons),  a  compound 
elixir  of  calcium,  iron,  magnesium,  sodium,  and  potassium 
glycerophosphates,  pleasantly  flavoured,  and  combined 
with  the  formates,  is  a  valuable  tonic  for  young  horses  and 
dogs.  It  may  be  given  in  doses  of  3]ij-  to  3VJ-  to  horses, 
and  H\x.  to  H\lx.  to  dogs,  with  the  food,  or  drinking-water. 
Formic  acid  is  seldom  employed  as  an  antiseptic,  but 
occasionally  a  solution  of  one  part  acid  in  three  of  alcohol 
is  used  as  a  caustic. 


CARBON  BISULPHIDE 

Carbonis  disulphidum,  CS2,  may  be  prepared  by  the 
combination  of  carbon  and  sulphur  at  a  high  temperature, 
the  product  being  subsequently  condensed  and  purified 
(B.P.).  It  is  a  clear,  colourless,  inflammable  liquid,  with  a 
characteristic  odour,  and  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloro- 
form, the  fixed  and  volatile  oils,  and  in  five  hundred  parts  of 
water. 

Carbon  bisulphide  is  little  used  in  veterinary  practice, 
but  it  was  suggested  by  Perroncito  as  an  excellent  agent 
for  the  destruction  of  bots  hi  the  horse's  stomach  and 
strongyles  in  the  intestine.  In  foals  and  aged  horses, 
Taar  employed  this  remedy  with  excellent  results,  and  found 
that  while  one  dose  was  sufficient  for  foals  infested  with 
gastrophilus  larvae,  a  second  dose  followed  by  a  purgative 
was  necessary  for  those  with  worms.  He  states  that  autumn 
is  the  best  time  for  this  treatment,  as  then  the  parasites  are 
immature.  Doses,  horses,  39-  to  3JV-  5  foals,  3J-  to  39 •> 
enclosed  in  gelatin  capsules.  If  necessary  the  dose  may  be 
repeated  in  two  hours,  or  after  an  interval  of  two  or  three 


350  CHARCOAL — CARBON 

days.  The  dead  parasites  may  be  found  in  the  faeces  in 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  hours  after  the  administration  of  the 
first  dose.  Occasionally  a  patient,  after  receiving  carbon 
bisulphide,  shows  symptoms  of  colic.  This  may  be  prevented 
by  walking  the  animal  for  an  hour  after  giving  the  medicine. 

CHARCOAL-CARBON 

Two  varieties  of  charcoal,  or  carbon,  are  used  in  medicine 
and  pharmacy — wood  charcoal,  or  carbo  ligni,  and  animal 
charcoal,  or  carbo  animalis.  The  former  is  prepared  by 
piling  billets  of  hard  wood  into  heaps,  covering  them  with 
turf  and  sand,  and  leaving  a  few  apertures  for  admission  of 
air.  The  pile  is  ignited  :  after  the  flame  has  risen  through 
the  whole  mass,  the  openings  are  closed,  and  combustion 
proceeds  slowly,  without  access  of  air.  The  high  tempera- 
ture dissipates  moisture,  breaks  up  the  complex  vegetable 
matters  into  simpler  forms,  producing  empyreumatic  gases 
and  tarry  fluids,  and  leaving  a  charred  residue  of  about  one- 
fifth  the  weight  of  the  original  wood,  and  consisting  of 
chemically  pure  carbon  and  ash,  with  oxygen,  hydrogen, 
and  traces  of  nitrogen  retained  in  the  porous  mass.  Oils  or 
resins,  when  burned  in  a  deficiency  of  air,  produce  lamp 
black — a  finely-divided,  amorphous  carbon. 

Animal  charcoal,  also  known  as  bone  or  ivory  black,  is 
chiefly  prepared  from  bones,  which  are  boiled  to  separate 
fatty  matters,  and  heated  in  close  vessels  until  the  ammonia- 
cal  gases  cease  to  be  disengaged.  The  fixed  residue  contains 
about  10  per  cent,  of  carbon,  88  per  cent,  of  calcium  phos- 
phate and  carbonate,  and  2  per  cent,  of  iron  carbide  and 
silicide — mineral  matters  which  separate  the  carbon  particles 
and  enhance  their  absorbent  properties. 

Both  vegetable  and  animal  charcoal  are  remarkable  for 
their  porosity,  are  brown-black,  insoluble  and  inodorous, 
readily  absorb  moisture,  gases,  and  most  vegetable  colouring 
matters.  Animal  charcoal  is  distinguished  by  its  greater 
density,  its  incombustibility,  its  bitter  taste,  its  large  propor- 
tion of  phosphates,  and  also  by  its  greater  absorbing  power. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Charcoal  is  a  desiccant,  antiseptic, 
disinfectant,  and  deodorant,  and  is  used  as  a  decoloriser  in 


CHARCOAL  351 

pharmacy,  sugar-refining,  and  other  arts.  One  volume  of 
good  boxwood  charcoal  absorbs  into  its  pores  100  volumes 
of  ammonia  gas,  50  of  hydrogen  sulphide,  and  10  of  oxygen. 
The  oxygen  thus  retained  decomposes  and  deodorises  noxi- 
ous gases  which  come  into  contact  with  the  charcoal.  Air 
laden  with  sewer  gases  is  purified  by  passing  it  over  charcoal. 
Brown  sugar  in  solution  filtered  through  animal  charcoal  is 
deprived  of  colouring  matter ;  crude  spirit  is  robbed  of  its 
fusel  oil ;  foul  water  is  cleansed  of  organic  impurities. 
Urine  heated  with  it  parts  with  colouring  matters,  urea,  and 
uric  acid,  but  not  with  any  sugar  it  may  contain.  Vegetable 
acids,  alkaloids,  and  their  salts  are  sometimes  purified  by 
charcoal ;  but  for  these  pharmaceutic  purposes  it  has  the 
disadvantage  of  retaining,  not  only  colouring  particles,  but 
portions  of  the  drugs — a  property,  however,  which  renders 
it  serviceable  as  an  antidote  in  poisoning  with  opium,  aconite, 
strychnine,  and  even  prussic  acid.  The  charcoal  mechani- 
cally envelops  and  holds  the  poisonous  particles  ;  half  an 
ounce,  swallowed  immediately  after  a  grain  of  morphine  or 
strychnine,  is  stated  to  prevent  absorption. 

Sprinkled  over  meat  or  game,  or  placed  in  barrels  of  water 
intended  for  long  keeping,  it  retards  putrefaction.  Unlike 
chlorides  of  mercury  and  zinc,  or  other  powerful  antiseptics, 
it  does  not,  however,  attack  or  destroy  organised  germs. 
Whilst  passing  through  the  alimentary  canal,  it  checks 
fermentative  changes,  lessens  acridity  and  fee  tor  of  the 
faeces  ;  probably  also  removes  mucus,  and  exerts  some  de- 
gree of  healthy  stimulation.  As  an  absorbent  and  deodoriser, 
it  is  occasionally  used  as  a  poultice,  and  is  often  sprinkled 
over  suppurating  or  foul  wounds.  Equal  parts  of  charcoal, 
gum  arabic,  and  resin  constitute  a  useful  haemostatic. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  the  horse,  ^iv.  to  §i.  ;  for  cattle,  §i.  ; 
for  sheep  and  pigs,  ^i.  to  3u'j.  5  an(l  f°r  dogs,  gr.  x.  to  grs. 
Ix.  It  is  usually  given  suspended  in  gruel  or  other  mucil- 
aginous fluid.  To  preserve  its  activity  charcoal  must  be 
kept  dry  and  clean.  Raised  to  a  low  red-heat  shortly  before 
it  is  used,  gases  and  organic  matters  are  burned  out  of  its 
pores,  and  its  efficacy  is  much  increased.  The  charcoal 
fouled  in  sugar-refining  and  other  processes  is  thus  cleansed 
for  repeated  use. 


352  ALCOHOL 

ALCOHOL 

The  more  important  mono-hydric  alcohols  used  in  medi- 
cine and  pharmacy  are  : — 

Methyl-alcohol,  CH3.OH,  from  distillation  of  wood. 
Ethyl-        „        C2H5.OH,    „     fermentation  of  grape  sugar. 
Propyl-      ,,        C3H7.OH,    „  „  grapes. 

Butyl-        „        C4H9.OH,    „  „  beet. 

Amyl-        „        C5Hn.OH,  „  „  potatoes. 

These  alcohols  are  hydroxides  of  the  radicles  of  the 
methane  or  marsh  gas  series  (CH4).  In  their  production 
the  hydrocarbon  has  one  of  its  atoms  of  hydrogen  (H) 
displaced  by  the  radicle  hydroxyl  (OH).  Thus,  methane 
(CH4),  losing  one  atom  of  H,  and  assuming  one  OH,  becomes 
CH3.OH,  or  methyl-alcohol,  popularly  known  as  wood 
spirit.  Ethane  (C2H6),  losing  one  atom  of  H,  and  taking 
up  one  OH, becomes C2H5. OH,  ethyl-alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine. 
Each  of  these  alcohols,  when  oxidised  by  removal  of  H2,  in 
the  form  of  a  molecule  of  water  (H20),  yields  an  aldehyde  ; 
while  by  substitution  of  OH  for  H,  the  aldehydes  are  con- 
verted into  acids.  Thus,  ethyl-alcohol  (CH3.CH2.OH)  is 
converted  into  aldehyde  (CH3COH),  and  thence  into  acetic 
acid  (CH3CO.OH).  In  each  of  the  alcohols,  moreover,  the 
H  in  the  OH  can  be  replaced  by  an  alcohol  radicle,  when  an 
ether  is  formed ;  thus,  ethyl-alcohol  (C2H5.OH)  yields 
common  ether  (C2H5.O.C2H5). 

Absolute  alcohol. — Ethyl  hydroxide  (C2H5.OH),  with  not 
more  than  one  per  cent.,  by  weight,  of  water  ;  obtained  by 
the  removal  of  water  from  less  concentrated  ethylic  alcohol 
and  subsequent  distillation.  Specific  gravity  from  0'794  to 
0-7969.  Very  volatile  and  hygroscopic  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures (B.P.).  Absolute  alcohol  is  a  mobile,  colourless  fluid, 
with  a  spirituous  odour,  and  an  intensely  fiery  taste.  It  has 
great  amnity  for  water,  takes  it  from  any  substance  with 
which  it  is  in  contact,  and  thus  exerts  its  notable  power  of 
preserving  both  vegetable  and  animal  matters, 

Rectified  spirit  (spiritus  rectificatus),  or  alcohol  (90  per. 
cent.).     A  liquid  containing  ninety  parts  by  volume  of  ethyl 
hydroxide,  and  ten  parts  by  volume  of  water  ;   obtained  by 


ALCOHOL  353 

the  distillation  of  fermented  saccharine  liquids.  Specific 
gravity  0-8340.  By  weight  it  contains  14-35  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  85-65  per  cent,  of  ethylic  alcohol.  It  burns  with 
a  blue,  smokeless  flame.  Leaves  no  residue  when  evapor- 
ated, and  remains  clear  when  mixed  with  water  (B.P.).  It 
dissolves  iodine,  camphor,  balsams,  castor  oil,  most  alkal- 
oids, and  deliquescent  salts,  but  not  the  carbonates.  It 
is  used  in  the  preparation  o^all  the  spirits,  and  a  large 
number  of  the  tinctures  of  the  Pharmacopoeia,  1898. 

Diluted  alcohol. — The  four  official  liquids  obtained  by 
diluting  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  or  rectified  spirit,  with 
distilled  water,  contain  respectively  70,  60,  45,  and  20  per 
cent,  by  volume  of  ethyl  hydroxide  (B.P.).  They  may  be 
prepared  as  follows  :— 

(1)  Alcohol  (70  per  cent.).— With   100  fluid  ounces  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.)  mix  31-05  fluid  ounces  of  distilled 
water.     Specific  gravity  0-8900. 

(2)  Alcohol  (60  per  cent.).— With   100  fluid  ounces  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.)  mix  53|  (53-65)  fluid  ounces  of  dis- 
tilled water.     Specific  gravity  0-9135. 

(3)  Alcohol  (45  per  cent.). — With  100  fluid  ounces  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.)  mix  105J  (105-34)  fluid  ounces  distilled  water. 
Specific  gravity  0-9436. 

(4)  Alcohol  (20  per  cent.).— With   100  fluid  ounces  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.)  mix  355|  (355-8)  fluid  ounces  of  dis- 
tilled water.     Specific  gravity  0-9760. 

The  non-official  proof  spirit  (spiritus  tenuior)  contains 
57*09  per  cent,  by  volume  of  ethylic  alcohol.  Specific 
gravity  0-920.  In  the  B.P.  1898,  proof  spirit  has  been  re- 
placed by  alcohol  (60  per  cent.). 

Ethyl  bromide  and  ethyl  chloride  are  volatile  liquids,  and 
occasionally  used  to  produce  both  local  and  general  anaes- 
thesia. 

Methylic  alcohol  (CH3OH). — This  spirit  is  obtained  by 
the  destructive  distillation  of  wood.  It  is  also  prepared  from 
beet  sugar  refuse.  Methylic  alcohol  when  pure  has  many  of 
the  properties,  and  is  applied  to  many  of  the  purposes  of 
ethylic  alcohol.  It  burns  with  a  pale  flame,  is  not  rendered 
turbid  by  water,  boils  at  140°  Fahr.,  and  has  an  empyreumatic 
odour  depending  upon  the  presence  of  acetone  (di-methyl- 


354  WHISKY,    BRANDY,    WINES,    RUM,    GIN 

ketone)  and  oily  matters.  Specific  gravity  '799  to  '803. 
From  ethylic  alcohol  it  is  distinguished  by  heating  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  potassium  bichromate,  when  it  yields 
formic  acid  ;  ethylic  alcohol,  similarly  treated,  yields  acetic 
acid. 

Methyl  chloride,  a  gaseous  compound,  prepared  from 
methylic  alcohol  and  hydrochloric  acid,  is  employed  as  a 
local  anaesthetic. 

Methylated  spirit  (spiritus  methylatus)  is  a  mixture  of 
nine  parts  alcohol  (90  per  cent.)  with  one  part  wood  naphtha 
or  methylic  alcohol.  The  methylated  spirit  on  sale  in  oil 
and  other  shops  contains  petroleum  oil,  which  is  added  to 
render  the  mixture  distasteful  to  drinkers. 

Whisky  (sp.  frumenti)  is  obtained  from  fermented  grain 
by  distillation.  It  contains  from  50  to  58  per  cent,  by 
volume  of  ethylic  alcohol. 

Brandy  (sp.  vini  gallici),  a  liquid  distilled  from  wine, 
should  contain  43  J  per  cent.,  by  volume,  of  ethylic  alcohol. 

Champagne,  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape,  contains 
from  10  to  13  per  cent.,  by  volume,  of  ethylic  alcohol, 
and  owes  its  peculiar  bouquet  to  traces  of  fragrant  ethers. 
Port  contains  20  to  30  per  cent.  ;  sherry,  16  to  22  per 
cent.  ;  and  claret,  hock,  and  burgundy,  8  to  12  per  cent, 
of  ethylic  alcohol. 

Rum,  a  spirit  of  about  the  same  strength  as  brandy,  is 
obtained  by  distillation  of  a  fermented  solution  of  molasses. 
Hollands,  Geneva,  and  gin  are  prepared  from  fermented 
malt,  with  a  small  quantity  of  juniper  berries.  They  contain 
from  51  to  59  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

Ales  and  porter  are  made  by  infusing  malt  in  water, 
allowing  it  to  stand  until  the  starch  is  in  great  part  converted 
into  dextrin  and  sugar,  by  means  of  the  ferment  diastase, 
boiling  the  solution  with  hops,  and  adding  yeast  to  cause 
fermentation,  which,  however,  must  be  carefully  controlled. 
The  dark  colour  of  porter  depends  on  a  part  of  the  malt 
being  roasted.  Stout,  or  porter  and  ales  contain  from  2  to 
9  per  cent,  of  ethylic  alcohol. 

Amylic  alcohol. — A  liquid  consisting  principally  of  iso- 
primary  amylic  alcohol,  and  prepared  by  shaking  commercial 
fusel  oil  with  a  saturated  solution  of  common  salt,  separating 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  355 

the  oily  layer,  distilling,  and  collecting  the  portion  which 
distils  between  257°  and  289°  Fahr.  Fusel  oil  is  present  in 
all  crude  ethyl  alcohols,  is  obtained  from  the  distillation  of 
potatoes,  and  is  distinguished  by  its  offensive  flavour.  It  is 
sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  other 
alcohols,  ether,  and  essential  oils.  Amy  lie  alcohol,  when 
oxidised,  yields  valerianic  acid.  It  is  used  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  amyl-nitrite. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Ethyl-alcohol,  commonly  known 
simply  as  alcohol,  according  to  dose  and  concentration,  is  a 
local  irritant,  refrigerant,  mild  astringent,  and  antiseptic. 
It  is  diffusible,  and  readily  absorbed,  and  its  effects  are  pro- 
duced on  a  wide  range  of  organs.  Large  doses  paralyse  the 
nerve-centres,  and  kill  by  respiratory  arrest.  Medicinal 
doses  are  diffusible  stimulants,  and  are  prescribed  as 
carminatives,  antispasmodics,  and  cardiac  excitants. 
Diluted  ethylic-alcohol  is  a  readily  assimilable  food,  and 
hence  a  restorative  and  tonic  ;  it  is  antiseptic,  diaphoretic, 
and  antipyretic.  Causing  a  fuller  stream  of  blood  to 
circulate  through  the  glands,  it  increases  their  secretions, 
notably  that  of  the  kidneys,  by  which  the  unassimilated 
portions  of  the  drug  are  chiefly  excreted.  Both  ethylic  and 
methylic  alcohols  are  used  as  preservatives  of  vegetable 
substances,  and  pharmaceutically  as  solvents. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Alcohol  in  tolerably  concentrated 
solution  withdraws  water  from  albuminoid  solutions,  and 
precipitates  them.  Applied  to  a  mucous  surface,  it  precipi- 
tates a  thin  white  pellicle  of  albumin,  thus  exerting  irritant 
and  slight  astringent  effects.  Owing  to  its  rapid  evapora- 
tion, alcohol,  when  applied  to  the  skin,  causes  a  sensation 
of  cold  ;  but  if  applied  with  friction,  or  if  evaporation  be 
prevented  by  a  covering  of  oiled  silk,  it  passes  into  the  skin, 
inducing  a  sensation  of  warmth.  It  is  also  used  as  an 
antiseptic,  both  for  the  surgeon's  hands,  instruments,  and 
the  operation  area.  When  swallowed,  a  similar  warming 
effect  is  produced  in  the  stomach.  Moderate  doses  dilate 
the  vessels,  redden  the  mucous  membrane,  and  increase 
the  secretion  of  gastric  juice.  If  not  too  concentrated, 
alcohol  is  readily  absorbed  through  any  of  the  ordinary 
channels  of  administration.  Orfila  poisoned  dogs  by 


356  ALCOHOL 

causing  them  to  breathe  air  charged  with  it.  Being  highly 
diffusible,  it  quickly  enters  the  blood.  It  appears  to  form 
with  the  haemoglobin  a  compound  of  diminished  capacity 
to  take  up  and  give  off  oxygen.  Full  or  large  doses,  ac- 
cordingly, interfere  with  oxidation  of  blood  and  tissue.  Its 
effects  vary  considerably  with  the  dose  and  its  concentra- 
tion ;  but  even  small  doses  quickly  affect  the  central  nervous 
system.  There  is  an  apparent  stimulation,  as  shown  by 
alertness  and  motor  activity,  but  with  larger  doses  this 
primary  stimulation  is  succeeded  by  dulness,  depression, 
passing  into  stupor  and  coma.  Schmiedebergs'  theory  with 
regard  to  the  mode  of  action  of  alcohol  is  that  the  drug 
ab  initio  exercises  a  depressant  effect.  This  depression 
first  affects  the  cerebrum,  in  other  words,  the  judgment  and 
controlling  centres.  This  allows  free  play  to  the  more  reflex 
centres,  for  all  inhibition  is  lessened,  in  fact  one  may  say 
the  brake  has  been  taken  off.  As  the  depression  spreads  it 
affects  the  centres  in  the  inverse  order  of  development,  and 
leaves  the  vital  medullary  centres  till  the  last. 

On  the  circulation  alcohol,  in  small  doses,  exerts  a  definite 
stimulant  effect,  quickening  the  heart  and  increasing  its 
force,  probably  by  direct  action  on  the  cardiac  muscle. 
Blood-pressure  is  also  raised  to  some  extent.  With  larger 
doses  both  these  effects  are  overcome,  the  heart  being  made 
slower,  and  pressure  falling.  Respiration  is  indirectly 
stimulated,  for  by  causing  loss  of  heat,  alcohol  promotes 
quicker  breathing  to  supply  oxygen  for  compensatory  heat 
production. 

Observations  on  various  classes  of  animals  demonstrate 
that  alcohol  in  full  doses  lowers  animal  temperature.  This 
mainly  results  from  (1)  lessened  oxidation  ;  (2)  vaso-motor 
paresis  ;  and  (3)  increased  skin-circulation,  and  consequent 
increased  evolution  of  heat.  As  with  most  of  the  other 
effects  of  alcohol,  the  lowered  temperature  is  not,  however, 
of  long  duration.  Magnan  has  shown  that  puppies  lose 
3°  to  7°  Fahr.  when  alcohol  is  added  to  their  food.  '  The 
experiments  of  Binz  and  Bouvier  on  septicaemic  fever  in 
animals  gave  singular  results.  In  rabbits,  for  instance, 
after  injecting  septic  fluid,  and  inducing  a  febrile  reaction 
ranging  from  102°  to  105°  Fahr.,  about  three  drachms  of 


ALCOHOL  357 

alcohol  diluted  with  water  were  introduced  into  the  stomach 
by  means  of  a  tube  ;  fifteen  minutes  afterwards  the  tempera- 
ture was  104-1°,  in  forty-five  minutes  102'4°,  in  ninety 
minutes  100- 9°,  in  two  hours  and  a  half  100' 6°  Fahr.  The 
following  day  the  pyrexia  returned,  and  increased  till  the 
death  of  the  animal.  Very  large  doses  lower  the  tempera- 
ture as  much  as  8- 5°  Cent.,  and  if  narcosis  was  induced  before 
fever  began,  quite  prevented  its  development '  (Phillips). 
Other  experiments  also  show  that  doses  sufficient  to  cause 
unconsciousness  dangerously  reduce  temperature  of  birds 
to  the  amount  of  5°,  of  dogs  3°,  of  rabbits  10°,  and  of  man 
himself  2°  to  3°  Fahr. 

Digestion  and  nutrition,  although  injured  by  large,  are 
improved  by  small  doses.  Small  quantities  increase  both 
the  oxygen  absorption  and  the  discharge  of  carbonic  acid 
from  the  lungs,  supply  the  necessary  amount  of  energy,  and 
so  check  metabolism  of  fat,  but  increase  that  of  proteid, 
thus  increasing  secretion  of  urine.  If  alcohol  in  small  doses 
is  continued  for  a  long  period  a  tolerance  is  acquired,  proteid 
is  spared,  and  the  nitrogenous  excess  in  the  urine  ceases. 
Mere  traces  are  removed  by  the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys, 
but  by  far  the  larger  proportion  undergoes  combustion  in 
the  body,  and,  like  other  hydrocarbons,  and  especially  when 
used  with  suitable  food,  alcohol  proves  a  source  of  heat  and 
vital  energy.  Schulinus'  experiments  on  these  points  are 
conclusive,  and  have  been  repeatedly  verified.  Animals 
receiving  measured  quantities  of  alcohol,  so  soon  as  full 
effects  were  produced,  were  killed  by  bleeding  and  insufflat- 
ing air  into  the  vessels.  Fractional  distillations  of  the  blood 
and  viscera  were  made  separately,  and  repeated  investiga- 
tions have  demonstrated — (1)  that  alcohol  in  small  or 
moderate  quantity  does  not  localise  itself  in  any  particular 
organ,  such  as  the  brain  or  liver,  but  diffuses  itself  equally 
in  the  system  ;  (2)  that  only  the  blood  contains  proportion- 
ately more  than  other  tissues  ;  (3)  of  the  alcohol  taken,  the 
greater  part  is  decomposed  within  the  organism,  and  the 
amount  eliminated  by  the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys,  is  in- 
significant (Phillips).  Binz'  experiments  show  that  not 
quite  three  per  cent,  of  moderate  doses  is  excreted  un- 
changed. Alcohol  is  a  true  food,  rapidly  assimilated,  and 


358  DIETETIC   VALUE 

yielding  abundance  of  energy  at  little  cost  to  the  tissues, 
and  it  is  in  general  use  in  fevers,  although  it  is  by  no  means 
an  indispensable  remedy  (Mitchell  Bruce). 

The  dietetic  value  of  alcohol  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
controversy.  Its  consumption  in  great  part  within  the  body 
explains  how  men  and  animals  kept  on  somewhat  deficient 
diet,  on  which  weight  would  be  lost,  nevertheless  maintain 
their  weight,  when  receiving,  in  addition,  daily  small  doses 
of  alcohol.  But  for  ordinary  nutrition  it  is  a  food  which, 
although  quickly  assimilated,  is  rapidly  used  up,  and,  unless 
carefully  employed,  has  the  disadvantage  of  impairing 
oxidation  and  excretion.  For  permanent  repair  of  waste, 
and  maintenance  of  strength  during  severe  continued 
exertion,  it  cannot  compare  with  suitable  food.  This  was 
strikingly  illustrated  in  the  Ashantee  War,  when  soldiers, 
on  exhausting  marches,  who  received  rations  of  rum, 
although  temporarily  improved  in  vigour  soon  flagged  again  ; 
while  those  receiving  beef-tea  were  equally  refreshed  in  the 
first  instance,  and  did  not  experience  the  secondary  depres- 
sion which  overtook  those  who  preferred  the  alcohol. 

Different  classes  of  animals  are  somewhat  differently 
affected  by  alcohol.  Man,  whose  intellectual  centres  are 
about  eight  times  larger  than  his  motor  centres,  has  his 
intelligence  quickly  acted  on  by  doses  which  are  insufficient 
to  impair  his  motor  functions.  Amounts  corresponding  to 
0'4  to  the  1000  of  the  total  weight  of  the  body  disturb 
human  intelligence  ;  while  2*40  per  1000  of  weight  are  needed 
to  impair  motor  functions.  In  dogs  the  cerebral  are  about 
five  times  the  weight  of  the  motor  centres.  Alcohol  has 
no  notable  effect  until  1*5  to  the  1000  of  body  weight  is 
taken,  and  the  prominent  results  then  occurring  are  dis- 
turbance not  of  intelligence,  but  of  motor  function.  Horses 
and  cattle  receiving  full  doses  exhibit  excitement  and 
perversion  of  motor  function  ;  they  prance,  strike  with  the 
feet,  are  unsteady  in  their  gait,  and  drag  the  hind  limbs. 
Muscular  twitching  and  convulsions  occasionally  occur. 

Toxic  ACTIONS. — Large  doses  paralyse  the  nerve-centres 
in  the  inverse  order  of  their  development,  the  cerebral 
(judgment  and  volition)  being  first  affected,  the  respiratory 
and  cardiac  (vital  centres)  last.  Thus  alcohol  affords  an 


TOXIC   ACTIONS  359 

illustration  of  the  so-called  'law  of  dissolution.'  Its 
effects  are  generally  divided  into  four  stages — (1)  stimulant, 
(2)  narcotic,  (3)  anaesthetic,  and  (4)  paralytic.  With  ethyl- 
alcohol  these  stages  are  usually  distinctly  marked.  With 
methyl-alcohol  the  excitement  is  more  intense,  the  subse- 
quent stages  follow  more  rapidly  ;  but  if  the  doses  are  not 
lethal  the  effects  pass  off  more  quickly.  With  cenanthic  and 
caprylic,  which  are  non-fermented  alcohols,  the  stages  are 
less  regular,  and  are  marked  by  convulsions.  Ethyl  and 
methyl  alcohols  are  not  so  deadly  as  most  of  the  others. 
Their  toxic  dose  is  eight  grammes  to  the  kilogramme  of  the 
live  weight  of  the  animal.  The  toxic  dose  of  any  crude  spirit 
is  less  than  that  of  the  same  spirit  after  rectification,  and 
the  impure  spirit  produces  greater  excitement  and  heavier 
stupor. 

Large  concentrated  doses  produce  rapid  narcosis  with  a 
minimum  of  preliminary  excitement.  Hertwig  gave  an  old 
but  serviceably  sound  horse  eight  ounces  of  ethyl-alcohol  of 
specific  gravity  *825.  He  became  much  excited  and  uneasy, 
pranced,  staggered,  and  after  two  minutes  fell,  struck  out 
vehemently  with  his  feet,  rolled  his  eyes — the  pupils  at  first 
were  contracted,  but  afterwards  were  dilated.  He  rapidly 
became  insensible,  and  died  in  about  ten  minutes.  The 
heart  continued  to  beat  for  several  minutes  after  death. 
Four  to  six  ounces  produced  similar  motor  excitability,  but 
did  not  prove  fatal. 

Dogs  about  twenty  pounds  weight,  retaining  four  or  five 
ounces  of  whisky,  given  quickly,  soon  become  comatose 
without  any  appreciable  excitement,  and  die  within  a 
few  minutes.  Percy  injected  strong  alcohol  into  the 
empty  stomach  in  dogs,  and  they  almost  immediately  fell 
over  insensible  ;  respiratory  and  cardiac  movements  ceased 
within  two  minutes  ;  the  blood  was  found  charged  with 
alcohol.  Similar  sudden  fatal  paralysis  occurs  in  men 
swallowing  quickly  full  draughts  of  whisky.  Dogs  receiving 
one  to  two  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  the  oesophagus  being 
afterwards  ligatured,  become  uneasy,  endeavour  to  vomit, 
are  unable  to  control  their  movements,  become  comatose, 
and  die  in  a  quarter  to  half  an  hour.  One  to  two  drachms 
induced  in  dogs  reeling  and  stupor,  which  continued  for 


360  POISONING 

about  half  an  hour.  Harley  found  that  half  an  ounce  of 
alcohol,  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  injected  into  the 
portal  vein  of  dogs,  so  seriously  interfered  with  the  glyco- 
genic  function  of  the  liver  that  the  urine  within  three  hours 
became  diabetic. 

Cattle  and  sheep,  and  indeed  all  ruminants,  are  less 
susceptible  to  the  actions  of  alcohol  than  dogs  or  horses. 
Hertwig  mentions  that  when  brandy  is  given  to  sheep  and 
goats,  they  soon  become  fond  of  it,  taking  six  or  eight  ounces 
at  a  time  without  exhibiting  serious  symptoms. 

Chronic  poisoning  by  alcohol,  with  impaired  nervous 
power  and  fatty  degeneration,  common  in  human  patients, 
is  unknown  in  the  lower  animals. 

The  antidotes  are  tea  and  coffee,  or  the  alkaloid  caffeine, 
cold  douches,  enforced  movement,  and  other  means  of 
warding  off  the  deadly  stupor.  Strychnine  and  alcohol  are 
mutually  antagonistic,  and  hypodermic  injections  of  strych- 
nine may  be  given  if  collapse  occur. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Few  remedies  are  more  frequently  and 
extensively  used  than  the  various  alcoholic  liquids.  They 
stimulate  gastric  secretion,  and  improve  appetite  in  atonic 
indigestion  ;  they  act  as  carminatives  in  flatulence  ;  control 
the  spasms  of  intestinal  colic  ;  and  check  persistent  diarrhoea 
especially  when  they  are  conjoined  with  sodium  benzoate 
or  vegetable  astringents.  They  equalise  irregular  circula- 
tion in  chills,  and  antagonise  cardiac  feebleness,  especially 
of  a  temporary  character,  such  as  results  from  debilitating 
disease,  poisoning  by  sedatives,  snake-bite,  or  shock. 
Many  cases  of  milk  fever  in  cows,  when  stupor  is  approach- 
ing, or  even  during  the  earlier  excitable  stages,  are  benefited 
by  six  to  ten  ounces  of  whisky,  given  at  intervals  of  one  or 
two  hours. 

In  influenza  amongst  hard-worked  horses,  when  the  pulse 
is  quick  and  weak,  the  breathing  hurried  and  embarrassed, 
and  the  temperature  above  102°  Fahr.,  no  treatment  is 
more  successful  than  a  few  ounces  of  whisky,  diluted  with 
gruel  or  water,  repeated  every  two  or  three  hours  ;  a  saline 
draught  administered  thrice  daily  ;  the  body  well  clothed, 
and  mustard,  if  need  be,  applied  to  the  throat.  Many  cases 
of  bronchitis  and  pneumonia,  after  a  few  days'  illness,  and 


ALCOHOL  361 

especially  during  the  period  when  inflammatory  products 
are  being  removed,  are  benefited  by  moderate,  frequently 
repeated  doses  of  alcohol.  The  restorative  sustaining  power 
of  alcohol  in  the  second  stage  of  such  disorders  is  well  at- 
tested and  generally  conceded. 

The  antiseptic  and  antipyretic  actions  of  alcohol  are  well 
exhibited  in  septicaemia.  This  is  illustrated  by  an  experi- 
ment of  Binz,  who  produced  septic  fever  by  injection  of  pus 
in  two  young  healthy  dogs  of  equal  weight,  one  of  which, 
treated  with  three  doses  of  two  drachms  of  alcohol  intro- 
duced into  the  stomach,  shortly  recovered,  while  the  other 
which  remained  without  treatment,  died  on  the  second  day. 
His  experiments  with  rabbits,  already  quoted,  also  testify 
to  the  notable  antipyretic  effects  of  alcohol.  Not  only  does 
it  lower  high  temperature,  but  in  such  cases  it  also  helps  to 
maintain  the  failing  cardiac  action,  and  to  surmount  the 
critical  nervous  depression.  It  is  serviceable  in  horses 
fevered  and  enfeebled  with  protracted  strangles,  or  debili- 
tated by  purpura  ;  in  all  animals  suffering  from  parturition 
metritis  ;  and  in  dogs  exhausted  from  distemper  ;  as  well  as 
in  most  other  forms  of  systemic  poisoning.  During 
convalescence  from  enervating  disorders,  as  well  as  in 
chronic  cases  connected  with  mal-assimilation,  alcohol  is 
beneficial  in  all  classes  of  patients  as  a  gastric  tonic,  general 
stimulant,  and  a  readily  assimilable  food.  Anaemic  subjects 
are  frequently  treated  with  sound  ale  or  spirit  and  water, 
conjoined  with  iron  salts  and  oleaginous  food. 

The  more  important  medicinal  effects  follow  within  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  after  administration.  As  already  indicated, 
the  weak  pulse  should  become  stronger  and  firmer,  the 
quick  pulse  slower,  breathing  should  be  more  natural,  the 
skin  more  moist,  and  temperature  lower — in  a  word,  there 
should  be  remission  of  the  more  prominent  morbid  symptoms. 
If  such  favourable  effects  are  not  produced,  alcohol  is  not 
a  suitable  remedy,  or  the  dose  has  been  wrongly  estimated. 
When  unsuitable,  or  given  too  frequently,  or  in  quantity  too 
large,  whether  in  health  or  disease,  alcohol  hinders  oxida- 
tion, retards  excretion,  impairs  digestion,  and  causes  dryness 
of  skin  and  mucous  surfaces. 

Alcohol  somewhat  resembles  in  its  actions  and  uses  the 


362  ACTIONS   AND    USES 

volatile  oils,  ethers,  and  ammonia,  and  is  frequently  pre- 
scribed with  one  or  more  of  these  allied  remedies. 

EXTERNAL  USES. — In  a  state  of  concentration,  alcohol, 
rubbed  into  the  skin,  acts  as  a  rubefaeient.  Coagulating 
albumin,  it  is  occasionally  applied  to  arrest  bleeding. 
Beaten  up  with  white  of  egg,  it  is  used  in  veterinary  as  well 
as  in  human  practice  to  harden  the  epidermis  and  prevent 
excoriation  of  parts  exposed  to  pressure.  Weak  solutions, 
conjoined  with  a  half  to  one  per  cent,  of  carbolic  or  salicylic 
acid,  exert  anodyne  effects,  relieving  itching  in  erythematous 
and  other  skin  diseases.  Nettlerash  is  often  treated  with 
dilute  spirituous  solutions,  to  which  one  per  cent,  of  petro- 
leum benzene  may  be  added.  For  surgical  purposes  it  is 
employed  as  a  refrigerant  and  antiseptic.  As  a  stimulant 
and  refrigerant  for  bruises,  wounds,  and  strains,  it  is  popu- 
larly used  throughout  Scotland  in  the  familiar  form  of 
whisky  and  water.  A  cooling  lotion  is  made  with  an  ounce 
each  of  rectified  spirit,  vinegar,  and  ammonium  chloride, 
dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water.  As  a  refrigerant,  ice,  how- 
ever, is  generally  more  convenient  and  effectual.  A 
convenient  solvent  for  the  active  principles  of  many  drugs, 
alcohol  is  largely  used  for  making  tinctures  and  extracts. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  rectified  spirit,  horses  and  cattle,  f  §i.  to 
giv.  ;  sheep,  fgj.  ;  pigs,  f3iv.  ;  and  dogs,  f3Jj.  or  more, 
diluted  with  six  or  eight  parts  of  water  or  other  bland  fluid. 
Whisky,  gin,  or  brandy,  in  larger  doses  may  be  substituted 
for  rectified  spirit ;  sherry,  port,  ale,  or  stout  may  be  given 
during  convalescence.  The  suitable  doses  and  the  fre- 
quency of  their  repetition  are  mainly  determined  by  the 
condition  of  the  patient,  and  the  purpose  intended  to  be 
served.  Alcohol  acts  promptly,  but  its  effects  are  transient. 
It  is  less  apt  to  excite  or  disagree  when  given  with  the  food 
or  drinking  water.  Mixed  with  oatmeal  or  linseed  gruel, 
there  is  little  risk  of  misappropriation. 

To  intensify  one  or  another  of  the  effects  of  alcohol,  it  is 
often  conjoined  with  other  medicines — with  ether  or  am- 
monia, when  more  prompt  and  powerful  stimulation  is 
desired  ;  with  opium  or  chloral  hydrate,  when  anodyne 
effects  are  required,  or  spasms  are  to  be  combated  ;  with 
digitalis,  when  the  full  effects  of  a  cardiac  tonic  and  stimu- 


ETHER  363 

lant  are  sought ;  with  ammonium  acetate,  when  diaphoresis 
is  to  be  encouraged  ;  with  red  cinchona,  creosote,  or  sodium 
benzoate,  when  antiseptic  and  astringent  effects  are  to  be 
produced  in  the  intestine. 


ETHER 

A  volatile  liquid,  prepared  from  ethylic  alcohol, 
by  interaction  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  containing  not 
less  than  92  per  cent,  by  volume  of  ethyl  oxide. 
(C2H5)20.  Formerly  termed  sulphuric  ether.  (B.P.) 

Ether  is  prepared  by  heating  in  a  glass  flask,  connected 
with  a  Liebig's  condenser,  one  part  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
five  of  rectified  spirit,  which  is  added  gradually.  Every 
alcohol,  by  substitution  of  an  alcohol  radicle  for  the  H.  in 
the  hydroxyl  (OH),  forms  a  corresponding  ether.  Thus, 
ethyl-alcohol  (C2H5.OH)  yields  C2H5.O.C2H5. 

The  B.P.  ether  (ethyl-ether)  contains  about  eight  per  cent, 
of  alcohol  and  water  ;  is  a  colourless,  very  volatile,  inflam- 
mable liquid,  with  a  strong  and  characteristic  odour. 
Specific  gravity,  0'735.  It  should  boil  below  105°  Fahr.  ; 
yields  a  vapour  two  and  a  half  times  heavier  than  air,  but 
half  that  of  chloroform  ;  is  miscible  in  all  proportions  with 
chloroform  and  alcohol  (90  per  cent.)  ;  and  is  soluble  in 
ten  volumes  of  water.  It  readily  dissolves  fats,  volatile 
oils,  balsams,  resins,  and,  next  after  chloroform,  is  the  best 
solvent  for  alkaloids. 

Purified  ether  is  ether  from  which  most  of  the  ethylic 
alcohol  and  water  have  been  removed  by  washing  with 
distilled  water,  and  subsequent  distillation  in  the  presence 
of  calcium  chloride  and  recently  calcined  lime.  Specific 
gravity  not  below  '120,  and  not  exceeding  '122. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Ether  is  an  active  member  of  the 
alcohol  series.  It  is  exceedingly  volatile.  Applied  ex- 
ternally it  is  irritant,  refrigerant,  and  a  local  anaesthetic. 
Given  internally,  it  is  quickly  absorbed  ;  acts  specially  on 
the  central  nervous  system  ;  primarily,  and  in  small  doses, 
stimulating  ;  secondarily,  and  in  larger  doses,  paralysing, 
and  when  inhaled  producing  anaesthesia.  Poisonous  doses 


364  ETHER 

almost  immediately  cause  inebriant  narcosis,  and  kill  by 
paralysis  of  respiration.  It  is  prescribed  as  a  general 
stimulant,  carminative,  and  antispasmodic,  and  is  also 
expectorant,  diaphoretic,  diuretic,  antiseptic,  and  para- 
siticide. Next  to  chloroform  it  is  the  most  generally  used 
anaesthetic. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Applied  to  the  skin,  ether  evaporates 
and  abstracts  heat.  If  evaporation  be  prevented,  redness, 
irritation,  and  even  desquamation  occur.  Continued  or 
repeated  application  produces  local  anaesthesia,  which,  if 
maintained  too  long,  may  kill  the  frozen  part,  and  form  a 
slough.  .  Swallowed  in  medicinal  doses,  it  irritates  and  so 
reflexly  stimulates  the  mucous  surfaces  of  the  mouth  and 
alimentary  canal,  increasing  secretions  and  movements,  and 
hence  developing  sialogogue,  carminative,  and  antispas- 
modic actions.  But  full  doses,  especially  if  undiluted,  are 
so  rapidly  vaporised  and  so  irritant  that  they  cause  gastro- 
intestinal distension  and  nausea,  occasionally  with  vomiting 
in  carnivora,  and  in  dogs  and  rabbits  have  produced  rupture 
of  the  stomach.  Ether  is  quickly  absorbed  from  the  in- 
testines, and  still  more  rapidly  when  introduced  by  inhala- 
tion into  the  lungs,  and  promptly  acts  upon  the  central 
nervous  system.  Small  doses  stimulate  ;  larger  doses,  after 
brief  stimulation,  paralyse  and  anaesthetise  the  centres, 
first  of  the  brain,  next  those  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  eventu- 
ally those  of  the  medulla,  killing  by  respiratory  arrest. 
The  glycogenic  functions  of  the  liver  are  said  to  be  stimu- 
lated, rendering  the  animal  temporarily  diabetic.  It  is 
removed  almost  solely  by  the  lungs. 

General  anaesthesia  can  be  induced  in  the  horse  by 
administration  of  ether  by  the  rectum,  but  is  produced 
more  readily  by  inhalation.  Anaesthesia  by  ether  is  pro- 
duced more  quickly  in  cats  than  in  dogs  or  horses,  which  are 
generally  made  insensible  in  eight  or  ten  minutes.  A 
donkey  is  stated  to  have  been  fully  affected  in  four  minutes, 
another  in  five  minutes,  and  a  third  in  three  minutes  and 
a  half,  the  last  remaining  insensible  to  pain  for  about  half 
an  hour.  The  effects  may  be  safely  maintained  for  as  long 
as  may  be  necessary. 

Compared  with  chloroform,  ether  has  the  disadvantage 


A   DIFFUSIBLE    STIMULANT   AND    ANAESTHETIC      365 

of  having  a  more  disagreeable  taste.  As  it  has  to  be  given 
in  more  concentrated  state,  it  is  also  more  irritant.  Larger 
doses  have  to  be  used.  Its  vapour  is  dangerously  in- 
flammable. On  account  of  its  extreme  volatility  it  cannot 
be  used  in  hot  climates.  It  is,  however,  less  liable  to  para- 
lyse the  heart  or  vaso-motor  centre.  Ether  and  chloroform 
may  be  used  together,  or  the  anaesthesia  produced  by 
chloroform  may  be  maintained  by  ether.  But  experiments 
show  that  respiration  and  heart  action  are  more  quickly 
arrested  when  ether  is  first  given,  and  anaesthesia  sub- 
sequently carried  on  by  chloroform,  than  when  chloroform 
alone  is  used.  Ether  is  preferable  when  heart  action  is 
feeble,  when  anaesthesia  has  to  be  kept  up  for  a  considerable 
period,  when  operations  likely  to  be  attended  with  collapse 
are  undertaken  in  pregnant  animals,  and  in  those  dogs 
which  are  thought  for  any  reason  to  be  specially  liable  to 
cardiac  failure  during  chloroform  anaesthesia. 

Ether  resembles  most  of  the  bodies  of  the  alcohol  series. 
Like  alcohol,  it  has  a  twofold  stimulant  and  paralysant 
action  ;  but  it  acts  more  promptly,  its  effects  pass  away 
more  quickly,  and,  in  virtue  of  its  volatility,  it  is  markedly 
anaesthetic.  It  stimulates  more  powerfully  than  ethyl- 
acetate  or  spirit  of  nitrous  ether,  neither  of  which  is  used 
as  an  anaesthetic.  Its  stimulant  properties  are  somewhat 
similar  to  those  possessed  by  turpentine  and  the  other 
volatile  oils. 

MEDICINAL  USES.— Ether,  diluted  with  a  little  spirit  and 
water,  is  a  prompt  and  effectual  carminative  in  indigestion 
in  all  animals.  It  checks  undue  gastric  fermentation, 
expels  flatus,  and  overcomes  irregular,  violent,  gastro- 
intestinal movements.  In  colic  in  horses  this  antispas- 
modie  action  is  frequently  aided  by  conjoining  the  stimulant 
with  such  anodynes  as  opium,  Indian  hemp,  and  belladonna. 
Horses  with  gastric  distension  are  frequently  roused  and 
the  action  of  the  bowels  is  promoted  by  ether,  which,  in 
urgent  cases,  may  be  hypodermically  injected.  It  is  some- 
times given  for  the  expulsion  of  intestinal  worms,  and 
especially  of  ascarides,  which,  when  in  the  rectum,  are 
readily  dislodged  by  enemata  of  diluted  ether.  Such 
enemata  also  relieve  spasmodic  affections  of  the  intestines. 


366  ETHER 

As  a  prompt  and  powerful  diffusible  stimulant  ether  is 
useful  in  collapse,  whether  caused  by  shock,  haemorrhage,  or 
exhausting  disease.  With  alcohol,  it  is  used  in  par- 
turient apoplexy  in  cows,  and  in  such  cases,  when  the 
patient  is  unable  to  swallow,  it  is  advantageously  given 
hypodermically.  Chills  and  rigors  which  usher  in  many 
attacks  of  disease,  are  sometimes  checked  by  a  dose  or 
two  of  ether.  It  equalises  irregular  circulation,  restores 
imperfect  action  of  the  skin  and  kidneys,  and  gives  tone  to 
the  enfeebled  heart.  Hard- worked  horses,  especially  in 
towns,  prostrated  by  catarrhal  fever,  are  thus  benefited, 
even  from  the  outset  of  the  attack,  by  ether,  given  with 
alcohol  and  salines.  In  convalescence  from  inflammatory 
and  exhausting  diseases  in  all  classes  of  patients,  conjoined 
frequently  with  aromatics  and  bitters,  it  improves  the 
appetite,  strengthens  the  feeble  pulse,  and  sometimes 
allays  cough. 

As  a  stimulant  it  may  be  safely  prescribed  repeatedly 
wherever  it  reduces  the  number  and  increases  the  strength 
of  the  pulse,  lowers  excessive  temperature,  and  promotes 
secretion.  It  should  be  avoided  where  there  is  much  vas- 
cular excitement  and  inflammatory  fever.  As  ether  taints 
the  carcase  and  spots  the  flesh  its  employment  as  a  medicine 
for  cattle  should  be  guarded. 

As  an  anaesthetic  it  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
chloroform,  and  is  administered  in  the  same  manner  and 
with  similar  precautions. 

Local  anaesthesia  is  usually  induced  by  applying  the 
ether  from  a  spray  producer.  For  this  purpose  the  ether 
must  be  tolerably  pure,  for  water,  if  present,  gets  frozen 
and  blocks  the  instrument.  About  an  ounce  usually  suffices 
for  the  painless  opening  of  abscesses  and  fistulse,  or  for 
tenotomy.  The  effects,  however,  are  more  superficial  and 
transient  than  those  of  cocaine,  and  are  more  apt  to  be 
followed  by  irritation  and  reaction,  which  retard  healing 
of  surgical  or  other  wounds.  A  minor  degree  of  local 
anaesthesia  sometimes  allays  neuralgic  pains  and  those  of 
toothache  and  earache. 

DOSES,  etc. — The  B.P.  ethyl-ether,  containing  eight  per 
cent,  of  alcohol  and  water,  is  generally  used  for  medicinal 


DOSES    AND    MEDICINAL    FORMS  367 

purposes  ;  but  good  methyl-ether,  on  account  of  its  cheap- 
ness, is  sometimes  substituted.  As  a  stimulant  horses  take 
f  §i.  to  f  §ii.  ;  cattle,  f  §ii.  to  f  §iii.  ;  sheep  and  pigs,  f  3ii-  to 
f  3iv. ;  dogs,  f  3ss.  to  f  3i-  It  is  administered  in  ten  parts 
cold  water  or  diluted  spirit,  is  sometimes  sweetened  with 
sugar  or  treacle,  or  flavoured  with  aromatics.  Combination 
with  opium,  Indian  hemp,  or  belladonna,  increases  its  anti- 
spasmodic  and  anodyne  effects.  Where  immediate  results 
are  required,  as  in  violent  attacks  of  colic,  or  in  collapse, 
two  to  four  drachms  are  injected  hypodermically,  or  deeply 
into  muscles. 

As  an  anaesthetic,  ether  made  from  ethyl-alcohol  is  gener- 
ally preferred.  The  larger  animals  take  f§iii.  to  fgviii.  : 
the  smaller,  f  3iv.  to  f  §i. 

SPIRIT  OF  ETHER,  or  spiritus  aetheris,  is  a  mixture  of  ten 
ounces  ether  and  twenty  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  and  is 
used  as  a  stimulant  and  antispasmodic. 

ETHEREAL  OIL,  oleum  aethereum,  or  oil  of  wine,  produced 
towards  the  close  of  the  distillation  of  ether,  is  an  oily, 
yellow,  neutral  liquid,  containing  ether  mixed  with  various 
hydrocarbons,  has  a  bitter  taste  and  aromatic  odour,  is 
soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol,  and  possessed  of  anodyne  and 
hypnotic  properties. 

SPIRITUS  ^THERIS  COMPOSITUS,  or  Hoffmann's  anodyne, 
consists  of  oil  of  wine,  ether,  and  alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 

ACETIC  ETHER,  or  ethyl-acetate  (C2H5.C2H302),  is  prepared 
by  distilling  rectified  spirit  with  sodium  acetate  and  sulphuric 
acid.  It  is  a  colourless,  neutral  liquid,  with  a  fragrant 
odour.  Freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  or  chloroform. 
Specific  gravity  *900  to  *905.  Its  actions  nearly  resemble 
those  of  ether.  It  is  used  as  a  stimulant,  carminative,  and 
antispasmodic,  but  is  unsuitable  as  an  anaesthetic. 

CONTRACTILE  COLLODION  is  prepared  by  mixing  one  part  of 
gun-cotton  with  thirty-six  of  ether  and  twelve  of  rectified 
spirit.  The  solution,  preserved  in  well-corked  bottles,  is 
clear,  colourless,  inflammable,  evolves  a  strong  ethereal 
odour,  and  on  exposure  to  the  air,  dries  rapidly,  leaving  a 
thin  transparent  film,  insoluble  in  water  or  spirit.  It  is 
hence  a  useful  substitute  for  sticking-plaster  ;  repeated 
applications  are  laid  on  with  a  fine  brush  at  intervals  of  a 


368  SPIRIT    OF   NITROUS    ETHER 

few  seconds,  and  produce  a  protective  covering,  holding 
together  the  edges  of  slight  wounds.  Flexible  collodion 
adheres  still  more  firmly,  gives  support  without  splitting  or 
cracking  ;  is  made  by  mixing  forty-eight  parts  of  collodion, 
two  parts  Canada  balsam,  and  one  part  castor  oil,  and  is 
kept  in  well-corked  bottles.  A  styptic,  antiseptic  protective 
is  made  by  thoroughly  mixing  with  one  hundred  parts  of 
collodion,  five  parts  each  of  tannic  and  benzoic  acids,  and 
ten  of  carbolic  acid.  As  a  stimulating,  antiseptic  protective 
for  abraded  skin  or  mucous  surfaces,  and  notably  for  sore 
teats  in  cows  and  ewes,  one  hundred  parts  of  collodion  are 
mixed  with  two  of  glycerin  and  one  of  carbolic  acid.  One 
part  of  iodoform  or  chinosol  mixed  with  ten  parts  of  col- 
lodion, has  been  strongly  recommended  as  a  protective 
adhesive  for  small  wounds.  Collodion  is  occasionally  used 
for  coating  boluses. 


SPIRIT  OP  NITROUS  ETHER 

SPIRITUS  ^ETHERIS  NITROSI.  Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre.  An 
alcoholic  solution  of  ethereal  compounds  containing 
ethyl  nitrite,  aldehyde,  and  other  substances.  (B.P.) 
An  alcoholic  solution  of  ethyl  nitrite  (C2H5.N02), 
containing  five  per  cent,  of  the  crude  ether.  (U.S.P.) 

Liquor  ethyl  nitritis.  Solution  of  ethyl  nitrite.  A 
mixture  of  ninety-five  parts,  by  volume,  of  absolute  alcohol, 
with  five  parts,  by  volume,  of  glycerin,  containing,  when 
freshly  made,  3  per  cent.,  by  weight,  of  ethyl  nitrite  (B.P.). 

When  rectified  spirit,  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  with 
various  practical  safeguards,  are  heated  with  copper  wire, 
the  nitric  acid  radicle  (N03)  is  deoxidised  by  the  copper  ; 
the  resulting  nitric  peroxide  or  nitrous  acid  radicle  (N02) 
displaces  the  hydroxyl  in  the  alcohol  (C2H5.OH),  and 
there  is  formed  ethyl  nitrite  (C2H5.N02),  which  distils  over 
with  a  portion  of  the  alcohol.  This  saline  ether,  when 
diluted  with  about  three  times  its  bulk  of  rectified  spirit, 
constitutes  sweet  spirit  of  nitre.  As  usually  prepared,  it  is 
unstable,  and  readily  loses  strength,  but  the  B.P.  solution 
of  ethyl  nitrite  keeps  well,  and  is  easily  prepared.  Spirit 


MEDICINAL    USES  369 

of  nitrous  ether  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  and 
in  small  bottles. 

PROPERTIES  AND  TESTS. — Sweet  spirit  of  nitre  is  a  limpid 
liquid  with  a  very  slight  yellow  tinge ;  it  is  inflammable, 
has  a  peculiar,  penetrating,  apple-like  odour,  and  a  sweetish, 
cooling,  sharp  taste.  Specific  gravity  '838  to  '842.  It 
should  not  effervesce,  or  only  feebly,  when  shaken  with 
sodium  bicarbonate.  A  good,  freshly-prepared  specimen 
should  yield  seven  volumes  of  nitric  oxide  gas,  and,  even 
when  kept,  should  yield  not  less  than  five  times  its  volume. 
It  should  contain  between  2|  and  If  per  cent,  of  ethyl  nitrite. 
Many  veterinarians  obtain  from  the  wholesale  chemist 
nitrous  ether  of  guaranteed  strength,  and  dilute  it,  as  required, 
with  spirit  of  such  sort  and  strength  as  they  desire. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Sweet  spirit  of  nitre  conjoins  the 
actions  of  the  alcohol  and  ethyl  nitrite  of  which  it  consists. 
It  is  hence  a  general  stimulant,  and  a  relaxer  and  paralyser 
of  non-striped  muscle.  It  relieves  acute  fever,  and  the 
difficult  breathing  of  bronchitis  and  asthma.  It  is  anti- 
spasmodic,  diaphoretic,  and  diuretic.  Large  doses  are 
narcotic. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Consisting  of  an  irritant-alcohol  and  a 
vaso-dilator,  ethyl  nitrite,  when  swallowed  it  stimulates  the 
circulation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines ;  is  hence  stomachic, 
carminative,  and  antispasmodic,  and  is  prescribed  to  animals 
in  indigestion,  tympanites,  and  colic.  It  is  quickly  absorbed, 
and,  on  account  of  its  contained  alcohol,  proves  a  valuable 
cardiac  and  general  stimulant,  serviceable  in  cases  of  prostra- 
tion and  convalescence  from  debilitating  disorders.  But  its 
properties  as  a  diffusible  nitrite,  relaxing  spasm  of  involun- 
tary muscles,  also  come  into  operation.  It  dilates  arterioles, 
thus  decreases  arterial  tension,  and  hence  is  of  special  value 
in  the  acute  stages  of  fever,  whether  depending  upon  specific 
conditions  or  local  inflammation  where  the  heart  is  over- 
burdened. It  relaxes  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  bronchial 
tubes,  and  thus  relieves  the  .spasmodic  contraction  and 
difficulty  of  breathing  which  characterise  catarrh,  bronchitis, 
and  some  forms  of  asthma.  It  is  specially  indicated  when 
there  is  difficulty  of  breathing,  as  in  influenza  of  horses. 
During  excretion,  notably  by  the  skin  and  kidneys,  its 

2A 


370  SPIRIT    OF   NITROUS    ETHER 

twofold  constitution  is  further  useful — the  alcohol  stimu- 
lates secretion,  while  the  ethyl  nitrite  dilates  the  lumen  of 
contracted  vessels,  and  thus  diaphoresis  and  diuresis  are 
promoted  in  fevers,  local  inflammations,  rheumatism,  and 
other  disorders. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  a  stimulant  and  antispasmodic  horses 
take  fgj.  to  fgiij.  ;  cattle,  fgj.  to  f§iv.  ;  sheep,  f3ij.  to 
f3iv. ;  pigs,  f3J.  to  f3ij- ;  dogs,  Tf\xv.  to  f3J-  The  special 
action  depending  on  the  costly  nitrous  ether,  its  percentage 
should  be  guaranteed  in  all  purchases,  and  the  drug  should 
be  preserved  in  properly  stoppered  bottles.  As  it  is  readily 
decomposed,  even  by  water,  it  should  be  diluted  or  mixed 
with  other  medicines  only  immediately  before  it  is  admin- 
istered. It  is  usually  given  in  cold  water,  beer,  or  linseed 
tea. 

For  antispasmodic  purposes,  it  is  conjoined  with  opium, 
belladonna,  hyoscyamus,  or  chloral  hydrate.  For  colic  in 
horses,  two  to  four  ounces  are  given  with  two  or  three 
drachms  of  aloes,  one  to  two  ounces  of  laudanum  in  cer- 
tain cases  being  added,  and  the  whole  dissolved  in  a  pint 
of  cold  gruel,  ale,  or  water.  Two  to  four  ounces  of  the  spirit, 
with  about  half  the  dose  of  laudanum,  repeated  every  hour, 
counteract  the  spasmodic  pains  which  occasionally  follow 
parturition.  As  a  general  stimulant,  and  for  relieving 
dyspnoea  in  inflammation  of  the  respiratory  passages,  and 
in  catarrhal  fever  in  horses,  two  ounces  each  of  sweet  spirit 
of  nitre  and  ammonium  acetate  solution  are  conjoined  with 
a  drachm  of  belladonna  extract.  The  good  effects  are 
sometimes  maintained  by  repeating  the  draught  at  intervals 
of  two  or  three  hours.  To  combat  serous  exudation  in  horses 
or  cattle,  two  or  three  ounces  of  spirit  of  nitrous  ether 
are  usefully  conjoined  with  half  a  drachm  each  of  iodine 
and  potassium  iodide.  Diuresis  is  determined  by  combina- 
tion with  nitre  or  oil  of  turpentine.  Diaphoresis  is  developed 
when  the  patient  is  kept  well  clothed  in  tolerably  warm 
quarters,  and  the  medicine  given  in  small  and  frequently 
repeated  doses. 

For  dogs  with  catarrh,  sore-throat,  or  distemper,  a 
soothing  mixture  is  made  with  two  ounces  spirit  of  nitrous 
ether,  an  ounce  spirit  of  camphor,  and  one  ounce  of  liquid 


CHLOROFORM  371 

extract  of  glycyrrhiza  and  two  ounces  of  water,  the  dose 
ranging,  according  to  the  size  and  condition  of  the  patient, 
from  two  to  four  fluid  drachms. 


CHLOROFORM 

CHLOROFORMUM,  or  Trichloromethane,  CHC13,  to  which  has 
been  added  sufficient  absolute  alcohol  to  produce  a 
liquid  having  a  specific  gravity  not  less  than  1'490,  and 
not  more  than  1*495.  Trichloromethane  may  be  pre- 
pared by  distilling  together  ethylic  alcohol,  chlorinated 
lime,  slaked  lime  and  distilled  water  (B.P.). 

Chloroform  was  discovered  in  1832,  about  the  same  time, 
by  Soubeiran  and  Liebig  ;  its  effects  on  the  lower  animals 
were  described  by  Dr.  Glover  in  1842;  while  its  valuable 
anaesthetic  properties  were  first  discovered  and  applied  by 
the  late  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson  in  1847.  Since  then  it  has 
been  largely  and  successfully  used  for  the  alleviation  of 
human  and  animal  suffering  during  surgical  operations, 
parturition,  and  various  diseases. 

PROPERTIES. — Chloroform  is  a  limpid,  colourless,  neutral, 
pungent  fluid,  with  a  sweet  taste,  and  a  characteristic  odour. 
At  ordinary  temperatures  it  entirely  volatilises.  It  is 
slowly  decomposed  by  sunlight,  and  hence  must  be  kept 
in  the  dark.  Its  vapour  is  four  times  heavier  than  air. 
It  should  boil  between  140°  and  143°  Fahr.  Though  not 
spontaneously  inflammable,  it  can  be  burned  round  a  wick 
saturated  with  alcohol,  forms  a  green,  sooty  flame,  and 
evolves  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  soluble  in  two  hundred 
parts  of  water,  and  in  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  ether,  oil  of 
turpentine,  olive  oil,  and  carbon  bisulphide  ;  insoluble  in 
glycerin.  It  readily  dissolves  iodine,  bromine,  volatile 
oils,  wax,  resin,  and  many  organic  active  principles. 

IMPURITIES. — Chloroform  carelessly  prepared  or  im- 
perfectly purified  contains  volatile  organic  oils,  which,  if 
inhaled,  induce  nausea  and  headache.  Such  specimens 
have  an  unpleasant,  pungent  odour  when  evaporated  from 
the  back  of  the  hand,  and  are  blackened  by  agitation  with 
sulphuric  acid.  Samples  containing  more  than  the  one  per 


372  CHLOROFORM 

cent,  of  alcohol  authorised  to  check  decomposition  have 
their  specific  gravity  proportionally  lowered,  lose  bulk, 
notably  when  shaken  with  water,  and  moreover  become 
cloudy  at  temperatures  approaching  32°  Fahr.  Traces  of 
sulphuric  acid  are  discovered  by  the  usual  barium  chloride 
test ;  chlorine  and  hydrochloric  acid  by  silver  nitrate.  The 
purity  of  chloroform  is  also  judged  by  its  odour  when  evapor- 
ated, its  behaviour  when  agitated  with  sulphuric  acid,  its 
reaction  with  litmus,  and  its  specific  gravity,  which  is 
lowered  by  the  ordinary  adulterations. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Chloroform  precipitates  albumin,  and 
is  a  topical  irritant.  It  is  antiseptic,  and  destroys  the  lower 
forms  of  plant  and  animal  life,  and  hence  is  parasiticide. 
Small  to  moderate  doses,  swallowed  or  otherwise  absorbed, 
produce  slight  and  temporary  irritation  and  stimulation, 
and  hence  are  carminative  and  antispasmodic.  Full  doses 
quickly  and  powerfully  paralyse  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous 
system,  causing  muscular  relaxation,  insensibility  to  pain, 
and  unconsciousness.  It  kills  by  respiratory  and  cardiac 
arrest.  The  paralysant  and  anaesthetic  effects  are  most 
rapidly  induced  when  the  drug  is  inhaled.  Chloroform  is 
the  anaesthetic  most  used  in  this  country,  alike  for  human 
and  veterinary  patients.  Applied  topically,  it  is  rube- 
facient,  refrigerant,  anodyne,  and  a  local  anaesthetic. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS.— Chloroform  is  allied  chemically  and 
physiologically  to  alcohol,  ether,  and  other  bodies  of  the 
alcohol  series.  It  dissolves  the  essential  constituent  of 
nerve-centres,  nerves,  and  red  blood  corpuscles,  and  retards 
oxidation  of  blood.  Applied  to  the  skin,  it  evaporates, 
causing  a  sensation  of  cold  ;  but  if  evaporation  be  pre- 
vented, it  irritates.  Hence,  when  swallowed,  it  stimulates 
the  flow  of  saliva,  excites  gastric  secretion,  in  men  and 
dogs  occasionally  causing  emesis,  and  develops  carminative 
and  antispasmodic  actions.  By  whatever  channel  it  is 
absorbed,  it  acts  on  the  nerve-centres  somewhat  in  the  same 
manner  as  alcohol,  but  its  stimulant  action  is  slight  and 
brief.  When  the  vapour  is  inhaled  anaesthesia  is  quickly 
produced.  Its  effects  are  divisible  into  four  stages — 1. 
Stimulant ;  2.  Narcotic  ;  3.  Anaesthetic  ;  4.  Paralytic. 

The  vapour  inhaled  first  stimulates  and  subsequently 


ANAESTHESIA  373 

paralyses  the  parts  with  which  it  comes  into  contact. 
Acting  as  an  irritant  on  the  nasal  and  laryngeal  mucous 
membrane,  it  first  slows  the  breathing,  and  also  reflexly 
the  pulse,  often  causing  coughing  at  the  same  time.  The 
fear  and  excitement  caused  by  the  restraint  and  administra- 
tion induce  irregularity  and  quickening  of  respiration,  and 
usually  also  of  the  circulation.  If  given  slowly  narcosis 
gradually  supervenes,  the  muscles  relax,  reflexes  are  lost, 
and  there  is  a  fall  of  blood-pressure,  but  the  respiratory 
movements  are  sustained  steadily,  as  in  the  third  stage  of 
anaesthesia.  Still  fuller  effects  paralyse  the  medullary 
centres,  respiration  becomes  slower  and  feebler,  and  stops, 
while  pulsation  and  blood-pressure  are  lowered.  '  The 
nervous  system,'  Sir  Lauder  Brunton  states,  '  is  paralysed 
in  the  following  order — first,  the  cerebral  hemispheres  ; 
next,  the  grey  matter  of  the  cord  ;  next,  the  white  matter  ; 
next,  the  reflex  power  of  the  medulla  oblongata  ;  next, 
the  automatic  power  of  the  respiratory  centre  ;  and  lastly, 
the  cardiac  ganglia.' 

Medical  men  and  veterinarians  generally  concur  in  the 
belief  that  chloroform  is  the  most  convenient  and  effectual 
anaesthetic,  and  these  conclusions  have  been  fully  justified 
by  two  series  of  investigations  carried  out  at  Hyderabad 
in  1888  and  1889,  and  comprising  upwards  of  seven  hundred 
experiments,  chiefly  on  dogs  and  monkeys,  but  also  on 
horses,  goats,  and  rabbits.  Chloroform  was  the  anaesthetic 
chiefly  used,  but  ether  and  mixtures  of  chloroform  and 
ether  were  also  given.  Careful  records  of  every  experiment 
were  made,  and  tracings  of  the  pulse  and  blood-pressure, 
registered  by  a  manometer,  have  been  reproduced  by 
photography.  The  experiments  were  undertaken  to  make 
clear  the  manner  in  which  chloroform  acts,  and  especially 
to  determine  how  overdoses  kill.  With  these  objects,  the 
chloroform  was  administered  in  many  different  ways,  and 
under  very  various  conditions.  Some  of  the  animals  were 
fasted  for  twenty-four  hours  ;  others  were  fed  with  flesh 
or  farinacea  ;  some  had  coffee,  wine,  or  other  stimulants 
shortly  before  inhalation ;  most  were  healthy,  a  few 
had  cardiac  disease,  and  some  had  fatty  degeneration 
of  the  heart,  purposely  produced  by  administration  of 


374  CHLOROFORM 

phosphorus.  Morphine,  strychnine,  and  atropine,  singly 
and  in  combination,  were  administered  subcutaneously  to 
various  subjects  before  the  chloroform  was  inhaled.  The 
drug  was  given  with  and  without  an  inhaler,  and  in 
almost  every  conceivable  way. 

Notwithstanding  these  different  conditions,  the  train  of 
effects  followed  in  regular  order.  Preliminary  excitement, 
with  more  or  less  struggling,  occupied  from  one  to  two 
minutes,  but  gradually  gave  place  to  increasing  insensi- 
bility, unconsciousness,  and  muscular  relaxation.  Fuller 
anaesthesia,  suitable  for  the  performance  of  operations,  was 
reached  in  two  or  three  minutes  from  the  beginning  of  in- 
halation, breathing  became  quiet  and  regular,  blood-pressure 
was  slightly  lowered,  and  reflex  actions  were  impaired  and 
abolished.  When  the  effects  were  further  pushed,  respira- 
tion ceased  in  six  or  seven  minutes  from  the  commencement 
of  the  experiment.  About  one  and  a  third  minutes  later, 
the  pulse,  after  being  greatly  quickened,  ceased  ;  while 
two  or  three  minutes  later  the  heart  itself  stopped.  In  no 
case  did  the  heart  stop  before  the  breathing.  Even  when 
poisonous  doses  were  used,  two  to  six  minutes  elapsed 
between  the  time  that  respiration  ceased  and  the  heart 
stopped.  A  somewhat  shorter  interval  occurred,  however, 
— in  two  cases,  in  which  the  inhalation  was  very  slow  and 
prolonged  ;  in  four  cases,  complicated  with  asphyxia  ;  and 
in  ten  cases,  in  which  morphine,  atropine,  or  strychnine 
had  been  previously  injected  subcutaneously  ;  but  even  in 
these  sixteen  cases  the  heart  continued  to  beat  for  one 
minute  after  respiration  ceased.  Even  in  those  animals 
debilitated  by  twenty-four  hours'  fasting,  by  blood-letting, 
or  by  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  caused  by  phosphorus, 
the  pulse  and  heart  continued  to  beat  after  respiration 
ceased.  Neither  serious  surgical  operations  nor  bruising 
of  delicate  parts  during  full  anaesthesia,  or  even  while  the 
animal  was  partially  conscious,  produced  syncope  or  notable 
direct  action  on  the  heart. 

These  experiments  testify  that  chloroform  may  be  admin- 
istered to  animals  with  perfect  safety,  provided  there  is  no 
interference  with  breathing.  They  further  indicate  that  the 
large  proportion,  if  not  all,  the  fatalities  from  chloroform 


INHALATION  375 

result  from  asphyxia,  depending  upon  some  fault  in  its 
administration.  As  Sir  Lauder  Brunton  has  aptly  observed, 
suffocation  and  anaesthesia  are  a  deadly  combination. 
There  is  one  effect  of  chloroform,  not  recognised  by  the 
Commission,  which  may  be  dangerous  and  even  cause 
death.  If  concentrated  vapour  is  given  early  during  the 
administration  the  vagus  centre  in  the  medulla  is  so  stimu- 
lated and  excited  that  inhibition  of  the  heart  may  result. 
That  such  is  the  cause  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it  cannot 
be  produced  if  the  vagi  are  cut,  and  further,  a  dose  of  atro- 
pine  given  beforehand  paralyses  the  vagus  endings  in  the 
heart,  and  so  prevents  any  inhibition.  Schafer  has  sug- 
gested the  use  of  atropine  as  a  routine  measure  in  chloro- 
form administration,  but  the  better  method  is  to  give  the 
drug  slowly.  Dangerous  restriction  of  air  may  result  from 
the  inhaling  apparatus  unduly  closing  the  nostrils.  Ingress 
of  air  may  be  arrested  by  pressure  on  the  neck  or  chest, 
by  the  animal  being  placed  in  an  awkward  position,  by  the 
tongue  dropping  on  to  the  larynx,  or  by  vomited  food 
entering  the  windpipe.  In  forcibly  restraining  the  early 
struggling,  breathing  is  sometimes  interfered  with,  and  the 
deep  inspirations  which  usually  subsequently  occur  will 
convey  into  the  lungs  and  distribute  to  the  nerve  centres 
unduly  large  quantities  of  the  anaesthetic  vapour.  The 
experienced  practitioner  is  always  specially  watchful  of 
cases  in  which  there  is  much  struggling  ;  he  pushes  the 
administration  as  rapidly  as  is  safe,  in  order  quickly  to 
produce  perfect  anaesthesia,'  but  so  soon  as  this  is  effected 
he  allows  several  full  draughts  of  air.  At  this  stage  the 
napkin,  nose-bag,  or  inhaler  may  be  removed,  for  so  soon 
as  full  anaesthesia  is  produced,  the  insensibility  is  readily 
maintained  by  small  quantities  of  the  drug,  given  occa- 
sionally. 

The  further  precautions  mainly  consist  in  the  chloro- 
formist  bestowing  undivided  attention  on  two  points  : — (1) 
He  must  watch  the  breathing,  in  order  that  the  patient's 
safety  shall  be  maintained  by  fresh  air  entering  the  lungs, 
thus  preventing  any  dangerous  accumulation  of  the  drug, 
and  the  arrest  of  natural  respiration  ;  (2)  he  must  maintain 
throughout  the  operation  the  requisite  degree  of  anaes- 


376  CHLOROFORM 

thesia,  and  accordingly,  from  time  to  time,  he  should  test 
the  cornea,  for  returning  reflex  activity,  which  indicates 
that  more  chloroform  should  be  given.  With  these  pre- 
cautions, anaesthesia  may  be  safely  continued  for  an  hour 
or  more.  Dogs,  without  harm,  have  been  kept  under 
chloroform  for  two  hours,  and  chloroformed  deeply  on 
consecutive  days.  Frohner  mentions  that  sheep  will  stand 
two  hours'  anaesthesia,  repeated  daily  for  eight  days,  about 
an  ounce  of  the  drug  being  used  each  day. 

Whenever  respiration  is  impaired,  unduly  slow,  shallow, 
or  gasping,  the  administration  of  the  drug  should  be  stopped, 
fresh  air  freely  allowed,  the  tongue  drawn  forward,  and  the 
head  placed  on  a  lower  level  than  the  rest  of  the  body.  But 
if  natural  respiration  ceases,  not  a  moment  must  be  lost 
in  adopting  artificial  respiration.  The  Hyderabad  experi- 
ments show  that  every  animal  was  revived,  in  which  arti- 
ficial respiration  was  used  within  thirty  seconds  after  natural 
respiration  ceased,  and  in  some  cases  in  which  it  was  used 
after  fifty  seconds,  but  in  none  in  which  the  treatment  was 
delayed  for  sixty  seconds  after  respiration  stopped.  When 
the  pulse  and  heart  had  ceased  to  beat,  neither  artificial 
respiration  nor  other  remedies,  however  promptly  used,  were 
effectual  in  restoring  life.  In  such  emergencies,  faradic 
stimulation  of  the  phrenic  nerve  and  inhalation  of  amyl- 
nitrite  may  aid  in  restoring  respiratory  movements. 

Chloroform  depresses  all  muscular  tissue  and  notably 
cardiac  muscle.  Thus  with  prolonged  administration  the 
contractile  power  of  the  heart  gradually  diminishes,  and 
the  pulse  becomes  weaker,  until  the  heart  stops  in  a  con- 
dition of  extreme  dilatation,  unable  to  propel  the  blood  any 
longer.  Compared  with  ether,  chloroform  has  several 
advantages  as  an  anaesthetic  :  it  is  more  agreeable  to  the 
taste,  is  less  irritant,  about  one-fourth  of  the  quantity 
suffices,  it  produces  less  preliminary  excitement,  the  effects 
continue  longer  after  inhalation  ceases,  and  it  is  less  inflam- 
mable. Many  practitioners,  however,  prefer  ether,  as  it 
does  not  so  readily  paralyse  either  the  heart  or  the  vaso- 
motor  centre.  In  protracted  and  serious  operations, 
especially  in  dogs  or  cats,  it  is  accordingly  desirable  in  many 
cases  to  use  ether.  In  some  parts  of  the  Continent  the 


MEDICINAL   USES  377 

A.C.E.  mixture  of  absolute  alcohol  one  part,  chloroform  two, 
and  pure  ether  three  parts,  is  preferred.  (See  Anaesthesia.) 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Chloroform  is  used  to  anaesthetise 
horses  and  other  animals  during  castration,  firing,  and  other 
painful  operations.  Parturition  in  the  lower  animals  is 
usually  performed  so  easily,  and  with  so  little  apparent  pain, 
that  chloroform,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  is  unnecessary. 
Where  false  presentations  have  to  be  rectified  in  the  mare, 
it  is  sometimes,  however,  impossible,  without  anaesthesia,  to 
keep  the  animal  quiet,  or  to  abate  violent  uterine  throes  ; 
while  in  bitches  it  is  also  sometimes  requisite  when  the  pups 
have  to  be  reduced  before  they  can  be  extracted.  Amongst 
cows  and  ewes,  labour  pains  sometimes  continue  for  hours, 
and  other  preparations  for  parturition  appear  to  be  com- 
plete ;  but  the  neck  of  the  uterus  remains  firmly  closed, 
often  in  spite  of  medicines  and  manipulation.  Chloroform 
inhaled  in  amount  insufficient  to  produce  complete  anaes- 
thesia usually  relaxes  the  rigid  muscle.  Partial  anaesthesia 
generally  controls  labour  pains  occurring  prematurely, 
moderates  irregular,  tumultuous  contractions,  such  as  are 
sometimes  met  with  in  first  parturitions,  and  abates  after- 
pains,  the  chloroform  inhalation  in  some  of  these  cases  being 
advantageously  aided  by  hypodermic  injection  of  morphine. 

Inhalation  of  chloroform  has  been  advised  for  relaxing 
intestinal  spasm,  and  hence  aiding  reduction  of  herniae. 
It  has  been  recommended  in  tetanus  in  horses,  and  relief  is 
usually  obtained  so  long  as  anaesthesia  continues  ;  but  the 
temporary  benefit  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the 
disturbed  and  excited  state  caused  by  the  administration 
of  the  drug  and  by  the  excitement  which  succeeds  the 
anaesthesia.  The  shoeing  of  irritable  and  vicious  horses  is 
greatly  facilitated  if  chloroform  be  given  so  as  to  produce 
partial  anaesthesia.  Inhaled  or  swallowed,  it  is  occasionally 
prescribed  to  check  the  symptoms  of  chorea  and  epilepsy 
in  dogs. 

When  swallowed,  it  relieves  gastric  irritation,  spasm, 
and  pain,  and  also  exerts  antiseptic  effects  on  the  contents 
of  the  canal.  Chronic  irritability  of  the  bowels  in  weakly 
foals  and  calves,  after  removal  of  the  irritant  by  castor  oil, 
is  usually  benefited  by  a  dose  of  chloroform  or  of  spirit  of 


378  CHLOROFORM 

chloroform  and  laudanum,  repeated  two  or  three  times 
daily.  Similar  treatment  is  sometimes  useful  in  removing 
worms.  Horses  affected  with  epizootic  catarrh  and  spas- 
modic cough  are  relieved  by  chloroform,  conjoined  with 
belladonna  extract,  or  laudanum,  dissolved  in  cold  linseed 
gruel,  and  swallowed  slowly,  so  as  to  ensure  more  prolonged 
anodyne  effect  on  the  irritable  nerve-endings. 

As  a  local  anaesthetic  it  has  not  such  direct  paralysing 
effects  on  sensory  nerves  as  ether,  cocaine,  iodoform,  or 
even  as  carbolic  acid,  or  cold.  It  is  sometimes,  however, 
applied  to  allay  the  pain  of  neuralgia,  rheumatism,  and  local 
inflammation.  Its  anodyne  and  antiseptic  properties  have 
suggested  its  use,  with  carbolic  acid  and  vaseline  in  stomatitis 
and  actinomycosis.  Mixed  with  a  little  spirit,  it  is  a  cleanly 
means  of  destroying  lice  or  fleas  infesting  dogs,  cats,  or 
fowls.  As  a  liniment  it  is  sometimes  useful  in  mammitis  in 
cows.  It  is  occasionally  added  to  anodyne  enemata  for  the 
relief  of  irritation  of  the  lower  bowel  and  urino-genital 
organs.  Its  high  diffusive  power,  which  it  retains  when 
mixed  with  spirit,  renders  it  a  useful  vehicle  for  the  sub- 
cutaneous injection  of  morphine,  atropine,  and  other 
alkaloids.  It  is  a  solvent  for  guttapercha,  and  the  solution 
is  occasionally  employed  as  a  substitute  for  collodion. 

DOSES,  etc. — To  produce  anaesthesia  in  horses  and  cattle, 
f  §jj.  to  f  §jv.  are  required  ;  f  3iv.  to  f  §j.  for  sheep  and  pigs  ; 
f3J-  to  f  gj.  for  dogs.  Anaesthesia  is  readily  maintained  by 
repeated  small  doses.  The  chloroform  vapour  may  be  given 
alone,  without  intentional  admixture  of  air  or  diluted  with 
from  ten  to  thirty  volumes  of  air. 

Horses  can  be  chloroformed  standing  or  after  casting — 
the  recumbent  position  being  generally  preferred.  Ad- 
ministration may  be  effected  by  pouring  chloroform — a 
drachm  or  two  at  a  time — on  a  warm  sponge,  which  is  placed 
close  to  a  nostril,  and  carefully  covered  with  a  large  towel 
folded  several  times  ;  or  more  conveniently  by  using  one 
of  the  many  special  muzzles  now  on  sale.  Roalfe  Cox's 
waterproof  canvas  bag  is  very  simple,  inexpensive,  and 
efficient.  The  leather  muzzle  patented  by  Messrs.  Carlisle 
and  Bell  is  furnished  with  a  perforated  tin  box  to  contain 
the  saturated  sponge,  and  provided  with  straps  which  allow 


SPIRIT    OF   CHLOROFORM  379 

of  the  adjustment  of  the  muzzle  to  fit  most  horses.  Gress- 
well's  nose  cap,  Do  well's  inhaler,  and  Krohne  and  Sese- 
mann's  modification  of  Junker's  apparatus  can  be  recom- 
mended. Inhalers  properly  used  prevent  waste  of  chloro- 
form. The  vapour  being  inhaled  in  tolerably  concentrated 
form,  the  initial  stage  of  excitement  is  shortened,  the 
reduced  quantity  required  to  produce  anaesthesia  diminishes 
risk  from  respiratory  and  cardiac  paralysis  ;  while  the 
irritation  and  nausea  apt  to  ensue  from  the  use  of  larger 
doses  are  avoided.  The  subcutaneous  injection  of  morphine 
or  of  a  mixture  of  atropine  and  morphine,  fifteen  minutes 
before  giving  chloroform,  diminishes  preliminary  excitement 
and  intensifies  the  anaesthesia.  Partial  or  limited  anaesthesia 
induced  by  inhalation  of  minimum  doses  of  chloroform  is 
useful  in  difficult  parturition,  and  as  a  means  of  restraint 
when  firing,  castrating,  or  performing  simple  operations  on 
horses  standing.  Dogs  may  be  chloroformed  by  dropping 
the  drug  on  cotton  wool  or  a  sponge  placed  over  the  nostrils, 
or  by  using  an  inhaler,  which  ought  to  cover  only  the  upper 
jaw.  During  administration  it  is  of  utmost  importance  to 
keep  the  dog's  mouth  open,  which  can  be  effected  without 
difficulty  by  a  small  gag.  Cats,  lap-dogs,  and  other  small 
animals,  may  be  chloroformed  under  a  bell- jar  or  an  in- 
verted box  containing  bits  of  blotting  paper  or  cotton  wool 
charged  with  chloroform.  Administered  by  the  mouth 
as  a  stimulant,  antispasmodic,  and  analgesic,  the  dose  for 
horses  or  cattle  is  f3i.  to  f3ij-  ;  for  sheep  and  swine,  TT\xx. 
to  Tl\xl.,  and  for  dogs,  U\v.  to  Tl\x.  These  doses  are  given 
with  syrup,  mucilage,  whisked  egg,  or  weak  spirit,  and 
repeated  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours; 

AQUA-CHLOROFORM,  consisting  of  one  part  chloroform 
to  four  hundred  of  water,  is  used  as  a  carminative,  anti- 
septic, and  stimulant,  and  as  a  convenient  medium  for  giving 
unpalatable  drugs. 

SPIRIT  OF  CHLOROFORM,  also  called  chloric  ether,  is  made 
by  dissolving  one  fluid  part  of  chloroform  in  nineteen  fluid 
parts  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  It  has  the  specific  gravity 
•871,  and  a  warm  ethereal  odour  and  taste.  It  is  an  effectual 
stimulant,  antispasmodic,  and  anodyne,  resembling  ether 
and  sweet  spirit  of  nitre.  Diluted  with  water,  or  any  bland 


380  CHLORAL   HYDRATE 

cold  fluid,  it  is  prescribed  for  horses  in  doses  of  f  §i.  ;  for 
cattle,  fgij.  ;  for  sheep  and  pigs,  f3ij.  to  f3^i.  ;  and  for 
dogs,  H\xxx.  to  f  3ij- 

The  B.P.  Tinctura  Chloroform!  et  Morphinae  Composita, 
is  composed  of  chloroform,  tinctures  of  capsicum  and  Indian 
hemp,  oil  of  peppermint,  hydrocyanic  acid,  morphine  hydro- 
chloride,  glycerin  and  alcohol.  Ten  minims  contain  -J-T 
grain  of  morphine,  J  minim  dilute  hydrocyanic  acid,  and 
£  minim  of  chloroform. 

CHLORODYNE,  a  popular  anodyne  in  human  medicine,  is 
made  from  different  formulae  ;  one  is  stated  to  contain 
ten  parts  each  of  chloroform,  ether,  Indian  hemp,  and 
morphine,  two  parts  capsicum  tincture  and  prussic  acid, 
three  parts  aconite  and  hyoscyamus  tinctures,  one  part  of 
oil  of  peppermint,  five  parts  hydrochloric  acid,  and  fifty 
of  simple  syrup.  It  is  an  effectual  anodyne  and  anti- 
spasmodic,  frequently  prescribed  to  relieve  especially 
gastro-intestinal  and  bronchial  irritation. 

CHLORAL  HYDRATE-CHLORAL  HYDRAS 

Chloral  hydrate,  or  trichlorethylidene  glycol,  CC13.CH 
(OH)2,  is  obtained  by  the  addition  of  water  to  the  liquid 
chloral  produced  by  the  action  of  dry  chlorine  gas  on 
ethylic  alcohol  (B.P.). 

Chloral  hydrate  occurs  in  colourless  crystals  ;  is  neutral, 
aromatic — with  a  melon-like  odour — bitter,  pungent, 
and  permanent  in  air.  It  melts  at  about  133°  Fahr., 
and  boils  at  205°  Fahr.  It  is  soluble  in  less  than  its 
own  weight  of  water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  and  in  four 
parts  of  chloroform.  Triturated  with  camphor  it  forms 
a  liquid.  The  caustic  alkalies,  and,  in  less  degree,  the 
alkaline  carbonates,  decompose  it  into  chloroform  and 
an  alkaline  formate.  A  hundred  grains  dissolved  in  an 
ounce  of  distilled  water,  and  mixed  with  thirty  grains  of 
slaked  lime  submitted  to  careful  distillation,  should  yield 
not  less  than  seventy  grains  of  pure  chloroform.  Inferior 
specimens,  besides  being  of  imperfect  strength,  are  apt  to 
contain  chlorinated  organic  impurities,  which  render  them 
yellow  and  cloudy,  acrid  and  irritating,  imperfectly  soluble 


ACTIONS    AND    TOXIC    EFFECTS  381 

in  water,  on  which  they  float  as  oily  drops,  while,  instead  of 
hypnosis,  they  produce  nervous  excitement. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Like  other  members  of  the  alcohol 
group,  chloral  hydrate  is  antiseptic  and  a  topical  irritant. 
When  absorbed  it  has  a  sedative  hypnotic  action  on  the 
central  nervous  system.  Toxic  doses,  after  slight  and 
temporary  stimulation,  notably  depress  and  paralyse  the 
cerebro-spinal  centres.  Medicinal  doses  are  hypnotic, 
analgesic,  and  feebly  anaesthetic.  It  is  used  topically  as  a 
stimulant,  anodyne,  and  antiseptic. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — It  destroys  micro-organisms ;  one 
part  in  a  thousand  hinders  development  of  anthrax  bacilli ; 
it  has  about  the  same  antiseptic  strength  as  carbolic  acid. 
Personne  exhibited  at  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris,  the 
body  of  a  dog  perfectly  preserved  in  chloral  hydrate  for 
fifty-five  days.  Solutions  exceeding  20  per  cent,  are 
topical  irritants,  and  hence  when  swallowed  cause  a  burn- 
ing sensation  in  the  throat,  and  sometimes  vomiting  and 
purging.  Diluted  solutions  are  readily  absorbed.  The 
drug  acts  on  the  central  nervous  system  apparently  without 
undergoing  decomposition  into  chloroform,  which  is  not 
discovered  in  the  blood  tissues,  or  expired  air  of  animals 
receiving  chloral,  and  only  appears  in  the  urine  when  that 
fluid  contains  sufficient  free  alkali  to  decompose  the  chloral. 
Small  doses  produce  drowsiness  and  lower  blood  pressure. 
Fuller  or  repeated  doses  slow  circulation  and  respiration, 
and  produce  sleep,  usually  natural  and  deep,  from  which  the 
animal  awakes  without  discomfort.  Anodyne  and  anti- 
spasmodie  actions  are  likewise  produced.  Anaesthesia 
cannot  safely  be  induced  by  giving  the  drug  by  the  mouth, 
but  is  produced  by  intravenous,  intraperitoneal,  or  rectal 
injection.  Larger  doses  lessen  reflex  irritability  and  sensi- 
bility, cause  shallow  respiration,  a  marked  fall  in  blood 
pressure,  weakening  of  the  heart  muscle,  and  lower  tem- 
perature, sometimes  to  the  extent  of  6°  or  8°  Fahr.  This 
fall  of  temperature  is  due  to  the  great  loss  of  heat  from  the 
dilated  cutaneous  vessels.  By  moderate  doses,  and  during 
safe  anaesthesia,  the  pupil  is  contracted  ;  but  it  is  dilated 
when  the  doses  are  dangerously  large,  or  the  anaesthesia 
deep  or  long  continued.  Death  results  from  cardiac  and 


382  CHLORAL   HYDRATE 

respiratory  paralysis.  The  heart  is  arrested  in  diastole, 
with  the  right  cavities  distended.  There  is  no  paralysis 
of  muscles  or  motor  nerves.  The  drug  is  eliminated  by  the 
lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Richardson,  in  an  extended  series  of 
experiments,  found  that  fish  and  pigeons  were  narcotised 
by  one  and  a  half  to  two  grains  ;  mice  by  one-third  of  a  grain  ; 
rabbits  weighing  eighty-five  ounces,  by  thirty  grains.  One 
hundred  and  eighty  grains  produce  fatal  effects  in  man, 
but  dangerous  symptoms  have  occasionally  been  developed 
by  one-fourth  of  that  amount.  Dollar  gave  a  horse  suffering 
from  spasmodic  colic  two  ounces  in  water  ;  the  spasms 
were  speedily  removed,  but  for  twelve  hours  the  patient 
remained  very  dull  and  sleepy.  Mavor  gave  a  horse  four 
ounces  in  water  ;  in  five  minutes  he  fell  insensible,  sweated 
freely,  his  muscles  relaxed,  his  pupils  dilated  ;  his  pulse, 
at  first  accelerated,  gradually  became  normal,  respirations 
were  quickened,  until  in  an  hour  they  numbered  thirty-six. 
The  temperature,  from  100°  Fahr.,  fell  in  two  hours  to  95 f , 
but  two  hours  later  rose  to  97-J-.  In  half  an  hour  he  was  in 
a  quiet  sleep,  lasting  one  and  a  half  hours,  when  he  at- 
tempted but  failed  to  rise,  and  shortly  again  slept,  the 
breathing  being  slow  and  heavy,  the  skin  cold,  the  sphincters 
relaxed.  Four  hours  after  receiving  the  draught  he  was 
restless,  shivering,  but  disposed  to  feed,  continued  in  this 
state  for  several  hours,  and  suffered  next  day  from  bronchitis, 
from  which  he  gradually  recovered.  A  healthy  horse  was 
given  four  ounces  in  ten  ounces  of  water  ;  in  half  an  hour 
he  was  restless  but  drowsy,  passing  faeces  frequently  ;  his 
pupils  dilated.  He  continued  in  this  state  for  fully  three 
hours,  when  he  was  slightly  delirious,  but  gradually  became 
quiet.  Eight  hours  later  the  effects  had  passed  away. 

Frohner  records  that  horses  receiving,  by  the  mouth  or 
rectum,  three  to  four  ounces,  or  intravenously  six  to  ten 
drachms,  became  intoxicated,  staggered,  fell,  and  lay  un- 
conscious for  several  hours  with  the  muscles  relaxed.  Sleep 
may  be  maintained  by  repeated  doses,  he  states,  for  several 
days,  or  even  weeks.  Nocard  kept  a  horse  affected  by 
tetanus  under  its  influence  for  thirty  days,  administering 
daily  one  and  a  half  to  two  ounces.  The  lethal  dose  is 


QUIETS    IRRITABILITY   AND    CAUSES    SLEEP      383 

four  to  six  ounces  when  given  by  the  mouth  or  rectum,  but 
one-third  these  quantities  is  fatal  when  introduced  in- 
travenously. Cattle  are  affected  in  much  the  same  manner, 
and  by  similar  doses.  The  lethal  dose  for  dogs  is  two  to 
six  drachms.  In  them  preliminary  excitement  is  more 
marked  than  in  horses  or  cattle. 

The  treatment  of  poisoning  consists  in  maintaining  the 
temperature  by  warm  clothing,  hot  applications,  stimulants, 
and  hot  coffee.  Although  chloral  is  an  antidote  to  strych- 
nine, the  antagonism  of  strychnine  to  chloral  is.  not  so 
marked. 

MEDICINAL  ACTIONS. — Chloral  hydrate  quiets  irritability 
and  causes  sleep.  Conjoined  with  morphine,  it  is  prescribed 
to  relieve  gastro-intestinal  irritation  and  spasm,  but  as  it  is 
a  topical  irritant  it  must  not  be  used  where  there  is  conges- 
tion or  inflammation.  Small  doses  are  serviceable  in  canine 
asthma,  and  in  violent  paroxysmal  coughing,  both  in  dogs 
and  horses.  It  quiets  the  excitability  and  spasms  of  chorea, 
epilepsy,  and  hysteria,  and  temporarily  relieves  those  of 
tetanus  and  rabies.  It  antagonises  the  tetanic  convulsions 
of  strychnine.  Administered  to  rabbits  along  with  lethal 
doses  of  strychnine,  sleep  is  produced,  and  the  creature 
recovers.  Chloral  is  also  antagonistic  to  physostigmine, 
but  to  act  as  an  effectual  antidote  the  slower-acting  chloral 
must  be  given  before,  at  the  same  time,  or  within  two 
minutes  after  these  quickly-acting  convulsants.  It  has 
been  given  with  benefit  in  the  outset  of  those  cases  of 
parturient  toxaemia  in  cows  in  which  there  is  intense  nervous 
excitement,  and  violent  cramp  of  the  muscles  of  the  hind 
extremities.  Pugh  (Sevenoaks)  prescribes  chloral  in  all 
cases  of  undue  fermentation  in  the  digestive  tract,  and  finds 
that  large  doses  are  tolerated  in  colic  and  milk  fever. 
Conjoined  with  bromides,  it  is  indicated  in  cases  of  menin- 
gitis. A  like  combination  abates  the  sleeplessness  fre- 
quently occurring  in  canine  distemper,  and  allays  irritability 
and  straining  in  disorders  of  the  intestines  and  urino-genital 
organs. 

French  veterinarians  use  it  as  an  anaesthetic,  injecting 
a  solution  into  the  peritoneal  cavity.  Kaufmann  declares 
that  it  yields  to  no  other  anaesthetic  when  injected  in- 


384  CHLORAL   HYDRATE 

t ravenously.  But  intravenous  injection  is  .troublesome, 
and  attended  with  considerable  danger.  Cagny  anaesthet- 
ises horses  by  injecting  hypodermically  two  to  three  grains 
of  morphine  with  a  half  to  one  grain  atropine,  and  shortly 
giving  an  enema  containing  eight  drachms  of  chloral 
hydrate.  Anaesthesia  occurs  in  about  an  hour,  and  is 
maintained  during  operations  by  inhalation  of  ether  or 
chloroform.  But  the  anaesthesia  produced  by  chloral, 
however  administered,  is  neither  so  complete  nor  lasting  as 
that  obtained  by  inhalation  of  chloroform.  Equal  parts  of 
chloral  and  camphor,  mixed  with  six  or  eight  parts  of 
vaseline  or  simple  ointment,  form  an  analgesic  dressing 
which  relieves  the  pain  of  neuralgia  and  the  itching  of  various 
skin  complaints.  A  diluted  solution  is  sometimes  applied 
as  an  antiseptic  stimulant  to  foul  wounds.  It  should  not 
be  prescribed  where  there  is  weak,  irregular  action  of  the 
heart  or  congested  lungs. 

Chloral  hydrate  resembles  various  other  drugs.  As  a 
hypnotic,  it  is  allied  to  sulphonal,  paraldehyde,  and  mor- 
phine. Like  bromides,  it  quiets  excited  cerebral  centres. 
For  the  relief  of  pain  and  spasm  it  is  usefully  conjoined  both 
with  morphine  and  atropine.  Although  allied  in  composi- 
tion to  chloroform,  it  is  not  effective  as  a  local  anaesthetic, 
and  as  it  cannot  be  inhaled,  general  anaesthesia  is  produced 
only  when  full  doses  are  swallowed  or  injected  into  the 
rectum,  veins,  or  peritoneal  cavity.  In  relieving  spasm  and 
lowering  arterial  pressure  it  bears  some  resemblance  to 
amyl-nitrite. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses  and  cattle,  §i.  to  §ij.  ;  for  sheep 
and  pigs,  3SS-  to  3*3  •  5  ^or  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  cats, 
grs.  ij.  to  grs.  xv.,  repeated  every  two  or  three  hours,  ad- 
ministered in  mucilage  or  syrup.  Intratracheally,  eight  to 
thirty  grains  in  water  may  be  injected  as  an  antispasmodic  ; 
twenty  to  eighty  grains  in  difficult  parturition,  and  one 
hundred  and  sixty  grains  in  tetanus  (Levi).  For  enemata 
an  ounce  or  two  ounces  mixed  with  mucilage  may  be  used. 
On  account  of  its  irritating  in-contact  effects,  it  should  not 
be  used  hypodermically.  Continued  use  of  the  drug  does 
not  establish  tolerance,  as  in  the  case  of  alcohol  or  opium. 
For  relief  of  general  irritability  it  is  prescribed  with  bro- 


CHLORALAMIDE  385 

mides,  opium,  or  belladonna  ;  for  relief  of  pain,  with  opium, 
belladonna,  or  camphor.  The  B.P.  syrupus  chloral  contains 
ten  grains  chloral  hydrate  in  each  drachm. 

BUTYL-CHLORAL  HYDRATE  is  obtained  by  the  addition  of 
water  to  the  liquid  butyl-chloral  produced  by  the  action  of 
chlorine  gas  on  aldehyde  (C4H5C13O.H20).  It  forms  pearly 
crystalline  scales,  which  are  pungent,  acid,  and  disagreeable 
to  the  taste.  Soluble  in  fifty  parts  of  water,  in  one  of 
glycerin,  or  alcohol,  and  in  twenty  of  chloroform.  It 
resembles  chloral,  but  is  less  powerful,  has  less  depressant 
action  on  the  heart,  has  been  said  to  paralyse  especially  the 
fifth  nerve  and  parts  supplied  by  it,  and  has  been  prescribed 
in  human  medicine  in  facial  neuralgia,  migraine,  and  as  a 
hypnotic  instead  of  chloral  in  weak  heart  (Brunton). 

CHLORALAMIDE  has  been  obtained  by  the  action  of 
formamide  on  chloral.  It  occurs  in  colourless  crystals, 
slightly  bitter,  soluble  in  nine  parts  of  water,  and  in  two  of 
alcohol.  When  administered  it  appears  to  be  converted 
into  chloral,  which  it  resembles,  but  is  less  depressant  to 
the  circulation  so  that  blood  pressure  is  not  lowered  to  the 
same  extent.  It  is  a  topical  irritant,  causing  diarrhoea 
when  full  doses  are  swallowed.  Dogs  receiving  seven  to  ten 
grains  per  kilogramme  of  body-weight  in  five  minutes 
become  restless,  moan,  and  lose  the  power  of  movement. 
These  symptoms  continue  about  an  hour,  and  are  followed 
by  drowsiness,  and  sometimes  by  sleep  (Kaufmann). 
Neither  as  a  hypnotic  nor  as  an  analgesic  is  it  as  effectual  as 
chloral.  Prohner  states  that  it  is  frequently  substituted 
for  chloral,  but  that  it  is  milder,  and  does  not  act  so  notably 
on  digestion  or  circulation.  He  prescribes  it  in  cramps  and 
excitement  in  dogs,  and  especially  in  distemper.  Doses. — 
Horses  and  cattle,  §jss.  to  §ijss  ;  sheep,  grs.  xlv.  to  3ui-  '•> 
dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xlv. 

CHLORETONE  (trichlor-tertiary-butyl-alcohol)  may  be  pre- 
pared by  the  interaction  of  chloroform,  acetone,  and  an 
alkali.  It  occurs  in  white  crystals,  with  a  camphor-like 
taste  ;  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  soluble  in  ten  parts 
glycerin,  and  dissolving  readily  in  alcohol.  It  is  hypnotic, 
local  anaesthetic,  and  antiseptic.  Its  hypnotic  action  is 
believed  to  be  exerted  through  the  central  nervous  system 

2B 


386  SULPHONAL 

and  has  no  influence  on  the  heart.  Administered  by  the 
mouth  it  produces  sedative  and  antiseptic  effects  upon  the 
gastric  mucous  membrane,  and  is  a  very  useful  remedy  for 
obstinate  vomiting  in  the  dog.  It  may  also  be  prescribed 
for  epileptic  fits,  chorea,  and  colic,  and  to  quieten  patients 
during  operation  under  local  anaesthesia.  If  a  dose  of 
chloretone  be  given  to  the  dog  an  hour  before  inducing 
general  anaesthesia,  much  less  of  the  anaesthetic  will  be 
required,  vomiting  does  not  so  readily  occur  and  there  will 
be  less  struggling.  Combined  with  boric  acid,  as  in  boro- 
chloretone  (Parke,  Davis  and  Co.),  it  forms  a  valuable 
antiseptic  and  soothing  application  for  wounds.  Doses 
for  the  dog,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x. 


SULPHONAL, 

DlMETHYL-METHANE-DIETH  YLSULPHONE  (CH3 )  2C ( S 0 2C2H5 ) 2 . 

A  product  of  the  oxidation  of  Mercaptol,  obtained  from 
Acetone  and  Mercaptan  (B.P.). 

Sulphonal  is  a  complex  compound  of  the  methane  series, 
crystalline,  colourless,  inodorous,  nearly  tasteless,  neutral, 
melting  at  258°  Fahr.,  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water, 
soluble  in  ninety  parts  of  cold  rectified  spirit,  in  ether,  and 
chloroform. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — In  man  it  is  '  a  useful  hypnotic,  pro- 
ducing sleep,  and  in  most  cases  having  no  disagreeable  after 
effects,  even  when  used  continuously  for  a  length  of  time ' 
(Brunton).  In  men  and  dogs  it  is  more  effectual  as  a  sleep 
producer  than  paraldehyde,  but  less  so  than  morphine. 
Dogs,  whether  healthy  or  sick,  receiving  it  either  by  the 
mouth  or  subcutaneously,  sleep  quietly  for  six  to  ten  hours 
(Frohner).  Kaufmann  hypodermically  injected  dogs  weigh- 
ing ten  kilogrammes  with  two  grammes,  and  reports  ataxia, 
shortly  followed  by  calm  and  profound  sleep,  and  without 
any  untoward  effects.  He  recommends  it  in  canine  subjects 
in  neuroses  characterised  by  agitation  and  hyper-excita- 
bility. Horses  and  cattle  resist  its  hypnotic  action  as  they 
do  that  of  opium.  Instead  of  calming  and  paralysing  their 
higher  cerebral  centres,  it  primarily  and  prominently 


URETHANE  387 

stimulates  their  motor  centres.  Frohner  has  given  it  to 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  without  observing  any  definite 
hypnotic  effect.  Large  doses  (150  to  200  grammes),  he 
states,  produce  in  horses  excitement,  muscular  trembling, 
spasmodic  movements,  paresis  of  the  spinal  cord  and 
muscles,  and  are  excreted  uncombined  in  the  urine.  Death 
is  caused  by  haemorrhagic  ulcerative  gastro-enteritis.  He 
records  that,  while  0'5  gramme  per  kilogramme  of  body- 
weight  killed  horses  and  cattle,  dogs  stood  one  gramme 
per  kilogramme  of  body- weight.  Horses  and  cattle  re- 
ceiving 25  to  75  grammes  suffered  from  weakness  and 
trembling,  but  without  narcosis  ;  sleepiness  was  apparent 
for  a  day,  but  was  alternated  with  greatly  increased  reflex 
activity,  and  even  with  fits,  while  numbness  sometimes  lasted 
a  week. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  3JV-  to  SJ-  m  electuary  or  in 
mash.  A  dose  of  sulphonal  is  sometimes  given  thirty 
minutes  before  casting  a  nervous  horse  for  operation. 
Dogs  may  be  given  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xl.,  in  pill,  hot  milk,  or 
soup.  To  ensure  hypnosis  a  couple  of  doses  should  be 
given,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours. 

URETHANE  or  ethyl  carbamate  (C3H7N02),  introduced 
as  a  hypnotic  for  man,  occurs  in  brilliant  prismatic  crystals, 
having  a  faint  odour  of  paraffin  and  a  salt  taste  ;  very 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether.  Applied  to  the  tissues 
urethane  exerts  no  appreciable  action,  but  after  absorption, 
moderate  doses  produce  in  the  dog  drowsiness,  followed  by 
sleep  more  or  less  profound.  Old  dogs,  however,  are  not 
easily  brought  under  the  influence  of  this  drug,  and  accord- 
ing to  Frohner,  horses,  even  after  receiving  large  doses 
(2  to  15  ounces)  appear  to  be  quite  insusceptible  to  its  hyp- 
notic action.  In  dogs  toxic  doses  (800  grains)  cause  tran- 
sient general  excitement,  followed  by  deep  sleep,  during 
which  the  reflexes  disappear,  the  heart's  impulse  weakens, 
temperature  falls,  respiration  becomes  gradually  slower, 
then  stops,  and  death  takes  place  by  asphyxia.  Urethane 
may  be  prescribed  as  a  hypnotic  for  dogs  suffering  from 
painful  wounds,  fractures,  and  nervous  diseases  accompanied 
by  agitation,  vertigo,  or  convulsions.  It  is  a  functional 
antagonist  of  strychnine  (Coze).  Sleep  induced  by  urethane 


388  PARALDEHYDE 

lasts  from  one  to  six  hours,  according  to  the  dose  administered 
and  the  susceptibility  of  the  patient.  Doses,  grs.  xx.  to 
grs.  cl.  per  day,  in  simple  syrup,  pill,  or  powder. 
^HYPNONE  or  ACETOPHENONE  (C8H80)  is  a  volatile, 
colourless  liquid,  with  a  fragrant  odour  ;  insoluble  in  water, 
but  soluble  in  glycerin,  almond  oil,  alcohol,  ether,  chloro- 
form, and  benzine.  It  is  a  local  irritant.  In  the  horse  it 
does  not  induce  sleep,  but  it  is  a  serviceable  hypnotic  for 
the  dog,  administered  in  doses  of  TT[v.  to  H\xxx.,  in  gelatin 
capsules,  emulsion,  or  in  glycerin  and  spirit. 

AMYLENE  HYDRATE  (C5H2O),  a  colourless,  oily  liquid, 
with  an  odour  of  camphor  and  an  acrid  taste,  and  soluble  in 
eight  parts  of  water,  is  a  powerful  hypnotic  for  the  dog, 
inducing  profound  sleep,  lasting  several  hours,  without 
sensibly  disturbing  the  heart  or  modifying  blood  pressure, 
but  lowering  the  temperature  of  the  body.  Thirty  minims 
of  amylene  hydrate  produce  the  same  effects  as  fifteen  grains 
of  chloral  (Gobert).  It  may  be  given  to  dogs  in  doses  of 
TT[xv.  to  TT[L,  in  capsule,  or  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  water. 


PARALDEHYDE 
A  polymeric  modification  of  Aldehyde.     (C2H4O)3. 

Paraldehyde  is  a  colourless  fluid,  soluble  in  ten  parts 
of  water,  still  more  soluble  in  glycerin,  and  of  a  disagreeable, 
persistent,  nitrous  odour  and  taste. 

ACTIONS  AND  DOSES.— It  is  antiseptic,  hypnotic,  and 
slightly  diuretic.  It  hinders  fermentation,  and  flesh  placed 
in  a  two  per  cent,  solution  has  been  kept  fresh  for  two 
months.  It  is  a  more  effectual  hypnotic  than  hypnone  or 
urethane,  but  does  not  produce  sleep  in  man  or  dogs  as 
readily  as  opium  or  chloral,  while  horses  are  brought  under 
its  soporific  effects  with  still  greater  difficulty.  Frohner, 
experimenting  on  horses,  found  that  200  grammes  (about 
7  fluid  ounces)  produced  only  slight  trembling,  vertigo,  and 
staggering ;  450  grammes  induced  powerful  trembling, 
yellow-red  colouring  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes,  the 
presence  of  haemoglobin  in  the  urine,  but  no  sleep  ;  the 
effects  passed  off  in  an  hour;  500  grammes  caused  staggering, 


AMYL-NITRITE  389 

excitement,  pawing,  plunging,  difficult  breathing,  dulness, 
diminished  sensation,  yellow  membranes,  solution  of  the 
red  globules,  with  discharge  of  haemoglobin  in  the  urine, 
great  weakness  continuing  for  twelve  hours,  while  weariness, 
anaemia,  and  emaciation  persisted  for  a  week. 

Dogs  receiving  three  to  four  grammes  per  kilogramme  of 
body- weight  had  difficulty  in  balancing  themselves,  and 
cerebral  narcosis  followed  later.  Medicinal  doses  of  fifteen 
to  thirty  minims,  after  brief  excitement,  cause  sleep,  lasting 
six  or  eight  hours.  But  its  effects  are  by  no  means  certain 
when  the  patient  is  excited  or  pained.  It  is  an  antidote  to 
strychnine  poisoning.  In  human  practice  it  is  prescribed 
in  nervous  insomnia,  and  as  a  hypnotic  in  cardiac  cases. 
On  account  of  its  local  irritant  effects  it  is  unsuitable  for 
hypodermic  injection.  Doses,  for  the  dog,  H\vi.  to  H\xxx., 
in  simple  syrup  or  in  capsule. 


AMYL-NITRITE 
AMYL-NITRIS.     Nitrite  of  Amyl.     C5H11N02. 

A  liquid  produced  by  the  interaction  of  nitrous  acid,  and 
amylic  alcohol  which  has  been  distilled  between  262°  and 
270°  Fahr.  It  consists  chiefly  of  iso-amyl  nitrite,  C5Hn  N02, 
but  contains  other  nitrites  of  the  homologous  series  (B.P.). 
Amyl-nitrite  is  a  yellow,  ethereal,  limpid,  volatile  liquid, 
with  a  fragrant  odour.  Specific  gravity,  0*870  to  0'880. 
Nearly  insoluble  in  water  ;  soluble  in  rectified  spirit,  ether, 
and  chloroform,  and  is  itself  a  solvent  for  oils.  It  speedily 
deteriorates  unless  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles  in  a  cool 
dark  place. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  has  in  marked  degree  the  actions 
of  a  nitrite,  relaxing  and  paralysing  non-striped  muscle. 
It  is  hence  an  antispasmodic  of  involuntary  muscle,  dilates 
arterioles,  and  is  prescribed  chiefly  in  angina  pectoris  and 
asthma. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Whether  in  the  test  tube  or  in  the 
body,  it  converts  the  haemoglobin  of  the  blood  into  met- 
hsemoglobin,  which  does  not  readily  part  with  oxygen  ; 
internal  respiration  is  accordingly  interfered  with  ;  con- 


390  AMYL-NITRITE 

vulsions  and  asphyxia  ensue  ;  and  the  blood  acquires  a 
chocolate  hue.  This  has  occasionally  occurred  in  animals, 
but  is  not  easy  to  produce.  The  chief  action  of  this,  as  of 
the  other  nitrites,  is  to  paralyse  involuntary  muscle  (un- 
striped)  all  over  the  body.  From  paresis  of  their  muscular 
wall  the  arterioles  are  rapidly  and  greatly  relaxed  and 
dilated,  and  blood  pressure  is  diminished.  From  the  fall 
of  blood  pressure  there  is  less  work  for  the  heart  to  do,  and 
so  a  nitrite  indirectly  stimulates  an  overworked  heart. 
The  unstriped  muscle  of  the  bronchioles  is  also  similarly 
affected  and  the  tubes  dilated.  Secretion  of  sweat  and 
urine  is  increased,  and  the  urine  contains  sugar.  Human 
patients  receiving  one  to  two  minims  within  a  few  minutes 
are  flushed  ;  perspiration  overspreads  the  head  and  neck, 
extending  sometimes  over  the  body ;  there  is  general 
vascular  dilatation ;  arterial  pressure  is  reduced ;  the 
temperature  falls,  the  pulse  becomes  soft,  quickened,  and 
dicrotic  ;  breathing,  at  first  accelerated,  becomes  slower 
and  shallower.  Similar  symptoms  are  produced  in  dogs, 
in  which  the  temperature  may  be  lowered  3°  or  4°  Fahr. 
The  antidotes  are  stimulants,  alternate  hot  and  cold  douches, 
artificial  respiration,  and  inhalation  of  oxygen. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — It  has  been  successfully  used  in 
spasmodic  breathing  occasionally  occurring  as  a  sequel 
of  sore-throat  and  bronchitis.  In  such  asthmatic  cases 
in  horses  and  also  in  dogs  it  was  used  by  Robertson.  Ex- 
periments on  rabbits  made  artificially  epileptic  have  shown 
that  it  not  only  prevents  the  impending  fit,  but  arrests 
it  when  it  has  begun.  It  hence  deserves  more  extended 
trial  in  epilepsy  in  dogs  and  young  cattle.  Richardson 
found  that  amyl-nitrite,  promptly  administered  to  rabbits 
and  frogs,  which  had  received  lethal  doses  of  strychnine, 
relieved  the  tetanic  spasms  and  generally  ensured  recovery. 
For  tetanus  in  horses  it  has  been  frequently  given,  but 
seldom  with  lasting  benefit.  In  horses  and  dogs  it  is  useful 
as  an  inhalation  in  bringing  about  recovery  from  deep 
chloroform  anaesthesia. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  H\x.  to  TT\lx. ;  dogs, 
Tl\i.  to  TT\v.  A  minimum  dose  should  first  be  tried.  When 
given  hypodermically  half  doses  generally  suffice.  Repeated 


FORMALDEHYDE  391 

use  does  not  interfere  with  its  efficacy.  It  is  inhaled, 
administered  on  a  piece  of  sugar,  or  in  draught  with  rectified 
spirit  or  ether.  Ether,  chloral,  or  full  doses  of  alcohol  in- 
tensify its  effects. 

Sodium  nitrite,  obtained  by  fusing  sodium  nitrate  with 
metallic  lead,  has  the  same  actions  as  amyl-nitrite,  is  given 
in  the  same  doses,  and  is  more  stable  and  convenient.  Its 
effects  are  not  so  rapidly  produced,  but  persist  longer,  often 
continuing  for  half  an  hour. 

Trinitroglyeerin,  Nitre-glycerin,  or  glonoin,  C3H5  (N03)3 
is  prepared  by  dropping  pure  glycerin  into  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phuric and  nitric  acids  kept  cool  by  ice,  and  washing  it  in 
water.  Specific  gravity,  1*6.  It  is  a  colourless,  transparent, 
explosive  liquid,  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  oils.  Its 
actions  resemble  those  of  amyl  and  sodium  nitrites,  but  are 
more  powerful  and  persistent,  while  full  doses  affect  the 
voluntary  as  well  as  the  involuntary  muscles.  It  is  used 
for  the  same  purposes  as  amyl-nitrite.  The  preparation 
generally  preferred  is  the  B.P.  alcoholic  solution,  liquor 
trinitrini,  of  which  110  minims  contain  one  grain  of  nitro- 
glycerin.  The  dose  for  human  patients  is  a  half  to  two 
minims.  For  dogs  suffering  from  spasmodic  asthma  or 
epilepsy,  a  teaspoonful  of  a  solution  of  1T\30  of  liquor 
trinitrini  in  ten  ounces  of  water  may  be  given  as  required. 
Chocolate  tablets  containing  one-hundredth  of  a  grain 
of  nitroglycerin  are  now  obtainable. 

FORMALDEHYDE-FORMALIN 

Formaldehyde  (H.COH)  is  a  gaseous  body  obtained  by 
subjecting  methyl  alcohol  to  oxidation.  It  is  a  very  power- 
ful disinfectant  and  germicide.  A  concentrated  (35  to  40 
per  cent.),  aqueous  solution  is  known  as  formalin,  or  Formol, 
a  colourless  liquid,  with  a  strong,  pungent  odour  and  neutral 
reaction,  which  is  largely  used  as  a  disinfectant,  deodorant, 
and  preservative  in  solutions  of  from  one  to  five  per  cent. 
Formalin  is  stated -to  retard  the  healing  of  surgical  wounds. 
Undiluted  it  is  irritant  and  caustic  to  tissues,  and  corrosive 
to  surgical  instruments.  Strong  solutions  applied  to  the 
skin  may  induce  poisoning.  A  solution  of  one  in  five 


392  FORMALDEHYDE 

hundred  may  be  used  as  an  antiseptic  wash  for  the  hands, 
operation  area,  and  accidental  wounds.  A  2  per  cent, 
solution  is  recommended  as  an  application  for  ringworm. 
Stronger  solutions  (2  to  5  per  cent.)  are  employed  in  the 
treatment  of  canker  of  the  horse's  feet ;  to  preserve  histo- 
logical,  botanical,  and  pathological  specimens,  and  to  dis- 
infect stables  and  cowsheds.  Walter  and  Schlossmann 
having  made  critical  tests  of  the  efficiency  of  various  methods 
of  disinfection,  consider  that  formaldehyde  in  presence  of 
sufficient  water,  deserves  preference  over  other  disinfectants. 
Rational  and  practical  disinfection  requires  rapid  action 
with  thorough  penetration,  but  without  injury  of  the  objects 
under  treatment.  To  meet  these  conditions,  glycoformal, 
a  mixture  of  an  aqueous  solution  of  formaldehyde  and 
glycerin,  has  been  introduced.  The  glycerin,  attracting 
moisture,  ensures  the  effectiveness  of  every  particle  of 
formaldehyde.  Glycoformal,  applied  by  means  of  an 
atomiser,  may  be  used  to  disinfect  stables  (Coblentz). 

Lysoform  is  a  combination  of  formaldehyde  and  soap, 
containing  18  to  20  per  cent,  of  formalin.  It  is  a  clear 
liquid  miscible  with  water,  to  which  it  imparts  a  slight 
milky  appearance.  Solutions  of  3  per  cent,  do  not  irritate 
the  hands  or  damage  instruments. 

Urotropine  (Hexamethylenetetramine,  C6H12N4),  obtained 
by  combining  ammonia  and  formaldehyde,  is  a  colourless, 
crystalline  powder,  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol ;  insoluble 
in  ether  ;  and  employed  as  a  solvent  of  uric  acid  and  urates. 
It  is  said  to  undergo  decomposition  in  the  kidneys,  and 
to  act  as  a  powerful  urinary  disinfectant.  Doses,  for 
the  dog,  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  xv.  per  day,  given  well  diluted  in 
water. 

Formaldehyde  forms  an  important  constituent  of  the 
following  powders  : — glutol,  a  combination  of  gelatin  and 
formaldehyde,  dried  and  reduced  to  powder,  and  employed 
as  an  antiseptic  dry  dressing  for  wounds  :  amyloform,  a 
condensation  product  of  formaldehyde  with  starch,  forming 
a  non-poisonous,  white,  odourless,  insoluble  powder,  intro- 
duced as  a  substitute  for  iodoform  ;  and  amyloiodoform,  a 
compound  of  starch,  iodine,  and  formaldehyde,  employed 
as  an  antiseptic  dry  dressing. 


TANNOFORM  393 

TANNOPORM 

Tannoform  (Merck)  or  Methyl-ditannin  (C29H20018)  is 
a  condensation  product  of  tannic  acid  and  formaldehyde, 
obtained  by  adding  formol  to  an  aqueous  solution  of  tannin, 
and  precipitating  with  hydrochloric  acid.  It  occurs  as  a 
pale,  rose-coloured,  almost  tasteless  powder,  odourless, 
insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  in  dilute 
caustic  potash  or  soda,  and  in  ammonia.  It  readily  mixes 
with  cold  milk  or  cold  water,  but  with  hot  liquids  it  forms 
tough  masses. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Tannoform  combines  the  astrin- 
gent properties  of  tannic  acid  with  the  antiseptic  effects  of 
formaldehyde,  and  therefore  it  is  astringent,  desiccant, 
deodorant,  and  antiseptic. 

Administered  by  the  mouth,  it  is  unaffected  by  the 
gastric  juice  and  passes  through  the  stomach  unaltered. 
In  the  alkaline  medium  of  the  intestine  it  is  split  up  into 
its  components,  and  acts  as  an  astringent  antiseptic.  In 
the  treatment  of  diarrhoea,  gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  and 
mycotic  enteritis  of  foals,  calves  and  dogs,  Schaefer,  Foth, 
Schiinoff,  and  other  veterinarians,  report  most  favourably 
of  its  value.  Foals,  less  than  a  month  old,  suffering  from 
intestinal  catarrh  with  profuse  discharge,  have  been  suc- 
cessfully treated  with  doses  of  45  to  60  grains  of  tanno- 
form,  administered  in  cold  linseed  gruel,  or  milk.  For 
diarrhoea  or  scour  in  calves  it  has  been  recommended  as 
a  specific,  in  doses  of  15  to  45  grains,  with  ^th  grain  of 
calomel,  made  into  a  paste  or  linctus  with  honey  or  treacle. 
It  does  not  cause  gastric  disturbance  or  loss  of  appetite, 
and  is  harmless  and  well  borne  even  when  given  in  large 
doses.  Satisfactory  results  have  followed  the  administra- 
tion of  tannoform  in  the  treatment  of  dogs  affected  with 
necrosing  gastritis  or  so-called  '  Stuttgart  disease.' 

Externally  tannoform  is  largely  used  alone,  or  mixed  with 
boric  acid,  starch,  or  alum,  as  a  dry  dressing  for  wounds, 
burns,  harness  galls,  cracked  heels,  thrush,  canker  of  horses' 
feet,  and  wounds  of  the  claws  of  cattle.  For  superficial 
wounds  healing  under  a  scab,  Frohner  strongly  recommends 
tannoform  as  a  substitute  for  the  more  expensive  iodoform. 


394  BENZOL 

After  thorough  disinfection,  recent  wounds  carefully 
powdered  with  tannoform  are  quickly  covered  with  a  pro- 
tecting crust,  suppuration  seldom  occurs,  and  cicatrisation 
speedily  follows.  When  granulations  are  too  prominent 
they  are  touched  with  copper  sulphate,  and  covered  with 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  tannoform  and  alum.  For 
cracked  heels  and  mallenders  the  powder  should  be  rubbed 
into  the  fissures  with  a  pledget  of  cotton-wool,  or  the 
finger,  until  moisture  disappears. 

Tannoform,  being  odourless  and  non-poisonous,  is  espe- 
cially valuable  in  canine  practice.  It  is  extensively  em- 
ployed in  the  treatment  of  moist  eczema,  otorrhcea,  dog- 
bites,  and  operation  wounds.  In  moist  eczema  the  skin 
is  first  cleansed  with  an  antiseptic  solution,  and  then  dusted 
with  pure  tannoform.  Abrasions  and  small  wounds  may  be 
dressed  with  a  pomade  composed  of  one  part  tannoform 
and  six  parts  of  lanoline,  or  vaseline. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle,  ^iv.  to  §j.  ;  foals,  grs. 
xxx.  to  grs.  xc.  ;  calves  and  pigs,  grs.  xlv.  to  3ij-  5  dogs, 
grs.  x.  to  grs.  1.  These  doses  may  be  repeated  three  or 
four  times  a  day,  and  are  conveniently  given  in  cold  linseed 
gruel,  or  milk,  or  in  electuary.  For  otorrhoea,  after  cleansing 
the  ear,  tannoform  may  be  insufflated,  or  employed  in 
alcoholic  solution  (5  to  10  per  cent.).  Tannoform  mixed 
with  collodion  forms  a  useful  protective  for  small  sutured 
wounds. 


BENZOL,  BENZENE,  OR  AROMATIC  SERIES  OF 
CARBON  COMPOUNDS 

The  benzol,  benzene,  or  aromatic  series  of  carbon  com- 
pounds includes  a  number  of  antiseptics  and  antipyretics. 
The  lowest  members  of  this  series  contain  six  carbon  atoms, 
five  of  which  have  their  affinities  satisfied  by  hydrogen, 
constituting  the  organic  radicle  phenyl  (C6H5).  The 
hydride  is  benzene  (C6H5H).  Substitution  of  hydroxyl 
(OH)  for  one  hydrogen  atom  produces  the  phenol — carbolic 
acid  (C6H5OH).  A  like  substitution  of  one  or  more  of  the 
hydrogen  atoms  for  other  organic  radicles  forms  other 
aromatic  bodies.  Still  further  variety  results  from  the  union 


ANTISEPTIC    AND    ANTIPYRETIC  395 

of  molecules  of  the  same  or  of  different  members  of  the 
group  ;  two  benzene  molecules  form  naphthalene  (C10H8)  ; 
a  benzene  and  pyridine  molecule  quinoline  (C9H7N),  which 
is  allied  to  quinine  ;  indeed,  it  is  generally  believed  that 
many  of  the  organic  alkaloids  are  closely  related  to  this 
aromatic  series.  The  higher  members  appear  to  be  the 
most  active.  Rearrangement  of  the  atoms  of  these  bodies, 
and  substitution  of  various  radicles,  will  doubtless  produce 
other  valuable  substances. 

The  lower  members  of  the  series  are  the  most  useful 
medicinally.  They  are  antiseptic,  usually  antipyretic,  fre- 
quently analgesic.  They  affect  the  central  nervous  system 
in  a  characteristic  manner,  at  first,  and  in  moderate  doses, 
causing  great  irritability,  with  tremors,  convulsions,  and 
paralysis.  Later,  there  is  great  depression  of  the  medul- 
lary centres  causing  marked  muscular  weakness,  paralysis, 
and  collapse.  They  exhibit  a  marked  contrast  to  the  lower 
members  of  the  fatty  or  marsh-gas  series  (CH4),  which 
chiefly  affect  the  higher  cerebral  nerve  centres,  are  at 
first  indirect  stimulants  by  removal  of  inhibition,  and  later 
anaesthetics. 

BENZOL  or  BENZENE,  a  mixture  of  homologous  hydro- 
carbons, obtained  from  light  coal  tar  oil.  It  contains  about 
70  percent,  of  benzene,  C6H6,  and  20  to  30  percent,  of  toluene, 
C6H3CH3.  It  is  an  ethereal,  inflammable  liquid,  with  an 
acrid  and  bitter  taste,  the  odour  of  coal-gas,  and  the 
specific  gravity  *888.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  a  useful  solvent  for  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  chlorine,  iodine,  many  alkaloids,  fats,  resins, 
and  caoutchouc.  Benzene  is  a  perfectly  distinct  body  from 
benzin,  petroleum  benzin,  or  petroleum  ether,  which  is  a 
purified  distillate  obtained  from  American  petroleum — a 
paraffin  of  the  marsh-gas  series,  consisting  chiefly  of 
C5H12,  and  sometimes  used  as  an  anaesthetic,  anthelmintic, 
and  parasiticide. 

Benzol  or  coal-tar  benzene  is  irritant,  antiseptic,  and 
parasiticide.  Its  irritant  effects  are  especially  notable  on 
mucous  and  skin-abraded  surfaces,  or  when  applied  with 
friction.  Moderate  doses,  when  swallowed,  produce  saliva- 
tion, slight  temporary  pyrexia,  and  obstinate  constipation. 


396  ANTIPYRINE 

It  is  excreted  in  the  urine,  to  which  it  imparts  the  odour  of 
violets.  Larger  doses  accelerate  cardiac  and  respiratory 
movements,  while  toxic  doses  cause  nervous  depression, 
muscular  trembling,  convulsions,  lowered  temperature,  and 
loss  of  sensibility.  Benzene  is  an  effectual  poison  for 
various  skin  parasites  in  all  classes  of  patients,  and  is  usually 
applied  after  a  thorough  wash  with  soap  and  water,  either 
undiluted,  or  in  young  and  delicate  subjects,  and  in  cats, 
dogs,  and  fowls,  which  are  sensitive  to  its  irritant 
effects,  mixed  with  one  to  three  parts  of  olive  oil,  or 
vaseline.  Benzol  alone  or  mixed  with  oil  is  sometimes 
used  in  the  treatment  of  follicular  mange,  prurigo,  and 
urticaria. 

DOSES. — (Vermifuge),   horses   and  cattle,    3JV-  to    §ij.  ; 
sheep  and  calves,  3J-  to  3JV-  \  dogs,  ll\x.  to  3J- 


ANTIPYRINB 

PHENAZONE.  PHENAZONUM.  Commonly  known  as  '  anti- 
pyrine.'  Phenyl-dimethyl-pyrazolone.  C6H5(CH3)2 
C3HN20. 

Phenazone  is  obtainable  from  phenylhydrazine  by  inter- 
action with  acetoacetic  ether,  and  the  subsequent  interaction 
of  the  resulting  phenyl-methyl-pyrazolone  with  methyl 
iodide  (B.P.).  It  occurs  in  colourless,  odourless,  scaly 
crystals,  with  a  bitter  taste.  Soluble  in  about  one  part  and 
a  half  of  water,  alcohol,  or  chloroform,  and  in  forty  parts  of 
ether.  A  one  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  yields  a  white 
precipitate  with  tannin,  and  is  coloured  yellow  by  concen- 
trated nitric  acid.  Incompatibles — spirit  of  nitrous  ether, 
tannic  acid,  vegetable  astringents,  corrosive  sublimate, 
chloral,  and  salicylates. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Antipyrine  is  an  active  member  of 
the  benzol  or  aromatic  carbon  group,  and,  like  others  of 
the  series,  it  is  antiseptic,  antipyretic,  and  analgesic.  It  is 
a  local  anaesthetic  and  haemostatic.  Strong  doses  irritate 
the  mucous  surfaces,  and  hence  when  swallowed  sometimes 
cause  vomiting,  and  other  evidences  of  gastro-intestinal 
disturbance  in  men  and  dogs.  Frohner  reports  that  dogs 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  397 

receiving  two  drachms  exhibited  excitement,  and  subse- 
quently paralysis  of  the  central  nervous  centres,  tetanic  or 
epileptic  convulsions,  cyanosis,  muscular  weakness,  paralysis 
beginning  in  the  hind-quarters,  with  serious  lowering  of 
temperature.  Although  elimination  by  the  kidneys  begins 
within  half  an  hour  after  administration,  it  is  slowly  ex- 
creted. The  urine  of  dogs  receiving  full  doses,  for  several 
days  contained  the  drug,  as  evidenced  by  its  being  coloured 
red-brown  by  ferric  chloride  solution.  Frohner  further 
states  that,  although  medicinal  doses  have  little  effect  in 
lowering  the  temperature  of  healthy  animals,  they  reduce 
abnormal  temperature  usually  within  half  an  hour,  and 
their  effects  continue  two  or  more  hours.  Kaufmann 
records  that  one  gramme  (15*4  grains)  given  hypodermically 
reduced  the  temperature  of  dogs  from  38- 9°  to  38- 2°  Cent., 
of  horses  from  38' 7°  to  38- 2°  Cent.,  and  of  rabbits  from  40° 
to  37°  Cent.  These  antipyretic  effects  are  ascribed  to  the 
action  of  the  drug  on  the  heat-regulating  centre  in  the 
brain.  In  addition  to  the  antipyretic  effect  there  is 
depression  of  the  central  nervous  system,  so  that  pain 
is  lessened  and  there  is  less  reflex  irritability.  It  pro- 
duces its  actions  whether  it  is  swallowed  or  introduced 
subcutaneously  or  intratracheally,  and  seems  to  develop 
no  untoward  effects.  The  antipyretics  affect  the  red 
corpuscles,  causing  shrinking,  loss  of  haemoglobin,  and 
the  conversion  of  the  latter  into  methsemoglobin  in  the 
plasma. 

It  has  been  prescribed  for  the  several  domestic  animals  to 
reduce  fever  and  relieve  pain.  German  veterinarians  com- 
mend it  for  influenza  in  horses,  as  well  as  muscular  and 
articular  rheumatism  ;  but  as  an  anti-rheumatic  it  is  not  as 
effectual  as  the  salicylates.  In  doses  of  four  to  six  drachms, 
it  has  been  employed  with  marked  benefit  in  acute  laminitis. 
Dogs  are  brought  under  its  antipyretic  action  more  effectu- 
ally than  cattle  or  horses,  and  it  deserves  to  be  more  gener- 
ally used  in  canine  practice.  French  veterinarians  prescribe 
it  as  a  carminative  in  irritable  conditions  of  the  central 
nervous  system,  and  as  a  general  analgesic  as  well  as  a  local 
anaesthetic  in  neuralgic  cases.  A  five  per  cent,  solution  is 
frequently  used  to  check  capillary  haemorrhage,  and 


398  ACETANILIDE 

hypodermically  for  local  pains.  Its  haemostatic  power  is 
greatly  increased  by  admixture  with  tannin  solution. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  39-  ^°  3iy-  '•>  cattle,  3nJ-  to 
3vi.  ;  sheep,  grs.  xxx.  to  3*-  J  dogs,  grs.  iv.  to  xx.,  given  in 
bolus,  drench,  electuary,  or  in  the  drinking  water,  and 
repeated  as  may  be  required.  For  hypodermic  or  in- 
tratracheal  injection  in  horses  the  dose  is  40  grains 
dissolved  in  four  drachms  of  water.  As  some  animals 
are  very  susceptible  to  its  depressant  effects,  it  is  well 
to  begin  with  small  doses,  and  repeat  twice  or  thrice 
daily. 

Acetopyrine,  or  acetosalicylate  of  antipyrine,  is  sometimes 
employed  as  a  substitute  for  antipyrine.  It  is  antipyretic 
and  analgesic.  It  occasions  neither  gastric  nor  cardiac 
disturbance,  and  does  not  affect  the  kidneys.  It  con- 
stitutes a  good  antipyretic  without  accessory  depression  of 
the  heart.  It  promotes  the  secretion  of  the  pancreas, 
and,  after  a  time,  that  of  the  skin.  It  has  proved  beneficial 
in  rheumatism,  influenza,  and  pneumonia,  in  which  it  eases 
pain  and  lowers  temperature.  It  may  be  prescribed  in 
doses  about  one-third  less  than  those  of  antipyrine. 


ACETANILIDE  OR  ANTIFBBRIN 

ACETANILIDUM.      CH3.CO.NH.C6H5.     PHENYL-ACETAMIDE. 
(Antifebrin  is  a  registered  name.) 

Acetanilide,  one  of  the  most  serviceable  of  the  benzol  or 
aromatic  carbon  series,  is  a  crystalline  substance,  prepared 
by  the  interaction  of  glacial  acetic  acid  and  aniline.  It  is 
colourless,  odourless,  with  a  slightly  burning  taste,  oily  to 
the  touch,  soluble  in  190  parts  of  water,  four  parts  rectified 
spirit,  forty  parts  glycerin,  freely  soluble  in  ether,  benzol, 
and  chloroform. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  antipyretic,  sedative,  diuretic, 
and  feebly  antiseptic.  Even  in  excessive  doses  it  rarely 
causes  toxic  symptoms  in  animals,  although  in  man  it  is 
more  toxic  than  antipyrine,  and  more  liable  to  produce 
dangerous  collapse.  It  is  neither  irritant  nor  nauseous, 
and  has,  moreover,  the  merit  of  cheapness.  Compared 


RESOBCIN  399 

with  antipyrine,  antifebrin  is  more  energetic  and  lasting  in 
its  effects.  Given  in  large  doses  it  depresses  the  heart, 
alters  the  colour  of  the  blood  to  a  brownish  red,  and  to  some 
extent  reduces  the  haemoglobin  to  methaemoglobin.  Ac- 
cording to  Lepine  antifebrin  exerts  a  destructive  action  on 
the  red  corpuscles.  Elimination  of  the  drug  by  the  kidneys 
occurs  within  twenty-four  hours  of  its  administration,  and 
frequent  large  doses  darken  the  urine  and  increase  the 
excretion  of  urea  and  uric  acid.  The  diuretic  action  of 
antifebrin  suggests  its  employment  in  haemoglobinuria. 
Frohner  and  other  German  authorities  testify  to  its 
febrifuge  effects  both  in  horses  and  dogs,  and  prescribe 
it  in  febrile  cases,  cramps,  neuralgia,  and  rheumatism. 
Ordinary  doses  have  no  appreciable  action  on  tempera- 
ture in  health,  but  rapidly  lower  the  temperature  in 
fevers,  pneumonia,  and  influenza,  probably  by  diminish- 
ing the  production  of  heat  and  by  increasing  heat 
dispersion.  For  relieving  pain  acetanilide  is  less  useful 
than  opium,  or  cocaine,  and  as  an  antiseptic  it  cannot 
be  recommended. 

The  doses  for  horses  and  cattle  are  3ij-  to  3JV-  5  sheep, 
grs.  xxx.  to  3J. ;  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  x. ;  cats,  gr.  1J  to  grs.  iv., 
given  in  powder,  pill,  syrup,  or  electuary,  or  in  water  con- 
taining alcohol,  three  times  daily,  in  critical  cases  every 
third  hour. 

RESORCIN  or  metadihydroxybenzene,  resorcinol  (U.S.A.), 
a  product  of  the  distillation  of  galbanum,  ammoniacum, 
asafcetida,  or  extract  of  Brazil  wood,  with  caustic  alkalies, 
is  usually  obtained  from  benzene  or  phenol.  It  occurs  in 
colourless,  crystalline  plates,  which  become  pink  on  exposure 
to  the  air.  It  has  a  harsh,  sweet  taste,  and  is  freely  soluble 
in  water,  alcohol,  and  oils.  It  coagulates  albumin,  and  a 
one  per  cent,  solution  is  an  effectual  antiseptic.  Concen- 
trated solutions  irritate  the  skin  and  mucous  surfaces,  but 
it  is  not  so  irritant  as  its  analogues,  carbolic  acid  and 
creosote,  while,  like  them,  it  has  a  slight  topical,  anaesthetic 
effect.  Lethal  doses,  given  to  dogs  and  rabbits,  cause 
clonic  convulsions,  dyspnoea,  and  paralysis.  Much  less 
toxic  than  phenol,  it  is  eliminated  in  the  urine.  Its  anti- 
pyretic action  is  of  short  duration,  and  it  hats  a  dangerous 


400  PYROGALLIC    ACID 

tendency  to  cause  collapse.  As  an  intestinal  antiseptic, 
calves  and  foals  suffering  from  diarrhoea  or  gastric  catarrh 
receive  thirty  to  sixty  grains,  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  v.,  while 
horses  may  be  given  from  3JV-  to  3VJ-  These  doses 
may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  in  twenty-four 
hours.  It  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  in  surgical  cases — in 
inflammation  of  the  eyes,  mammae,  urino-genital  organs, 
and  other  sensitive  parts,  and  as  a  haemostatic  in  capillary 
bleeding.  Kaufmann  commends  it  in  erythema,  herpes, 
and  eczema,  especially  of  the  seborrhoeal  type,  in  dogs. 
The  solutions  and  ointments  applied  contain  one  to  ten 
parts  per  hundred. 

HYDROQUINONE,  chemically  para-dihydroxybenzene,  re- 
sembles resorcin,  but  is  about  four  times  stronger,  and  is 
soluble  in  twenty  parts  of  water,  and  in  alcohol  and  ether. 
As  it  is  excreted  in  the  urine,  it  exerts  a  stimulant  and 
antiseptic  action  on  the  urino-genital  mucous  membrane. 

PYROCATECHIN,  or  ortho-dihydroxybenzene,  resembles  re- 
sorcin in  its  actions  and  uses,  but  is  about  three  times 
stronger. 

PYROGALLIC  ACID,  or  trihydroxybenzene,  is  obtained  by 
heating  gallic  acid,  and  is  readily  soluble  in  water  and 
alcohol.  It  is  more  irritant  than  most  of  the  series,  but  is  a 
doubtful  antiseptic.  A  few  grains  produce  in  dogs,  as  well 
as  in  man,  vomiting,  purging,  and  collapse.  It  decomposes 
the  red  corpuscles,  causing  shrinking  of  the  cells  and  escape 
of  the  haemoglobin  into  the  plasma,  where  it  is  converted 
into  methaemoglobin.  Mixed  with  fatty  matters  or  starch, 
it  is  sometimes  used  as  a  caustic.  A  15  per  cent,  ointment 
has  been  applied  with  good  effects  in  psoriasis,  but  the  drug 
should  not  be  given  internally. 

SACCHARIN,  glusidum,  or  benzoyl-sulphonimide,  is  deriv- 
able from  toluene  of  coal-tar.  It  is  a  colourless,  crystalline 
powder,  two  hundred  and  twenty  times  sweeter  than  sugar, 
soluble  in  four  hundred  parts  of  water,  twenty-five  of  alcohol, 
forty-eight  of  glycerin,  and  slightly  in  ether  or  chloroform. 
It  is  antiseptic,  very  stable,  passes  through  the  body  un- 
changed, and  is  eliminated  in  the  urine.  As  it  is  incon- 
vertible into  sugar,  it  is  used  in  tablets  for  sweetening 
food,  and  flavouring  the  medicines  of  human  patients 


SALOL  401 

suffering  from  diabetes,  being  given  in  quantities  of  one-fifth 
to  half  a  grain.  An  elixir  is  made  with  saccharin,  twenty- 
four  grains,  sodium  bicarbonate,  twelve  grains,  rectified 
spirit,  one  drachm,  distilled  water,  seven  drachms.  Twenty 
minims  contain  one  grain  of  saccharin. 

SALOL,  or  phenyl  salicylate,  is  prepared  by  the  interaction 
of  salicylic  acid  and  phenol.  It  occurs  as  a  crystalline 
white  powder,  with  an  aromatic  smell  and  insipid  taste. 
Insoluble  in  glycerin  or  water,  but  soluble  in  ten  parts  alcohol, 
less  than  one  of  ether,  chloroform,  or  benzene  ;  and  in  the 
fixed  oils.  The  actions  and  uses  are  those  of  its  two  com- 
ponents. It  is  antiseptic,  analgesic,  antipyretic,  and  an 
intestinal  disinfectant.  It  is  not  so  irritant  as  salicylic 
acid,  and  only  poisons  in  large  doses.  It  is  eliminated  in 
the  urine  as  salicylic  acid  and  sulphophenol.  By  the  saliva, 
the  pancreatic  and  intestinal  juices,  it  is  resolved  into 
salicylic  and  carbolic  acids,  which,  with  their  products, 
can  be  detected  in  the  urine.  It  checks  undue  fermentation 
in  the  digestive  canal,  and  is  serviceable  in  diarrhoea. 
Frohner  recommends  it  as  an  anti-rheumatic,  especially 
in  dogs  ;  but  neither  in  muscular  nor  arthritic  rheumatism 
does  it  appear  to  be  so  effectual  as  sodium  salicylate.  Kauf- 
mann  advises  its  use  as  a  substitute  for  iodoform  in  surgical 
cases,  notably  in  diseases  of  the  urino-genital  organs,  and 
in  otorrhcea,  stomatitis,  and  ozaena.  Horses  take  ^iii.  to 
3vi. ;  dogs,  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  xv.,  in  pill  or  electuary.  In  acute 
rheumatism  these  doses  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times 
a  day.  For  the  several  purposes  of  a  non-irritant  antiseptic 
it  is  used  as  powder,  liniment,  or  ointment,  and  with  col- 
lodion as  an  antiseptic  adhesive.  A  useful  dressing  for 
catheters  consists  of  one  part  salol,  and  fifteen  parts  each  of 
castor  oil  and  almond  oil  (G.  B.  Browne). 

SALACETOL,  a  salicylic  ester  of  acetone,  introduced  as  a 
substitute  for  salol,  which  contains  phenol.  It  contains 
about  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  salicylic  acid,  occurs  in 
shining  crystals,  insoluble  in  water,  freely  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  chloroform.  It  is  employed  as  a  disinfectant 
for  the  digestive  and  urinary  tracts.  Doses,  horses,  3n- 
to  3vi-  5  dogs,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  xx. 

PYOKTANIN  (methyl  violet)  is  a  powerful  antiseptic,  pro- 

2c 


402      TRYPANBLTJE  AND  NAPHTHALENE 

ducing  little  irritation.  Soluble  in  seventy-five  parts  of 
water,  and  twelve  of  alcohol.  A  solution  of  one  in  one 
thousand  destroys  the  vitality  of  anthrax  bacilli  ;  and  a 
solution  of  one  in  two  thousand  arrests  the  development 
of  pyogenic  organisms.  Methyl  violet  has  been  used  in  the 
treatment  of  keratitis  and  suppurative  conjunctivitis. 

METHYLENE  BLUE,  a  complex  derivative  of  aniline,  occurs 
in  dark  blue  crystals  or  crystalline  powder  of  a  bronze- 
like  tinge.  Slightly  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  glycerin, 
it  has  been  prescribed  as  an  anodyne  in  painful  nervous 
affections,  to  paint  on  and  eradicate  warts,  and  as  an 
antiseptic  dressing  for  ulcers  of  the  lips  in  dogs  and  cattle 
— for  which  purpose  Cadiot  employs  a  solution  of  ten  parts 
dissolved  in  fifty  parts  each  of  alcohol  and  glycerin. 

TRYPANBLUE  or  Trypanblau  (C34H24N6014S4Na4),  derived 
from  toluidine  and  sodium  amido-naphtholsulphonate, 
has  been  recently  used  by  Nuttall,  Hadwen,  Jowett,  and 
others  in  the  treatment  of  canine  and  bovine  piroplasmosis 
and  of  East  Coast  fever.  For  some  time  another  similar 
dye,  trypanred  or  trypanroth  has  been  tried  as  a  remedy 
for  trypanosomiasis  with  varying  results.  Trypanblue 
given  by  the  mouth  has  no  appreciable  action  in  piro- 
plasmosis, but  when  given  intravenously  or  subcutaneously 
it  destroys  the  piroplasmata  in  the  blood  stream.  Nuttail 
employed  a  one  to  five  per  cent,  solution  of  trypanblue  in 
cold  sterilised  water,  in  doses  of  2  cubic  centimetres  for 
small  dogs  ;  15  cub.  cent,  for  large  dogs  ;  and  150  cub. 
cent,  to  200  cub.  cents,  for  cattle.  Hypodermic  injections 
of  trypanblue  may  be  followed  by  local  irritation,  abscess 
formation,  and  sloughing  of  portions  of  the  skin,  and  to 
prevent  these  effects  Jowett  advises  administration  by 
intravenous  injection.  Experiments  with  this  agent  on 
dogs  tend  to  show  that  it  may  prove  useful  as  a  prophylactic 
for  piroplasmosis. 

NAPHTHALENE  is  prepared  from  tar  and  tar  oils,  and  occurs 
in  colourless,  soft,  peculiar-smelling,  but  tasteless  crystals. 
Soluble  in  ether,  alcohol,  fats  and  oils  ;  insoluble  in  water. 
It  is  antiseptic,  feebly  antipyretic,  and  parasiticide.  Moderate 
doses  are  non-poisonous,  but  when  given  for  several  months 
they  cause  wasting  and  diarrhoea,  with  ulceration  of  the 


NAPHTHALENE  AND  NAPHTHOLS       403 

cornea,  opacity  of  the  lens,  and  spots  on  the  retina  (Kauf- 
mann).  It  is  used  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic,  and  vermicide, 
is  serviceable  in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  in  protracted 
cases  of  influenza  and  purpura,  and  is  prescribed  either  with 
mucilage  or  castor-oil.  In  the  bowel  it  is  decomposed  into 
alpha-  and  beta-naphthols.  Being  excreted  in  part  in  the 
urine,  it*  exerts  antisepsis  in  diseases  of  the  bladder.  It 
is  used  for  antiseptic  dressings,  and  in  all  animals  for  the 
destruction  of  skin  parasites.  The  dose  for  horses  and  cattle 
is  3JSS  to  3JV-  5  calves,  grs.  xxx.  to  3J-  \  f°r  sheep  and 
dogs,  grs.  iss.  to  grs.  xv.,  administered  in  electuary  or  bolus. 
Externally  it  is  applied  with  vaseline,  or  glycerin. 

THE  NAPHTHOLS  are  prepared  from  naphthalene.  Alpha- 
naphthol  is  stated  to  be  more  irritant  and  less  toxic  than 
beta-naphthol.  The  /3  variety,  which  is  chiefly  used,  is  a 
colourless,  crystalline,  phenol-smelling  powder,  almost 
insoluble  in  water,  but  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
chloroform,  olive  oil,  and  vaseline.  Its  actions  and  uses 
are  the  same  as  those  of  naphthalin,  and  also  closely  resemble 
those  of  resorcin.  It  is  antiseptic  and  antiparasitic.  One 
part  in  3000  prevents  the  development  of  the  microbes 
of  anthrax  and  glanders.  For  such  antiseptic  purpose  it 
is  five  times  more  effectual  than  carbolic  acid.  It  is  irritant 
in  contact  with  mucous  membranes  whether  in  vapour  or 
in  solution  ;  hence  small  doses  stimulate  the  mucous  and 
glandular  secretions.  Somewhat  larger  doses  induce  nausea, 
diarrhoea,  and  dysuria.  Powerful  doses,  exceeding  one 
gramme  per  ten  kilogrammes  of  body  weight,  cause  epilepti- 
form  convulsions  in  cats  and  horses,  but  in  dogs  there  occur 
instead  coma  and  reduced  temperature.  Rabbits  relatively 
to  their  weight  will  stand  three  times  the  dose  borne  by 
dogs  and  cats.  Naphthol  is  administered  internally  to 
destroy  tape-  and  round- worms  (Willenz),  as  well  as  putre- 
factive and  infective  germs  lodged  in  the  intestines.  As  it 
is  not  readily  soluble,  full  doses  exert  antisepsis  throughout 
the  greater  portion  of  the  intestinal  tract,  lessening  the 
smell  and  irritant  action  of  the  faeces,  and  hence  checking 
diarrhoea.  Externally  it  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  and 
parasiticide,  one  part  being  mixed  with  six  of  oil  or  twenty 
of  vaseline.  One  part  ft  naphthol  with  two  of  camphor 


404        NAPHTHALOL  AND  PHENACETIN 

forms  Naphthol  Camphor,  a  viscid,  non-toxic  antiseptic, 
which,  mixed  with  an  equal  part  of  glycerin  or  olive  oil, 
is  used  as  a  dressing  for  auricular  catarrh  and  small  wounds. 
Doses  of  Naphthol,  horses,  3JSS-  *°  3JV-  '•>  dogs,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  xv.  Sometimes  conjoined  with  bismuth  salicylate  and 
given  suspended  in  mucilage. 

HYDRONAPHTHOL  is  a  useful  antiseptic  and  germicide, 
soluble  in  one  hundred  parts  of  water  and  twenty  of  oil, 
and  often  conveniently  applied  as  a  dry  dressing,  mixed  with 
twenty  to  thirty  parts  of  fuller's-earth. 

NAPHTHALOL  (Betol),  prepared  from  /3-naphthol-sodium, 
phosphorus  oxy chloride,  and  sodium  salicylate  ;  and  alphol, 
the  salicylic  ester  of  a-naphthol,  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed as  intestinal  antiseptics.  In  the  bowel  betol  and 
alphol  are  decomposed  into  salicylic  acid  and  naphthol. 
Benzo-naphthol,  the  benzoate  of  /3  naphthol,  has  been  recom- 
mended as  a  gastro-intestinal  disinfectant.  It  is  split  up 
into  naphthol  and  benzoic  acid  (Coblentz).  Benzo-naphthol 
is  very  slightly  toxic.  Horses  take  grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  Ix.  ; 
dogs,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  viii.,  in  bolus,  pill,  or  electuary. 

PHENACETIN  (para-acetphenetidine  is  produced  by  the 
action  of  glacial  acetic  acid  on  para-phenetidine,  a  body 
obtained  from  para-nitro-phenol  (B.P.).  It  is  white,  taste- 
less, odourless,  occurs  in  glistening,  scaly  crystals,  sparingly 
.soluble  in  cold  water,  soluble  in  twenty  parts  of  alcohol, 
and  in  chloroform  and  glycerin ;  insoluble  in  acid  or 
alkaline  solutions.  Like  antifebrin  and  antipyrine,  it 
lowers  temperature,  diminishes  pain,  and  depresses  the  heart. 
Although  its  action  is  less  rapid,  it  is  more  prolonged, 
and  less  liable  than  either  of  these  analogues  to  produce 
collapse,  while  in  human  patients  it  has  also  slight  soporific 
effects  (Brunton).  Frohner  and  other  German  observers 
state  that  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  vii.  given  to  dogs  in  a  febrile  con- 
dition lower  the  temperature  2°  Fahr.,  also  slow  the  pulse, 
and  relieve  respiratory  difficulty.  These  effects  continue 
for  four  hours.  Horses  and  cattle  take  3ij-  to  3iv-  5  dogs, 
grs.  iii.  to  grs.  xv.,  in  bolus  or  electuary  ;  repeated  at 
intervals  of  two  or  three  hours. 

PlPERAZlN  (C4H10N2),  an  organic  base,  produced  by  the 
interaction  of  sodium  glycol  and  ethylene-diamine  hydro- 


CHINASEPTOL,    EXALGIN,    AND    QUINOLINE      405 

chloride.  It  occurs  in  white  deliquescent  scales,  very 
soluble  in  water.  Outside  the  body  it  dissolves  uric  acid 
and  insoluble  urates  ;  but  when  administered  its  action 
is  exceedingly  doubtful.  A  small  part  only  is  excreted 
combined  with  the  stronger  acids  rather  than  with  uric 
acid  in  the  urine.  The  granular  citrate  is  generally  used. 
Doses  of  five  to  fifteen  grains  in  carbonated  water,  taken 
twice  daily,  were  stated  to  break  up  cystic  concretions  in 
human  patients,  but  this  reputation  has  not  been  maintained, 

CHINASEPTOL,  diaphthol,  or  ortho-oxy-quinolin-meta- 
sulphonic  acid,  occurs  in  yellowish  crystals,  which  are  soluble 
in  water.  Solutions  of  one  or  two  per  cent,  are  powerfully 
antiseptic,  but  their  use  in  surgery  is  restricted  owing  to 
their  effect  on  instruments.  It  is  rapidly  absorbed,  as  an 
alkaline  diaphtholate,  from  the  intestine  and  excreted  by 
the  kidneys — disinfecting  the  urine  and  urinary  passages. 
Medicinal  doses  are  free  from  toxic  effects.  Horses  take 
3j.  to  3ij-  >'  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx.,  in  bolus  or  electuary. 

EXALGIN  (Methylacetanilide)  occurs  in  nearly  colourless 
crystals,  is  odourless,  almost  tasteless,  slightly  soluble  in 
water  and  freely  in  alcohol.  It  is  slightly  antiseptic,  dis- 
tinctly antipyretic,  and  markedly  analgesic.  As  an  anti- 
pyretic it  resembles  antifebrin  ;  it  impairs  perception  of 
painful  impressions  ;  but  large  doses  are  dangerous,  and 
produce  epileptiform  convulsions,  dyspnoea,  stupor,  and 
death.  Small,  perfectly  safe  doses,  such  as  one  or  two 
grains  in  human  patients,  or  half  a  grain  in  dogs,  repeated 
hourly,  relieve  neuralgic  pain  ;  but  for  the  pain  of  muscular 
rheumatism  it  is  not  so  effectual  as  salicylates.  It  does 
not  appear  to  produce  any  disagreeable  secondary  symptoms. 
It  has  been  used  with  benefit  in  epilepsy  and  chorea  in  man, 
and  may  be  serviceable  in  such  cases  in  dogs.  It  is  gener- 
ally administered  dissolved  in  weak  spirit. 

QUINOLINE  is  an  oily  liquid  produced  fromglycerol,  sulphuric 
acid,  aniline  and  nitro-benzene.  It  is  related  to  cinchonine 
and  quinine,  from  which  it  may  also  be  obtained.  It  is  colour- 
less or  yellow,  bitter  and  acrid,  almost  insoluble  in  water, 
but  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  benzene. 
Quinoline  and  its  salts,  tartrate  and  salicylate,  are  anti- 
septic and  antipyretic,  but  other  drugs  of  this  aromatic 


406  THALLINE    AND    PYRIDINE 

series  are  safer  and  more  effectual,  for  quinoline  is  very 
apt  to  cause  collapse.  Dogs  and  cats,  receiving  three  to 
six  grains  per  kilogramme  of  body  weight,  exhibit  increased 
secretion  of  saliva  and  bile,  and  suffer  from  vomiting  and 
general  enfeeblement. 

TfiALLINE  is  a  synthetically  prepared  base  chemically 
known  as  tetrahydroparamethyl-oxy quinoline.  It  is  crys- 
talline and  colourless,  has  a  piquant,  bitter,  anise-like  taste, 
is  soluble  in  seven  parts  of  cold  water  and  a  hundred  of 
alcohol.  Both  the  watery  and  alcoholic  solutions  are  in- 
flammable. It  combines  with  acids,  and  is  used  as  a  sul- 
phate or  acetate.  It  is  antiseptic  and  antipyretic.  It 
resembles  antifebrin,  but  Brunton  considers  it  is  less 
effectual.  T.  Eraser  regards  it  as  probably  the  most 
trustworthy  antipyretic  of  the  series.  Kaufmann  and 
others  testify  to  its  febrifuge  effects  on  veterinary  patients, 
and  state  that  it  causes  neither  digestive  nor  nervous  dis- 
turbance. Moderate  doses  given  to  horses  and  dogs,  in 
one  hour  reduce  abnormal  temperature  3°  Cent.,  and  such 
reduction  is  stated  to  be  maintained  for  several  hours.  It 
slows  respiration,  diminishes  the  number  of  the  pulsations, 
and  lessens  arterial  pressure.  These  effects  appear  to 
depend  upon  the  depression  of  the  heat  regulating  nerve 
centres  with  consequent  increased  loss  of  heat  by  way  of 
the  dilated  skin  vessels.  Thalline  is  stated  to  communicate 
a  dark-red  colour  to  the  blood,  from  the  formation  of 
methaemoglobin,  and  sometimes  causes  a  red  eruption  on 
the  tongue  (Kaufmann).  It  is  slowly  excreted  in  the  urine, 
which  acquires  a  greenish-brown  hue,  and  is  coloured  purple 
by  ferric  chloride  solution.  Friedberger  prescribes  it  in 
contagious  pneumonia  in  horses,  both  by  the  mouth  and 
hypodermically.  Horses  take  ^L  to  ^iii. ;  cattle,  ^ii.  to 
3iv. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  dogs,  grs.  ii. 
to  grs.  vi.,  cats,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  ii.,  given,  as  the  sulphate,  in 
bolus  or  solution.  Hypodermically,  one-third  of  those  doses 
may  be  given. 

PYRIDINE  (C5H5N)  is  obtained  from  the  destructive  dis- 
tillation of  bones  and  other  organic  substances,  and  is  one 
of  the  empyreumatic  constituents  of  tobacco  smoke.  It 
is  a  typical  member  of  the  alkali-like  bases  found  in  coal- 


CHINOSOL  AND  ACETOZONE         407 

tar,  and  from  it  various  bodies  of  the  aromatic  series  are 
prepared.  It  is  a  colourless,  strong-smelling,  volatile,  anti- 
septic liquid.  Soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  oils. 
It  diminishes  the  reflex  activity  of  the  medulla  and  spinal 
cord,  notably  of  the  respiratory  centre,  acting  like  the 
alkaloid  conine,  to  which  it  is  chemically  allied,  and  causes 
death  by  asphyxia  ;  but  is  so  rapidly  eliminated  by  all  the 
excretory  channels  that  large  doses  are  required  to  kill. 
As  an  inhalation  it  has  been  used  in  asthma  and  other  cases 
of  difficult  breathing. 

CHINOSOL,  or  oxyquinoline  sulphonate  of  potassium,  is  a 
derivative  of  coal-tar.  It  occurs  as  a  yellow,  crystalline 
powder,  with  a  faint  odour,  soluble  in  water,  insoluble  in 
alcohol  or  ether.  Its  solution  is  unaffected  by  albumin. 
Chinosol  is  antiseptic,  antipyretic,  styptic  and  disinfectant. 
A  solution  of  one  part  in  forty  thousand  prevents  bacterial 
development,  and  a  grain  dissolved  in  six  drachms  of  water 
is  stated  to  be  equal  in  antiseptic  power  to  a  one  in  forty 
solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Applied  to  wounds,  the  alkaline 
discharges  decompose  it  and  liberate  oxyquinoline,  which 
oxidises  and  disinfects.  In  the  treatment  of  surgical  cases 
solutions  varying  from  one  in  twelve  hundred  to  one  in 
sixty  have  given  most  satisfactory  results.  Mixed  with 
boric  acid,  zinc  oxide,  or  starch,  it  forms  an  excellent  dry 
dressing,  and  with  collodion  it  is  used  for  sealing  small 
wounds.  Hobday  considers  that  itfe  action  is  better  marked 
when  used  in  lotion  than  in  powder.  Concentrated  solu- 
tions should  not  be  used  to  disinfect  instruments  as  the  drug 
attacks  steel.  Chinosol  has  been  used  as  an  udder  injection 
in  parturient  apoplexy.  For  this  purpose  fifteen  grains  are 
dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  a  fourth  part  injected  into 
each  quarter.  Chinosol  can  be  obtained  in  tablets  contain- 
ing five,  eight,  and  fifteen  grains. 

ACETOZONE,  or  Benzoyl-Acetyl-Peroxide,  occurs  as  a 
white  crystalline  powder,  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  and 
decomposed  by  alkalies.  As  it  acts  on  organic  matters, 
alcohol  or  glycerin  should  not  be  used  in  the  preparation 
of  solutions.  Acetozone  is  a  powerful  antiseptic,  deodorant, 
and  germicide,  and  is  said  to  be  non- toxic  and  harmless  to 
animal  tissues.  It  has  been  prescribed  in  diarrhoea. 


408  CARBOLIC   ACID 

dysentery.,  contagious  abortion,  and  in  distemper  of  the 
dog.  For  the  destruction  of  parasites  in  the  intestine  a 
filtered  solution  of  twenty  grains  in  a  quart  of  water  may 
be  used.  Externally,  a  solution  of  five  grains  to  a  pint  of 
water  is  employed  as  a  lotion  for  wounds  and  ulcers,  and 
as  a  dressing  for  eczema  and  mange. 


CARBOLIC  ACID 
ACIDUM  CARBOLICUM.    Phenol.     C6H5OH. 

Carbolic  acid  is  an  occasional  constituent  of  the  urine  of 
most  animals,  may  be  extracted  from  some  plants,  and  is 
one  of  the  many  products  of  coal-tar.  Cannel  coal  is  its 
most  prolific  source  ;  but  it  also  occurs  in  other  coals,  as 
well  as  in  bitumen  and  petroleum.  It  is  obtained  from  coal- 
tar  oil  by  fractional  distillation  (B.P.). 

Carbolic  acid  occurs  in  small,  colourless,  deliquescent 
crystals,  having  a  peculiar  odour  and  sweetish  pungent 
taste.  Exposed  to  moist  air  it  may  acquire  a  pinkish  tinge. 
Specific  gravity  1-060  to  1-066.  It  is  devoid  of  acid  reaction, 
is  liquefied  at  60°  Fahr.  by  ten  parts  of  water,  and  completely 
dissolved  by  twelve  hundred  parts  of  cold  water.  It  is  freely 
soluble  in  glycerin,  most  volatile  oils,  alcohol,  ether,  alkaline 
solutions,  and  acetic  acid.  It  has  a  caustic  action  on  the 
skin  and  mucous  membranes,  coagulates  albumin,  and 
liquefies  camphor.  With  an  equivalent  of  sulphuric  acid, 
it  forms  sulpho-carbolic  acid,  which  produces  a  series  of 
definite,  stable,  soluble,  crystallisable  salts — the  sulpho- 
carbolates,  which  have  no  action  of  carbolic  acid.  With 
nitric  acid,  it  forms  explosive  picric  acid  (C6H2(N02)3OH), 
an  antiseptic,  and  much  used  as  a  yellow  dye.  When 
carbonic  anhydride  is  passed  through  heated  dry  powdered 
sodium  phenate,  salicylic  acid  is  produced. 

Carbolic  acid  is  distinguished  by  its  odour.  Bromine 
water  forms,  even  in  very  dilute  aqueous  solutions,  pale- 
yellow  crystalline  needles  of  tribromo-phenol.  An  aqueous 
solution,  even  if  containing  y^1^  part,  when  treated  with  a 
drop  or  two  of  ferric  chloride  solution,  produces  a  purple 
colour. 


COAGULATES  ALBUMIN  AND  DESTROYS  ORGANISMS  409 

According  to  Martindale,  the  following  commercial 
varieties  are  in  general  use  : — (a)  Absolute  phenol ;  (b) 
Carbolic  acid,  in  crystals  and  in  liquid,  containing  10  per 
cent,  of  added  water  :  the  crystals  are  soluble  in  fourteen 
parts  of  water  ;  (c)  No.  2  carbolic  acid,  also  in  crystals 
and  in  liquid,  soluble  in  eighteen  parts  of  water  ;  (d)  No.  4 
carbolic  acid,  a  pale  straw-coloured  liquid,  containing 
about  10  per  cent,  of  phenol,  and  nearly  90  per  cent,  of 
cresols  ;  (e)  No.  5  carbolic  acid,  a  dark-coloured  liquid  of 
uncertain  strength.  Carbolic  disinfectant  powder  contains 
15  per  cent,  of  phenols  mixed  with  a  dry  powdered  earth. 

The  B.P.  acidum  carbolicum  liquefactum,  or  phenol  to 
which  distilled  water  has  been  added  in  the  proportion  of 
ten  parts  of  water  to  one  hundred  of  phenol,  is  a  colourless 
or  slightly  pink  liquid,  with  the  taste,  odour,  and  properties 
of  the  pure  acid.  The  empyreumatic  red-brown  liquid 
commercial  acid  contains  the  uncrystalhsable,  acrid  methyl- 
phenol  or  cresol  (C6H4.(OH).CH3).  Calvert's  carbolic 
powders  consist  of  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  carbolic  acid,  in- 
corporated with  refuse  from  the  alum  works.  M'Dougall's 
disinfecting  powders  contain  about  33  per  cent,  of  calcium 
carbolate  and  59  per  cent,  of  magnesium  sulphite.  A  mixture 
of  carbolic  acid  and  bleaching  powder  has  been  patented. 
Blast  furnace  residual  oils  consisting  of  20  to  35  per  cent, 
of  phenoloids,  soluble  in  caustic  soda,  resemble  wood-tar 
products,  and  are  used  for  preserving  timber. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Carbolic  acid  belongs  to  the  benzol 
or  aromatic  series  of  carbon  compounds,  which  are  notable 
for  their  antiseptic  and  antipyretic  properties  (p.  394). 
It  is  a  general  protoplasmic  poison,  and  closely  resembles 
creosote  and  creolin.  Large  doses  are  irritant  and  narcotic 
poisons.  It  is  used  as  an  antiseptic,  antiparasitic,  occasion- 
ally as  a  local  anaesthetic,  and  also  as  a  caustic.  It  is 
administered  in  various  contagious  diseases,  with  a  view  to 
prevent  or  arrest  the  development  of  micro-organisms.  It 
is  employed  as  a  disinfectant. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS.— It  coagulates  albumin  and  destroys 
micro-organisms.  It  is  not  nearly  so  active  as  corrosive 
sublimate,  chlorine,  iodine,  or  sulphurous  acid  in  arresting 
the  action  of  ptyalin,  pepsin,  diastase,  and  other  organic 


410  CAEBOLIC   ACID 

ferments,  or  in  killing  or  preventing  the  development  of 
bacteria  ;  but  Koch's  experiments  show  that  about  one  part 
to  500  prevents  the  growth  of  anthrax  and  other  bacilli. 
Oats,  barley,  beans,  and  lentils,  soaked  in  a  one  per  cent, 
solution,  do  not  germinate.  Milk  is  maintained  unchanged 
by  ^th  part  of  acid.  The  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  are  killed 
in  twenty-four  hours  by  a  5  per  cent,  solution.  The  de- 
velopment of  putrefactive  organisms  is  arrested  by  a  4 
per  cent,  solution  which  is  also  fatal  to  the  organisms  of  pus. 
Warm  aqueous  solutions  are  more  powerfully  antiseptic 
than  solutions  in  alcohol,  oil,  or  glycerin  ;  in  fact,  carbolised 
oil  is  only  feebly  antiseptic  and  not  reliable  as  a  disinfectant. 
The  probable  reason  for  this  is  that  phenol  is  so  readily 
soluble  in  oil  that  it  will  not  leave  the  oily  solvent  to  attack 
the  protoplasm  of  the  bacteria.  As  carbolic  acid  gradually 
volatilises,  not  only  may  fresh  infection  occur,  but  spores 
and  organisms,  the  development  of  which  has  been  arrested, 
may  regain  activity. 

A  strong  solution  applied  to  the  skin,  or  to  a  mucous 
surface,  coagulates  albumin,  acts  as  a  topical  irritant  and 
slight  caustic  ;  anaesthetises  not  only  the  skin,  but  the 
underlying  structures  ;  causes  a  stain  at  first  white,  but 
shortly  becoming  brown  ;  and  leaves  a  dry,  roughened 
surface,  from  which  the  shrivelled  epidermal  scales  subse- 
quently peel  off. 

Full  doses  when  swallowed,  besides  producing  local  effects, 
cause  salivation,  and  in  carnivora  usually  vomiting,  with 
gastro-enteritis  and  collapse  from  shock,  which  may  end 
fatally.  It  is  absorbed,  and  like  other  members  of  the 
benzol  series,  in  small  doses,  it  first  very  briefly  stimulates 
and  subsequently  paralyses  the  medulla  and  spinal  cord,  and 
involves  also  the  cerebral  centres.  The  respiratory  and 
vaso-motor  centres  are  first  stimulated,  quickening  respira- 
tion, raising  blood-pressure,  and  accelerating  the  pulse  ; 
but  as  paralysis  is  developed,  respiration  is  slowed,  and  blood 
pressure  falls.  Stimulation  of  the  sweat-centre  increases 
perspiration.  Implication  of  the  cerebral  centres  gives  rise 
to  restlessness,  irregular  movements,  convulsions,  and 
anaesthesia.  These  symptoms  are  followed  by  depression, 
weakness,  staggering  gait,  then  collapse  and  coma.  Moderate 


AN   IRRITANT   AND    NARCOTIC   POISON  411 

doses  kill  by  paralysis  of  respiration,  but  larger  doses  besides 
cause  cardiac  paralysis.  It  is  excreted  in  part  by  the  lungs, 
salivary  glands,  and  skin,  mainly  by  the  kidneys,  and  chiefly 
in  the  form  of  alkaline  carbolates,  detectable,  two  or  three 
hours  after  administration,  by  bromine  water.  The  urine 
has  a  dusky  green  or  olive-brown  hue,  and  for  a  considerable 
time  resists  putrefaction  ;  but,  if  it  stands  long,  it  becomes 
amber-brown,  depending  upon  hydroquinone  and  other 
phenol  products  undergoing  further  oxidation.  Excretion 
is  tolerably  rapid  ;  carbolic  acid  can  seldom  be  found  in 
any  notable  amount  in  the  urine  either  of  men  or  animals 
twenty-four  hours  after  the  exhibition  of  the  last  dose. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Two  drachms  prove  immediately  fatal 
to  dogs,  and  kill  full-grown  cats  in  two  minutes  (Sansom). 
Cullen  found  that  one  drachm  given  to  small  dogs  caused 
excitement,  dilated  pupils,  shallow,  stertorous  breathing, 
convulsions,  and  death  in  ten  minutes.  Friedberger  found 
that  fifteen  grains  killed  dogs  in  a  few  hours.  Three  or  four 
drops  placed  under  the  wings  of  sparrows  caused  excite- 
ment, restlessness,  and  death  in  half  an  hour  ;  toads, 
earthworms,  beetles,  ants,  and  fleas  were  promptly  poisoned 
(Lamaire).  Two  drachms  repeatedly  given  to  a  donkey 
had  no  very  notable  effect.  Half-ounce  doses  are  dangerous 
for  horses  ;  ounce  doses  are  fatal  (Kaufmann).  Poisonous 
doses  immediately  cause  dogs,  rabbits,  and  other  animals 
to  reel,  move  in  jumps,  and  fall ;  they  tremble  and  show 
muscular  weakness,  cough,  and  froth  at  mouth  ;  the  pulse 
is  small,  quick,  irregular,  and  intermittent ;  temperature 
is  lowered  ;  albuminuria  and  haematuria  are  occasionally 
present ;  shallow,  gasping,  difficult  breathing,  collapse, 
paralysis,  more  or  less  anaesthesia,  and  occasionally  con- 
vulsions, precede  death. 

By  whatever  channel  it  is  introduced  into  the  body,  its 
characteristic  effects  are  produced.  Dressings  used  in 
human  surgery  sometimes  cause  nausea,  vomiting,  giddi- 
ness, high-coloured  urine,  and  occasionally  collapse,  and 
even  death.  Scabby  sheep  too  freely  dressed  may  suffer 
from  congested  and  inflamed  lungs,  linger  for  weeks,  and 
even  then  die.  Sheep,  dogs,  and  cats  are **  particularly 
susceptible  ;  even  a  single  dressing,  incautiously  applied 


412  CARBOLIC    ACID 

over  a  large  surface,  or  the  free  use  of  carbolic  lotions  for 
wounds  or  during  operations,  may  produce  dulness,  tremb- 
ling, and  disinclination  for  food,  continuing  for  several  days. 
Stronger  dressings  within  a  few  minutes  cause  excitement, 
blowing,  unsteady  gait,  and  occasionally  fatal  collapse. 
A  considerable  skin  surface,  freely  wetted,  is  said  to  have 
produced  '  gradual  failure  of  the  heart's  action  ' ;  whilst 
in  other  cases  the  dog  has  fallen  into  a  state  of  marasmus, 
with  sunken  eyes,  foe  tor  of  the  breath,  formation  of  sordes 
on  the  teeth,  '  tarry  '  faeces,  and  total  loss  of  appetite, 
followed  by  death  in  six  to  twelve  days. 

THE  POST-MORTEM  APPEARANCES  are— brown  discolora- 
tion and  corrugation  of  the  membrane  of  the  mouth  and 
fauces,  and  sometimes  of  the  stomach  ;  strong  solutions 
leave  patches  of  redness  and  inflammation  in  the  stomach 
and  small  intestine.  The  kidneys  are  sometimes  congested, 
occasionally  inflamed.  The  blood  is  dark-coloured  and 
feebly  coagulated,  but  the  corpuscles  are  unchanged. 
Chronic  poisoning  sometimes  produces  granular  and  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  liver,  heart,  and  kidneys  (Mosselman). 
When  death  occurs  within  a  day  after  the  poison  has  been 
taken,  a  smoky  phenol  odour  pervades  the  body,  and  the 
poison  may  be  discovered  in  most  of  the  internal  organs. 
It  may  also  be  detected  in  the  urine  by  means  of  bromine 
water,  but  where  life  has  been  prolonged  beyond  twenty- 
four  hours,  the  volatile  drug  may  not  be  discoverable. 
Cullen  records  that  the  vessels  of  the  brain  are  full  of 
fluid  blood  ;  while  serous  effusion  is  generally  observable 
on  the  surface  of  the  brain  and  within  the  ventricles.  The 
lungs,  in  cases  that  have  survived  several  days,  are  some- 
times ecchymosed. 

ANTIDOTES. — Where  the  poison  has  been  swallowed,  any 
unabsorbed  portion  should  be  removed  by  the  stomach- 
pump,  or  by  an  emetic.  Pharyngeal  and  gastric  irritation 
is  allayed  by  albumen,  milk,  or  alcohol,  and  by  demulcent 
drinks,  saccharated  lime,  olive  or  castor  oil,  camphor,  or 
vinegar.  The  patient  should  be  kept  warm.  Neutralisa- 
tion of  the  poison,  by  conversion  into  the  sulpho-carbolates, 
and  excretion  by  the  kidneys,  are  hastened  by  administra- 
tion of  sulphates,  either  by  the  mouth  or  intravenously, 


SURGICAL   USES  413 

conveniently  given  in  the  form  of  solution  of  sodium  sulphate. 
The  escharotic  action  of  pure  carbolic  acid  is  quickly 
neutralised  by  alcohol  or  oil. 

For  SURGICAL  PURPOSES  carbolic  acid  is  the  antiseptic 
most  frequently  and  generally  used  in  this  country.  Ac- 
cording to  Lister,  it  has  a  powerful  affinity  for  the  epidermis. 
Carbolic  acid  penetrates  deeply  into  its  substance,  and  mingles 
with  fatty  materials  in  any  proportion.  Corrosive  subli- 
mate solution,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  penetrate  in  the 
slightest  degree  into  anything  greasy.  Preparatory  to  an 
operation  the  parts,  and  the  hands  of  the  operator  and  his 
assistants,  are  washed  with  a  5  per  cent,  warm,  aqueous 
solution,  and  the  instruments,  sutures,  and  other  appliances 
are  placed  in  a  solution  of  the  same  strength.  During 
operation  a  one  to  forty  solution  is  used  for  washing  sponges, 
and  rinsing  instruments,  and  for  irrigating  the  wound. 
With  similar  antiseptic  precautions,  human  surgeons  have 
reduced  the  mortality  of  capital  operations  by  more  than 
one-half,  and  equally  favourable  results  have  been  obtained 
by  veterinarians. 

To  prevent  and  arrest  attacks  of  micro-organisms,  carbolic 
acid  is  applied,  in  all  classes  of  patients,  to  most  accidental 
or  surgical  wounds.  Incised  or  lacerated  wounds  are 
washed  or  swabbed  according  to  their  condition,  with  a  one 
to  forty  or  one  to  twenty  solution,  before  and  after  being 
secured  with  stitches  or  sutures.  Broken  knees  and  open 
joints  are  cleansed,  and  at  intervals  irrigated  with  carbolic 
lotions.  When  wounds  for  several  days  have  been  treated 
with  the  stronger  carbolic  solutions,  an  aseptic  condition 
may  be  maintained,  and  healing  usually  hastened  by  milder 
dressings  of  boric,  salicylic,  or  sulphurous  acid.  Added  to 
Carron  oil,  it  allays  pain,  and  prevents  or  limits  suppuration 
of  burns  and  scalds.  Over-reaches  and  other  bruises,  after 
being  thoroughly  cleansed,  are  dressed  with  a  watery 
solution,  and  covered  with  a  few  folds  of  carbolised  lint  or 
wool,  secured  by  a  bandage.  Similar  treatment  is  service- 
able in  necrosis  of  the  coronary  band,  occurring  in  hard- 
worked  horses  in  wet,  cold  weather.  A  saturated  watery 
solution  is  used  in  foot-rot  in  sheep.  Ulcers  are  stimulated, 
and  their  healing  promoted,  by  thorough  soaking  with 


414  CARBOLIC   ACID 

strong  carbolic  lotion,  and  afterwards  coating  the  sores  with 
collodion.  Sinuses  of  the  poll,  withers,  or  coronet,  cleansed 
and  disinfected  with  a  five  per  cent,  carbolic  solution,  and 
provided  with  a  dependent  opening,  frequently  heal  if 
protected  by  carbolic  gauze  from  fresh  infection. 

Injuries  of  the  uterus  or  vagina,  resulting  from  parturi- 
tion, and  metritis  in  all  animals,  are  treated  with  carbolic 
solutions,  1  to  3  per  cent.,  with  the  effect  of  abating  irritation, 
discharge,  and  straining.  No  treatment  is  so  effectual  in 
metritis  in  ewes,  the  prevalence  of  which  might  be  materially 
lessened  if  shepherds  would  observe  greater  cleanliness,  and 
wash  their  hands  with  an  antiseptic  fluid  before  rendering 
assistance  to  lambing  ewes.  Such  precautions  are  specially 
needful  where  post-mortem  examinations  have  been  engaged 
in,  where  dead  lambs,  which  have  lain  about  for  some  days, 
have  been  skinned,  or  where  cases  of  metritis  have  been 
handled.  In  foals  and  calves  at  birth,  after  ligaturing  the 
cord  and  washing  the  parts  with  corrosive  sublimate  solu- 
tion, a  five  per  cent,  solution  of  phenol  painted  over  the 
navel,  and  repeated  daily  for  a  week,  effectually  prevents 
septic  infection,  necrosis,  and  the  extension  of  infection  to 
joints  and  other  parts. 

Carbolic  acid  is  seldom  used  as  a  caustic.  Concentrated 
solutions  are  applied  to  boils  to  cause  their  abortion,  and  are 
sometimes  injected  into  tuberculous,  cancerous,  and  mela- 
notic  tumours  to  arrest  extension.  Injected  into  the 
warbles  on  cattle  or  horses,  it  kills  the  parasitic  larvae. 
Painted  on  the  skin,  strong  solutions  cause  superficial  local 
anaesthesia,  sufficient  for  the  opening  of  abscesses,  and 
solutions  of  8  or  10  per  cent,  are  occasionally  applied  as 
topical  stimulants  and  rubefacients  for  sore- throat  and 
rheumatic  joints. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Carbolic  acid  has  been  prescribed  in 
most  diseases  produced  by  micro-organisms.  Its  use  for 
this  purpose,  however,  is  very  limited,  for  whether  absorbed 
from  the  alimentary  tract,  or  injected  hypodermically,  it 
produces  toxic  symptoms  in  doses  much  too  small  to  render 
the  blood  an  antiseptic  medium.  The  same  is  true  of  every 
antiseptic  without  exception,  and  it  is  hopeless  to  look  for 
a  drug  which  can  be  given  in  such  quantity  as  to  be  anti- 


STOMATITIS    AND    TJLCERATIONS  415 

septic  in  the  blood,  without  poisoning  the  cells  of  the 
animal.  There  are  specific  diseases  in  which  certain  drugs 
have  a  special  affinity  for,  and  a  deterrent  or  destructive 
effect  on  the  causal  organism,  for  example,  quinine  on  the 
malarial  parasite,  and  iodine  on  actinomyces,  but  there  is 
no  one  drug  useful  as  a  blood  and  tissue  antiseptic,  and  the 
employment  of  carbolic  acid  internally  has  been  attended 
with  disappointing  results.  It  has  been  administered  in 
foot-and-mouth  disease,  in  which  the  glycerin  of  phenol  and 
other  solutions  are  also  applied  locally  with  zinc  and  lead 
lotions.  For  tetanus,  Bacelli  recommends  subcutaneous 
injection  of  a  3  per  cent,  solution  in  distilled  water,  and  this 
treatment  in  the  United  States  has  proved  satisfactory. 
In  France  carbolic  acid  is  frequently  given  as  an  antithermic 
and  internal  antiseptic  ;  and  for  contagious  equine  pneu- 
monia a  favourite  remedy  consists  of  sixty  grains  each  of 
phenol  and  camphor  with  a  sufficiency  of  honey  or  treacle 
and  powdered  liquorice  to  form  an  electuary.  The  severity 
of  catarrhal  influenza  of  horses  is  materially  abated,  while 
its  spread  is  checked  by  administration  of  antiseptics 
and  by  spraying  the  nostrils  and  throat  with  a  one  per  cent, 
phenol  solution.  In  such  cases,  and  also  in  chronic  bron- 
chitis and  pharyngitis,  air  or  steam,  medicated  with  carbolic 
acid,  is  used  as  an  inhalation.  In  tedious  cases  of  strangles 
and  in  purpura  it  is  prescribed  with  iodine  or  iron,  or  both, 
and  is  also  applied  externally. 

Stomatitis  and  ulcerations  of  the  mouth  and  throat  are 
treated  with  a  two  to  four  per  cent,  solution  of  the  acid 
conjoined,  sometimes  with  iodine,  or  with  tannin  and 
glycerin.  Aetinomycosis,  after  the  diseased  surface  has 
been  scraped,  is  dressed  with  four  parts  of  carbolic  acid  and 
one  of  iodine,  dissolved  in  six  or  eight  parts  of  glycerin 
(Walley).  Added  to  the  ordinary  prescriptions  used  in 
dyspepsia,  diarrhoea,  and  dysentery,  carbolic  acid  or  creolin 
checks  fermentative  changes  and  lessens  acridity  and  fcetor 
of  the  excreta.  With  oil  of  turpentine  and  opium  tincture, 
it  is  used  for  intratracheal  injections  in  calves  suffering  from 
parasitic  bronchitis.  Foals  and  other  animals  infested  with 
Scl.  tetracanthum  and  other  strongyles,  have  been  success- 
fully treated  with  carbolic  acid  conjoined  with  turpentine 


416  CARBOLIC    ACID 

and  dialysed  iron.  Carbolic  solutions  relieve  the  itching 
and  swelling  occasioned  by  bees,  wasps,  mosquitoes,  and 
ants,  and,  promptly  used,  prevent  mischief  from  dissection 
wounds. 

Carbolic  acid  checks  the  parasitic  growth  of  ringworm, 
but  is  not  so  effectual  as  iodine  or  ferric-chloride  dressings. 
Alternated  with  other  remedies,  it  is  often  serviceable  in 
that  form  of  eczema  popularly  known  as  grease.  In  these 
and  other  cases  where  there  are  foul  discharges,  it  proves  a 
useful  addition  to  lead,  zinc,  or  other  appropriate  dressings. 
In  patchy  eczema  of  dogs,  attended  with  discharge,  the  acid 
is  sometimes  applied  mixed  with  starch  powder  or  fuller's- 
earth.  For  most  eczema  cases  the  wood-tar  oils  are, 
however,  more  suitable  than  those  derived  from  coal-tar. 
Diluted  solutions  are  used  for  destroying  ticks,  keds,  lice, 
and  the  acari  of  scab  and  mange.  Follicular  mange  in  dogs 
may  be  successfully  treated  by  shaving  the  hair,  scrubbing 
thoroughly  with  soap  and  water,  and  painting  the  skin 
with  a  solution  of  one  part  of  acid  to  twenty  of  water  or 
glycerin,  but  to  avoid  dangerous  absorption,  too  large  a 
surface  must  not  be  dressed  at  a  time. 

Crude  carbolic  acid  is  used  for  the  disinfection  of  stables, 
kennels,  cow-houses,  piggeries,  and  poultry  pens  ;  of  railway 
horse-boxes,  cattle-trucks,  and  loading-places,  and  of  cattle 
vessels  and  landing-stages.  Carbolic  disinfecting  powders 
are  conveniently  sprinkled  daily  throughout  the  stables  of 
many  omnibus,  cab,  and  carrying  establishments  of  London, 
Liverpool,  and  other  large  towns.  Thus  employed,  carbolic 
acid  is  not  injurious  or  distasteful  either  to  the  animals  or 
their  attendants.  It  drives  away  flies  and  vermin  ;  arrest- 
ing decomposition,  it  prevents  unpleasant  smells  ;  fixing 
ammonia,  it  increases  the  value  of  manure  with  which  it 
has  been  mixed.  To  ensure  purification  of  infected  premises, 
the  antiseptic  must  be  freely  and  frequently  used  in  powder, 
fluid,  spray,  or  vapour,  or  in  several  of  these  forms.  The 
vapour  is  readily  evolved  by  sprinkling  the  acid  on  live  coals 
or  on  a  hot  metal  plate.  During  the  prevalence  of  infectious 
disease,  the  walls  and  woodwork  of  stables,  cowsheds,  etc., 
may  be  smeared  with  the  crude  acid.  To  destroy  germs  or 
limit  their  distribution,  animals  infected  with  contagious 


ANTISEPTIC    SOLUTIONS  417 

disease  should  be  sponged  daily  with  a  two  per  cent,  carbolic 
solution,  and  all  discharges  should  be  treated  with  a  five 
per  cent,  or  stronger  solution.  Infection  may  thus  be 
prevented  spreading  to  healthy  subjects,  which,  by  daily 
administration  of  antiseptics,  may,  moreover,  be  rendered 
less  liable  to  suffer  from  disease. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  fl\xxx.  to  ll\clx.  ; 
sheep  and  large  pigs,  Tl\x.  to  H\xx.  ;  dogs,  TT\i.  to  IT^iii. 
Carbolic  acid  should  not  be  given  to  cats,  and  as  it  com- 
municates a  disagreeable  odour  to  the  flesh,  it  should  not 
be  administered  to  cattle  or  sheep  intended  for  immediate 
slaughter  for  human  food.  The  B.P.  liquefied  acid  is  best 
for  internal  use.  It  may  be  made  into  bolus  with  meal, 
but  is  more  readily  absorbed,  more  regular  in  its  effects, 
and  less  likely  to  develop  local  irritation,  when  given  well 
diluted,  either  in  water  or  in  glycerin  and  water.  One  part 
by  weight  of  acid  rubbed  in  a  mortar  with  ten  of  glycerin 
forms  a  convenient  compound,  readily  miscible  with  water 
or  other  solvent.  Brown  discoloration  of  the  urine  need  not 
prevent  the  continued  use  of  the  drug.  Such  discoloration 
results  more  frequently  from  external  applications  which 
favour  rapid  oxidation.  An  ointment  is  made  by  rubbing 
in  a  mortar  about  one  part  of  acid  with  twenty  of  vaseline  or 
lard.  The  liniment  usually  contains  one  part  of  acid  shaken 
up  with  twenty  to  forty  of  olive  or  rapeseed  oil.  For 
dusting  irritable  surfaces  it  is  mixed  with  starch,  lycopodium, 
and  occasionally  with  charcoal  and  plaster  of  Paris.  Watery 
solutions  (3  to  5  per  cent.)  are,  however,  most  convenient 
and  penetrating,  and  are  best  fitted  for  antiseptic  purposes. 
Lister's  strong  solution  consists  of  50  parts  each  of  carbolic 
acid  and  glycerin  (or  alcohol),  and  900  parts  of  water. 
For  intratracheal  injection  a  one  per  cent,  solution  in  alcohol 
and  water  may  be  used  in  doses  of  2J  to  5  drachms.  Sub- 
cutaneously  the  horse  may  be  given  §j.  to  §ij.  of  a  one  or 
two  per  cent,  solution  of  phenol  in  20  parts  of  glycerin  and 
80  parts  of  water.  Camphorated  carbolic  acid,  used  as  a 
germicide  dressing  for  sluggish  sores,  consists  of  twelve 
parts  phenol,  four  of  camphor,  and  one  of  water  ;  liquefied 
by  trituration.  Iodised  phenol  is  made  with  one  ounce  of 
liquid  carbolic  acid  and  forty  grains  of  iodine.  Carbolic  oil, 

2D 


418  CARBOLIC    ACID 

made  with  one  of  phenol,  four  of  castor  oil,  and  twelve  of 
almond  oil,  is  used  for  oiling  catheters  and  instruments  after 
they  have  been  disinfected.  Aseptic  Chinese  twist  for  sutures, 
is  prepared  for  use  by  stretching  the  twist,  boiling  for  ten 
minutes,  rewinding  on  a  glass  slide,  and  preserving  in  5 
per  cent,  carbolic  solution.  Carbolised  tow  contains  tar, 
and  5  per  cent,  of  phenol.  Absorbent  carbolised  wool 
contains  5  per  cent.,  and  carbolised  lint  and  gauze  5  to  10 
per  cent.,  of  phenol.  Carbo-sapol  consists  of  fifty  parts 
carbolic  acid,  twenty-five  parts  yellow  hard  soap,  and 
twenty-five  parts  soft  soap.  The  ingredients  are  heated 
together  on  a  water  bath  until  a  clear  solution  is  obtained. 
It  readily  mixes  with  water,  and  a  one  per  cent,  solution 
does  not  attack  the  hands.  Its  antiseptic  power  is  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  corrosive  sublimate  (Coblentz).  Phenyform, 
a  condensation  product  of  phenol  and  formaldehyde,  is  a 
white,  tasteless,  and  odourless  powder,  insoluble  in  water, 
ether,  chloroform,  and  oils,  soluble  in  alcohol,  acetone,  and 
alkalies.  It  is  a  good  antiseptic  for  wounds,  and  a  cheap 
substitute  for  iodoform. 

Sulpho-earbolie  or  sulpho-phenie  acid  (H.C6H4O.HS03)  is 
prepared  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  warm  phenol. 
It  crystallises  slowly,  and  forms  colourless,  deliquescent 
needles,  having  less  odour  than  carbolic  acid  ;  at  400°  Fahr. 
it  becomes  red  ;  at  540°  Fahr.  it  boils.  It  is  antiseptic  and 
disinfectant,  and  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and 
glycerin.  With  the  oxides  or  carbonates  of  the  alkalies, 
earths,  or  metals,  it  forms  crystalline,  soluble,  almost 
odourless,  usually  colourless,  sulpho-carbolates,  which  do 
not  give  any  evidence  of  the  actions  of  carbolic  acid.  The 
sodium  salt  may  be  used  as  either  a  surgical  or  medical 
antiseptic.  The  iron,  zinc,  and  copper  salts  exhibit  the 
actions  of  their  bases.  These  sulpho-carbolates  are  excreted 
by  the  kidneys  in  great  part  unaltered ;  they  probably  do 
not  readily  give  up  their  carbolic  acid  in  the  body,  and 
certainly  have  not  fulfilled  the  expectations  formed  of  them 
when  they  were  introduced  as  antiseptics.  Sulpho-carbolic 
acid  is  stated  to  form  33 J  per  cent,  of  aseptol,  an  antiseptic 
which  is  soluble  but  inactive  in  glycerin,  alcohol,  or  oil. 
An  aqueous  solution  of  3,  5,  or  10  per  cent,  is  used  as  a 


CREOSOTE  419 

dressing  for  wounds.     It  is  less  caustic  than  phenol,  and  it 
may  be  administered  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic. 


CREOSOTE 

CREOSOTUM.  Creosote.  A  mixture  of  guaiacol,  creosol,  and 
other  phenols,  obtained  in  the  distillation  of  wood- tar 
(B.P.). 

Tar  obtained  from  hard  woods  yields  20  to  25  per  cent, 
of  creosote.  The  process  of  extraction  is  tedious  and  com- 
plex, requiring  repeated  distillations  and  the  removal  of 
the  lighter  oils.  It  is  a  mixture  of  phenol,  cresol,  phlorol, 
guaiacol,  and  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  creosol.  It  yields 
creosotic  acid,  which  in  its  properties  and  uses  closely 
resembles  salicylic  acid. 

Creosote  is  a  mobile,  oily,  neutral,  or  only  faintly  acid  fluid, 
colourless  and  transparent  when  first  prepared,  but,  unless 
very  pure,  soon  becoming  brown.  Specific  gravity  1*079. 
It  has  a  strong,  persistent,  smoky  odour,  and  a  pungent, 
acrid  taste,  with  a  sweet  after-taste.  It  requires  for  solution 
one  hundred  and  fifty  parts  of  water,  but  readily  dissolves  in 
alcohol,  ether,  acetic  acid,  and  volatile  oils.  Dropped  on 
white  filtering  paper,  and  exposed  to  a  heat  of  212°  Fahr., 
it  leaves  no  translucent  stain  (B.P.). 

Impure  carbolic  acid  and  other  coal-tar  oils,  frequently 
mixed  with  or  substituted  for  the  more  expensive  wood 
creosote,  are  distinguished  from  it  by  their  greater  solubility 
in  water  ;  by  their  solidifying  in  acicular  crystals  at  low 
temperatures  ;  by  their  not  affecting  a  ray  of  polarised  light, 
which  creosote  turns  to  the  left  ;  by  their  producing  a  clear 
jelly  when  shaken  with  collodion,  which  does  not  affect  wood 
creosote  ;  while  their  watery  solution  gives  a  blue  colour, 
with  a  neutral  iron  perchloride  solution,  which  gradually 
browns  the  watery  solution  of  wood  creosote. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Creosote  belongs  to  the  aromatic 
series  of  carbon  compounds.  Containing  so  many  phenols 
and  guaiacol,  it  has  a  complex  action,  but  it  resembles 
carbolic  acid,  and  is  a  more  active  germicide.  It  is  occasion- 
ally administered  to  arrest  gastro-intestinal  fermentation, 


420  CREOSOTE 

and  diminish  fee  tor  of  the  discharges.  It  may  be  used  as  an 
antiseptic,  hemostatic,  and  analgesic,  and  for  the  destruction 
of  skin  parasites  and  bacteria.  In  large  doses  it  is  an 
irritant  poison  and  cardiac  paralysant,  just  like  carbolic 
acid. 

[4 GENERAL  ACTIONS.— When  undiluted,  it  coagulates  al- 
bumin and  destroys  the  epithelium  of  mucous  membranes, 
and  even  of  the  skin,  producing  corrugation  and  a  white 
stain  or  scar.  Diluted  it  is  astringent  and  antiseptic, 
irritates  slightly,  and  then  causes  analgesia  and  feeble 
anaesthesia.  Although  in  saturated  solution  it  has  little 
effect  on  enzymes,  one  part  in  five  hundred  of  water  arrests 
the  action  of  yeast,  while  one  in  one  thousand  kills  bacteria 
(Bucholtz).  It  is  absorbed,  and  communicates  its  odour  to 
the  various  tissues.  Large  doses,  given  internally,  cause 
nausea  ;  in  carnivora,  vomiting,  colicky  pains,  and  diarrhoea, 
with  muscular  paralysis,  especially  involving  the  heart, 
and  depressing  the  central  nervous  system.  It  is  excreted 
partly  by  the  lungs,  but  chiefly  by  the  kidneys. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Three  drachms  given  to  horses  caused 
slight  and  temporary  feverishness,  and  imparted  to  the 
breath  a  creosote  odour  (Hertwig.)  Thirty  drops  given  to 
dogs  caused  uneasiness,  copious  salivation,  vertigo,  muscular 
twitching,  enfeebled  and  fluttering  action  of  the  heart, 
laboured  breathing,  diminished  sensibility,  dulness,  and 
stupor.  The  symptoms  came  on  within  a  few  minutes, 
and  continued  for  two  or  three  hours.  For  a  day  or  two, 
however,  irritability  of  the  stomach,  occasional  vomiting, 
and  dulness  were  still  observable.  Two  dogs  got  two 
drachms  each,  and  died  within  three  hours,  evincing, 
besides  the  symptoms  above  mentioned,  violent  convulsions 
and  complete  coma.  From  the  prominence  of  the  con- 
vulsions in  these  cases,  it  is  probable  that  the  creosote 
was  largely  mixed  with  carbolic  acid.  The  antidotes  have 
been  enumerated  (p.  412). 

MEDICINAL  USES. — It  is  prescribed  in  some  forms  of  in- 
digestion, to  arrest  undue  fermentation,  and  in  chronic 
vomiting  in  dogs.  With  chalk  and  catechu  mixture,  or  a 
little  laudanum  and  an  aromatic,  it  helps  to  check  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery  in  cattle.  A  few  drops  inhaled  with  steam 


ANTISEPTIC   AND    ANALGESIC  421 

benefit  chronic  bronchitis  and  lung  complaints,  when  accom- 
panied by  excessive  or  foetid  discharges.  Parasites  lodged 
in  the  air-passages  are  destroyed  by  creosote,  administered 
by  the  mouth,  or,  more  effectually,  by  inhalation,  or 
intratracheal  injection.  In  gangrenous  equine  pneumonia 
creosote  has  been  given  intratracheally  with  some  advantage 
in  relieving  distressed  breathing  and  irritable  bowels.  It 
has  been  tried  in  purpura  in  horses,  but  without  any  very 
striking  results.  Nasal  gleet,  with  enlarged  glands  and 
foetid  discharge,  is  sometimes,  however,  benefited  by  a  daily 
drachm  of  creosote,  made  into  bolus  with  linseed  meal. 

For  external  purposes,  carbolic  acid  has  superseded 
creosote  as  an  antiseptic  for  wounds,  but  as  a  stimulant 
and  escharotic  in  caries,  fistula,  canker,  thrush,  and  foot- 
rot,  creosote  with  an  equal  part  of  tincture  of  iodine,  is 
still  used.  Diluted  with  alcohol  and  water,  or  with  vinegar, 
it  is  occasionally  used  to  relieve  itching  and  remove  scurf 
in  chronic  eczema,  prurigo,  and  psoriasis.  It  destroys 
parasites  infesting  the  skin.  For  mange  and  scab,  Gerlach 
advised  an  ounce  of  creosote,  dissolved  in  fifteen  ounces  of 
spirit  and  forty  of  water.  For  intractable  follicular  mange, 
after  washing  the  dog  with  soap  and  water,  or,  better  still, 
shaving  him,  Hunting  advises  inunction  of  a  mixture  of 
one  part  of  creosote  and  fourteen  of  olive-oil,  the  penetrating 
power  being  increased  by  the  addition  of  two  parts  solution 
of  caustic  potash.  Human  patients  suffering  from  tooth- 
ache depending  on  caries  are  often  relieved  by  a  drop  of 
creosote  cautiously  placed  in  the  hollow  of  the  tooth. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses,  lT\xxx.  to  lT|Jxxx.  ;  for  cattle, 
f  3i.  to  3Jv.  ;  sheep,  Tl\xx.  to  lT[xxx.  ;  pigs,  TT[v  to  H|xv.  ; 
dogs,  H\i.  to  H\v.  It  is  given  in  bolus  or  pill  with  syrup  ; 
in  emulsion,  with  mucilage,  or  oil ;  in  six  parts  of  alcohol, 
or  in  aqueous  solution  one  per  cent.  ;  or  conveniently 
shaken  up  with  milk.  As  a  stimulant  or  escharotic,  it  is 
applied  with  a  camel's-hair  brush  ;  is  used  in  solution 
in  spirit  or  acetic  acid,  or  as  an  ointment,  made  with  one 
part  to  eight  of  lard  or  simple  ointment.  For  skin  diseases, 
equal  parts  of  creosote  and  sulphur  may  be  made  into  an 
ointment  with  lard,  or  a  liniment  with  oil.  A  few  drops 
are  sometimes  added  to  turpentine,  ammonia,  or  other 


422  CRESOL   AND    CREOLIK 

embrocations.  For  intratracheal  injection  in  parasitic 
bronchitis  Tl\5  to  H\10  creosote  are  dissolved  in  H\60  to 
IT\100  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  water  ; 
and  in  equine  pneumonia,  five  drachms  of  a  solution  of 
one  part  creosote  and  forty  to  fifty  parts  each  of  alcohol 
and  water,  may  be  used. 

Guaiacol  (methyl-pyrocatechin),  CH7O2,  a  colourless,  re- 
fractive liquid,  with  a  characteristic  odour,  is  obtained  by 
distillation  from  beech  creosote,  or  from  guaiacum  resin. 
It  is  closely  allied  in  antiseptic  properties  and  general 
actions  to  creosote,  for  which  it  may  be  substituted.  Com- 
mercial guaiacol  is  an  oily  liquid  containing  about  90  per 
cent,  of  pure  guaiacol,  which  is  crystalline.  It  is  soluble 
in  eighty-five  parts  of  water,  and  freely  in  alcohol,  acetone, 
ether,  oils,  and  glycerin.  It  is  more  germicide  than  phenol, 
and  much  less  toxic.  Applied  to  the  skin  in  fever  it 
markedly  lowers  temperature,  but  as  an  antipyretic  it  has 
been  little  used.  As  a  local  anaesthetic  its  action  is  slow, 
but  more  durable  than  that  of  cocaine.  It  anaesthetises 
both  inflamed  and  healthy  tissues.  A  one  per  cent,  solu- 
tion in  castor  oil  is  used  as  an  anaesthetic  instillation  for 
the  eye  ;  and  fifteen  grains  pure  guaiacol  dissolved  in  four 
or  five  drachms  of  sterilised  neutral  oil  or  glycerin  form  an 
anaesthetic  injection  which  is  useful  in  minor  surgery,  half 
a  drachm  to  two  drachms  being  injected  into  the  area 
of  operation.  Guaiacol  has  been  prescribed  in  phthisis 
and  pneumonia  of  man,  and  in  most  cases  the  temperature 
was  considerably  reduced.  It  may  be  administered  in 
the  same  doses  as  creosote.  The  carbonate  (Duotal),  a 
neutral  crystalline  powder,  is  sometimes  prescribed  in 
bronchitis  and  rheumatism,  and  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic. 
It  passes  unchanged  through  the  stomach  into  the  bowel, 
where  it  is  split  up  (Coblentz). 

CRESOL-CREOLIN 

Cresol  is  a  coal-tar  product  of  complex  composition,  con- 
taining naphthalene,  xylenol,  phloral,  leucoline,  anthracene, 
paracresol,  pyridine,  with  sodium  carbonate,  sulphate  and 
chloride,  and  traces  of  carbolic  acid. 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  423 

Creolin,  or  cresols  and  hydrocarbons  saponified  with 
resin  and  alkalies,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the 
benzol  or  aromatic  carbon  series.  It  is  a  dark-brown,  oily 
liquid,  of  a  tar-like  odour  and  an  aromatic  taste  ;  neutral 
or  slightly  alkaline  ;  soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  and  in 
ninety-five  parts  of  strong  alcohol ;  mixed  with  forty  or 
more  parts  of  water  it  forms  an  opaque  milky  emulsion. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Creolin  is  antiseptic,  disinfectant, 
deodorant,  parasiticide,  astringent,  and  styptic.  Its  anti- 
septic power  has  been  investigated  by  Frohner,  Albrecht, 
Eisenberg,  and  others.  Bacteriological  tests  prove  it  to 
be  more  prompt  and  effective  than  carbolic  acid  in  the 
destruction  of  the  microbes  of  glanders,  anthrax,  fowl- 
cholera,  etc.  A  1  per  1000  solution  is  stated  to  kill  cholera 
bacteria  in  ten  minutes,  and  arrest  development  of  typhus 
bacilli  in  one  hour  ;  while  a  1  per  1000  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  requires  four  days  to  kill  the  microbes  of  cholera,  and 
had  no  effect  on  those  of  typhus  in  twenty-six  days  (Frohner). 
In  solutions  of  3  to  5  per  cent,  creolin  destroys  nearly  instan- 
taneously the  bacteria  of  glanders,  anthrax,  and  mammitis, 
as  well  as  pyogenic  organisms.  The  virulence  of  tubercle 
bacilli  is  destroyed  in  a  few  minutes  by  a  3  per  cent,  solu- 
tion, while  a  5  per  cent,  solution  is  fatal  to  anthrax  spores 
in  twenty-four  hours.  Kaufmann  states  that  as  a  bacteri- 
cide  it  is  ten  times  as  powerful  as  carbolic  acid.  It  coagu- 
lates albumin,  but,  unlike  carbolic  acid  and  creosote, 
moderately  strong  solutions  do  not  irritate  the  skin,  or 
the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth  and  nose.  It  is  quickly 
absorbed,  and  large  doses  have  been  given  to  animals 
without  causing  intoxication  or  serious  injury.  It  rapidly 
impregnates  with  its  empyreumatic  phenol  odour  the  sweat, 
milk,  and  urine,  by  which  it  is  excreted,  partly  as  naphtha- 
lene, partly  as  sulphuric  acid.  It  usually  colours  the  urine 
brown. 

Employed  with  ordinary  care,  creolin  is  not  poisonous  ; 
but  as  the  proportion  of  phenols  and  cresols  in  different 
samples  probably  varies,  caution  should  be  exercised  in 
its  administration.  Horses  have  received  in  emulsion  from 
one  and  a  half  to  three  fluid  ounces  without  ill  effect,  and 
cattle  still  larger  doses.  A  medium-sized  dog  had  a  drachm 


424  CREOLIN 

and  a  half,  and  another  thirty  minims  daily  for  four  weeks 
without  injury.  Sheep  and  goats  have  taken  with  impunity 
two  to  six  fluid  drachms.  Very  large  doses  have  been  given 
by  the  mouth  without  provoking  serious  symptoms.  The 
in-rubbing  even  of  concentrated  solutions  is  well  borne. 
Frohner  records  that  at  the  Berlin  Veterinary  College 
upwards  of  1000  mangy  dogs  have  been  treated  with  creolin 
lotions  without  a  mishap.  A  thousand  horses  suffering 
from  mange  have  been  dressed  with  a  10  per  cent,  solution  ; 
sheep  suffering  from  scab  have  been  dipped  in  a  2J  per  cent, 
solution  ;  while  20,000  sheep  are  stated  to  have  been  washed 
with  creolin  dips  in  Prussia  in  1888.  Further  testimony 
of  its  innocuous  and  non-irritant  character  is  adduced  by 
Spath  and  two  of  his  colleagues,  who  took  daily  from  thirty 
minims  to  two  fluid  drachms  without  loss  of  appetite, 
nausea,  or  disturbance  of  circulation  or  secretion.  The 
larger  doses  diminished  the  amount  of  intestinal  gas,  the 
faeces  lost  their  distinctive  smell,  and  the  urine  contained 
less  indican,  and,  although  kept  for  several  days  in  a  warm 
room,  did  not  decompose. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — At  the  several  Continental  veterinary 
schools  Creolin-Pearson  or  Jeyes'  Fluid,  is  much  used,  and 
is  characterised  as  the  cheapest  and  best  antiseptic  and 
disinfectant.  It  is  not  often  prescribed  internally,  but,  as 
already  indicated,  in  gastro-intestinal  derangements  it  is 
effectual  in  checking  undue  fermentation,  and  lessening 
the  fcetor  and  acridity  of  the  excretions.  As  a  surgical 
antiseptic,  it  has  the  merit  of  being  non-irritant  and  non- 
poisonous.  It  does  not  dry  or  harden  the  operator's 
hands,  or  spoil  the  steel  instruments,  as  carbolic  acid  does. 
With  glycerin  and  water  it  is  a  serviceable  gargle  in  aphthous 
ulcerated  conditions  of  the  mouth  and  throat.  It  is  inhaled 
in  ozaena,  strangles,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  purpura. 
In  the  form  of  injection  it  is  useful  in  retention  of  the  fo3tal 
membranes,  metritis,  cystitis,  and  otorrhoea.  It  destroys 
skin  parasites,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  in  all  animals, 
and  is  recommended  in  chronic  eczema.  It  is  used  for  the 
several  purposes  of  a  disinfectant.  Creolin  has  been 
thoroughly  tested  by  Albrecht  and  Frohner,  who  report 
most  favourably  of  its  antiseptic  value  in  the  treat- 


CYLLIN   AND    LYSOL  425 

ment  of  accidental  and  surgical  wounds,  skin  affections, 
and  diarrhoea. 

DOSES,  etc. — Creolin,  horses  and  cattle,  f3ij-  ^°  f3yi-  > 
dogs,  fl\v.  to  fl\xx.  ;  calves,  sheep,  and  pigs,  fl\xxx.  to  H\lx., 
in  five  to  ten  ounces  of  water.  For  external  purposes,  one 
to  five  parts  are  mixed  with  a  hundred  of  water,  solution 
being  facilitated  by  addition  of  a  little  glycerin  or  soft  soap. 
As  a  dry  dressing  it  is  used  with  boric  acid,  zinc  oxide,  or 
kaolin.  Creolin  solutions  lose  their  efficacy  when  long  kept, 
and  hence  should  be  made  up  fresh  every  week.  For  mange 
or  scab  Frohner  advises  the  dressing  of  the  worst  parts  with 
a  lotion  of  one  part  each  of  creolin  and  methylated  spirit 
and  eight  parts  of  soap,  and  subsequently  placing  the 
patient  for  two  or  three  minutes  in  a  bath  of  two  or  two  and 
a  half  per  cent,  of  creolin,  and,  if  necessary,  repeating  the 
treatment  in  a  week. 

Cyllin  is  a  non-toxic  antiseptic,  containing  about  sixty 
per  cent,  of  oxidised  hydrocarbons,  free  of  phenol,  emulsi- 
fied with  neutral  tar  oil.  Solutions  of  one  to  two  hundred 
of  water  are  employed  for  operation  wounds,  and  a  solution 
of  one  to  four  hundred  of  water  for  mucous  membranes. 
It  is  often  prescribed  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic. 

Lysol,  stated  to  be  the  product  of  a  solution  of  tar  oils  in 
a  neutral  soap,  is  a  clear,  brown,  syrupy  liquid,  containing 
about  50  per  cent,  of  cresols.  Mixed  with  water  it  forms  a 
clear,  saponaceous  liquid.  Cadeac,  Guinard,  and  others 
state  that  as  an  antiseptic  it  is  more  powerful  than  carbolic 
acid.  A  one  or  two  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  is  used  as 
a  wound  dressing,  as  a  bath  for  instruments  and  ligatures 
and  for  disinfection  of  the  hands.  A  one  per  cent,  solution 
has  been  prescribed  as  a  vermicide,  especially  for  strongyles, 
and  as  an  udder  injection  in  parturient  toxaemia  ;  and  a 
three  per  cent,  solution  is  serviceable  as  a  dressing  for 
parasitic  affections  of  the  skin.  Izal  is  said  to  consist  of 
an  emulsion  containing  40  per  cent,  of  a  tar  oil  produced 
by  a  special  process  in  the  manufacture  of  coke.  A  solu- 
tion of  one  part  in  two  hundred  of  water  is  used  as  a 
disinfectant  and  antiseptic.  Solutol,  an  alkaline  solution 
of  sodium  cresol,  and  Solveol,  a  solution  of  cresol  in  sodium 
cresotate,  are  used  as  disinfectants.  Solutol  is  unsuitable 


426  IODOFORM 

for  surgical  uses  because  of  its  caustic  alkalinity.  Solveol 
is  nearly  odourless,  and  miscible  with  water  in  all  pro- 
portions, forming  a  solution  which  is  free  from  the  greasiness 
of  lysol  and  creolin.  As  a  germicide,  an  aqueous  solution 
of  one  part  in  two  hundred,  is  stated  to  be  equal  to  a  2  per 
cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid  (Coblentz). 


IODOFORM 

IODOFORMUM.  Tri-iodomethane.  A  product  of  the  action 
of  iodine  on  ethylic  alcohol  in  the  presence  of  solution 
of  potassium  carbonate.  CHI3  (B.P.). 

It  occurs  in  shining,  lemon  yellow,  hexagonal  crystals  ; 
is  volatile,  has  a  persistent,  disagreeable  odour  and  taste  ; 
is  very  slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  but  is  soluble  in  10 
of  ether,  12  chloroform,  95  rectified  spirit,  10  collodion, 
60  vaseline,  14  eucalyptus  oil,  and  in  glycerin,  fixed  and 
volatile  oils. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  contains  96  per  cent,  of  iodine 
with  which  it  readily  parts,  exerting  antiseptic  and  parasiti- 
cide actions.  It  has  only  a  very  limited  power  of  destroy- 
ing bacteria  which  grow  and  multiply  on  media  charged 
with  the  drug.  It,  however,  diminishes  the  virulence  of 
micro-organisms  by  acting  on  their  products  which,  accord- 
ing to  Lister,  it  chemically  alters  or  destroys.  Local 
suppuration  invariably  produced  by  subcutaneous  injection 
of  cadaverin  does  not  occur  when  iodoform  is  added  to  this 
toxin.  Behring  found  that  cultures  of  pyogenic  organisms 
injected  into  the  peritoneum  caused  death  in  twenty-four 
hours,  but  had  no  effect  when  the  culture  was  mixed  with 
a  little  iodoform.  Although  proved  to  be  a  feeble  germicide, 
iodoform  has  rendered  excellent  service  in  clinical  practice. 
It  is  not  so  irritant  as  iodine.  It  resembles  chloroform  and 
bromoform,  and,  like  them,  is  a  local  anaesthetic.  Applied 
to  a  wound  it  remains  long  unconsumed  ;  and  under  the 
combined  influence  of  heat,  moisture,  and  fat  it  is  slowly 
dissolved  and  decomposed  with  liberation  of  free  iodine 
upon  which  its  antiseptic  power  probably  depends. 

It  has  little  effect  on  the  unbroken  skin,  but  slightly 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  427 

irritates  abraded  skin  and  mucous  surfaces.  It  is  a  more 
effectual  local  anaesthetic  than  chloroform  or  bromoform, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  neither  so  irritant  nor  so  volatile.  It  is 
slowly  absorbed,  forms  iodides  and  iodates,  and  produces 
many  of  the  effects  of  iodine  ;  but  when  swallowed  in  large 
doses  it  is  more  lethal,  and  it  appears  probable  that  some 
iodoform  is  absorbed  unchanged  for  the  toxic  effects  are  not 
those  of  iodides.  In  dogs  and  cats  it  induces  gastric 
derangement,  vomiting,  and  muscular  spasms,  and  then 
lowered  temperature,  impaired  heart  action,  albuminuria, 
and  narcosis,  preceded  by  lessened  excitability  of  the  cord 
and  motor  areas  of  the  brain  ;  but  in  rabbits  narcosis  is  not 
produced.  In  man  the  most  characteristic  effects  of  iodo- 
form poisoning  are  violent  delirium  and  mania,  much  more 
rarely  deep  sleep  and  stupor  without  excitement.  Frohner 
records  that  for  each  kilogramme  of  body-weight  dogs  are 
poisoned  by  fifteen  grains  given  by  the  mouth,  twenty  to 
thirty  grains  given  subcutaneously,  or  seven  grains  injected 
into  a  serous  cavity.  An  old  cow  which  received  an  ounce 
and  a  half  died  in  thirty-six  hours,  with  spasms  and  narcosis. 
Chronic  poisoning  induces  emaciation  and  fatty  degeneration 
of  muscles  and  glands.  Iodoform  is  slowly  excreted  in  the 
urine  chiefly  as  sodium  iodide. 

It  is  rarely  prescribed  internally.  Its  chief  use  is  as  an 
antiseptic  dressing  for  unhealthy  wounds,  being  especially 
useful  when  dressings  cannot  be  conveniently  changed,  or 
where  they  cannot  be  properly  applied,  as  in  wounds  of  the 
rectum,  bladder,  and  generative  organs.  It  is  used  in  burns, 
eczema,  canker  in  horses'  feet,  and  fistulse.  Small  doses 
maintain  wounds  in  an  aseptic  state,  promote  granulation, 
and  allay  irritation.  Wounds,  after  cleansing  with  carbolic 
or  zinc  chloride  solution,  are  dusted  with  the  powder,  used 
alone  or  mixed  with  boric  acid,  and  covered  with  iodoform 
or  carbolic  gauze,  or  moistened  with  an  ethereal  or  oily 
solution.  Oil  of  eucalyptus,  and  balsam  of  Peru  or  Tolu, 
are  convenient  solvents,  which  also  cover  the  disagreeable 
smell  and  taste.  As  a  parasiticide  it  is  used  for  the  same 
cases  as  iodine.  Ethereal  solutions  are  injected  in  ozaena 
and  ulcerated  sore-throat.  Pencils  made  with  50  to  70  per 
cent,  of  iodoform,  mixed  with  starch  and  gum,  are  used  in 


428  IODOFORM 

wooden  holders  for  dressing  wounds  ;  while  injections  and 
suppositories  made  with  eucalyptus  oil  and  cacao  butter,  are 
serviceable  as  deodorisers  and  local  antiseptics  in  painful 
conditions  of  the  rectum  and  urino-genital  organs.  Al- 
though not  liable  to  cause  injury  by  absorption,  dogs,  unless 
muzzled,  are  prone  to  lick  the  dressed  surfaces,  and  in  this 
way  are  sometimes  poisoned.  lodoform  emulsion — con- 
taining one  part  iodoform  moistened  with  alcohol,  two  parts 
boiling  water,  and  seven  of  glycerin — is  a  valuable  injection 
for  sinuous  wounds. 

lodol  (tetra-iodopyrrol)  (C4I4NH),  containing  89  per  cent, 
of  iodine,  is  a  light-brown,  tasteless,  amorphous  powder, 
with  a  faint  thymol-like  smell,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  three  parts  of  alcohol,  and  also  in  ether,  chloro- 
form, glycerin,  and  collodion.  It  resembles  iodoform,  and 
being  less  irritant,  is  preferable  for  internal  use.  Horses  and 
cattle  take  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xxv. ;  dogs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  iii.  It 
may  be  given  suspended  in  glycerin  or  mucilage. 

Aristol  (di- thymol-iodide)  C20H24I202,  is  a  compound  of 
iodine  and  thymol,  conjoins  the  properties  of  its  two  con- 
stituents, and  resembles  iodoform,  but  is  devoid  of  its 
disagreeable  taste  and  toxic  effects.  It  contains  46  per 
cent,  of  iodine.  It  is  soluble  in  fixed  oils,  ether  and  collodion, 
but  not  in  water,  alcohol  or  glycerin.  It  is  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  iodoform,  but  is  a  feeble  antiseptic.  It  dries 
excessive  skin  secretions,  and  is  useful  for  burns,  and  cracked 
heels. 

Europhen,  containing  28  per  cent,  of  iodine,  is  a  light 
yellow  powder,  insoluble  in  water  and  glycerin,  but  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  and  oil.  It  is  non-poisonous,  has  very 
little  odour,  and  is  used  as  a  dry  dressing  in  eczema  and 
otorrhcea  in  dogs.  lodo-salicylic  acid,  containing  50  per 
cent,  of  iodine,  and  di-iodo-salieylie  acid,  containing  66  per 
cent,  of  iodine,  are  anodyne,  antipyretic,  and  antiseptic,  and 
are  used  internally  as  substitutes  for  salicylates  in  the 
treatment  of  rheumatism.  Horses  take  3J-  to  3ij->  dissolved 
in  alcohol,  ether,  or  oil. 

Loretin,  losophan,  sanoform,  sozoiodol,  and  periodate 
are  odourless  iodoform  substitutes.  All  contain  iodine,  and 
are  used  as  antiseptics  in  powder  or  solution,  or  mixed  with 


PRUSSIC    ACID  429 

vaseline  or  collodion.  lodof  ormin,  a  white,  odourless  powder, 
insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform,  containing 
75  per  cent,  of  iodoform  ;  and  iodoformal,  the  product  of 
the  action  of  ethyl  iodide  on  iodoformin,  having  a  strong 
odour  of  coumarin,  are  sometimes  employed  in  place  of 
iodoform. 

PRUSSIC    OR   HYDROCYANIC   ACID 

ACIDUM  HYDROCYANICUM  DILUTUM.  An  aqueous  solution 
containing  2  per  cent,  by  weight  of  hydrogen  cyanide, 
HCN.  (B.P.) 

Prussic  acid  was  so  called  from  being  first  obtained  from 
Prussian  blue.  Its  title  of  hydrocyanic  acid  is  derived  from 
its  being  composed  of  hydrogen  and  the  compound  radicle 
cyanogen.  It  is  one  of  the  products  of  the  distillation  of 
coal,  and  traces  are  found  in  imperfectly  purified  coal-gas. 
The  leaves  and  kernels  of  various  stone  fruits  of  the  apple 
and  almond  natural  orders,  when  crushed  and  moistened, 
undergo  a  species  of  fermentation,  their  albuminoid  emulsin 
decomposing  the  glucoside  amygdalin,  and  producing  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  benzaldehyde,  and  glucose. 

Prussic      Benzalde- 
Amygdalin.  Water.         Acid.  hyde.  Glucose. 

C20H27NOn  +  2H20  =  HCN  +  C7H60  +  2C6H1206. 

Medicinal  hydrocyanic  acid  may  be  prepared  by  the  inter- 
action of  diluted  sulphuric  acid  and  potassium  ferrocyanide. 

The  anhydrous  acid  is  obtained  by  cautiously  distilling 
the  medicinal  acid,  and  collecting  the  vapour  in  a  receiver 
kept  cold  by  ice.  It  is  a  colourless,  very  volatile,  inflam- 
mable liquid,  and,  alike  in  its  gaseous  and  liquid  forms,  is 
a  most  active,  deadly  poison. 

The  medicinal  acid,  when  freshly  prepared,  contains  two 
per  cent,  of  anhydrous  acid,  but  on  account  of  its  volatility 
it  is  apt  to  lose  strength.  This  may  be  obviated  by  keeping 
it  in  stoppered  bottles,  tied  over  with  some  impervious 
covering,  laid  down  inverted  and  in  a  dark  place.  It  is 
colourless,  with  a  diffusible,  peculiar  odour.  Specific 
gravity,  '997.  It  only  slightly  reddens  litmus.  Evapor- 


430  PRUSSIC    ACID 

ated  on  a  platinum  capsule  it  leaves  no  residue.  Seheele's 
acid,  which  is  frequently  used  in  veterinary  practice, 
contains  four  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  cyanide. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Prussic  acid  first  briefly  stimulates 
and  then  paralyses  all  nerve  structures  with  which  it  comes 
into  contact.  A  few  drops  of  the  diluted  acid  applied  to 
mucous  or  skin  surfaces  diminish  or  arrest  sensation.  It  is 
hence  used  as  an  analgesic  for  relief  of  irritation  and  pain, 
especially  of  the  skin,  stomach,  and  throat.  It  is  quickly 
absorbed.  Full  doses  paralyse  the  cerebro-spinal  axis,  kill 
almost  instantaneously  by  cardiac  arrest,  or  somewhat 
less  suddenly  by  respiratory  arrest. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — It  stops  protoplasmic  movements 
both  in  plants  and  animals,  kills  infusoria,  checks  oxidation, 
and  arrests  fermentation  (Brunt on).  The  anhydrous  acid 
applied  to  the  skin,  after  momentary  irritation,  paralyses 
and  anaesthetises.  The  diluted  acid  applied  to  the  skin  or 
mucous  surfaces  quickly  penetrates  and  paralyses  the  nerve- 
endings,  impairing  and  destroying  tactile  sensation  and 
sensibility  to  pain.  If  the  surfaces  are  freely  moistened, 
these  effects  usually  continue  for  one  or  two  hours.  Its 
volatility  and  rapidity  of  diffusion  ensure  quick  absorption, 
and  poisonous  doses  promptly  paralyse  the  central  nervous 
system.  In  moderate  doses  after  absorption  the  primary 
stimulant  action  is  seen.  Respiration  becomes  quicker  and 
deeper  ;  the  heart  beats  slower  from  vagal  stimulation, 
but  blood-pressure  rises  from  the  general  vaso-constriction. 
In  a  short  time  this  stimulation  passes  into  depression, 
respiration  becomes  slow  and  weak,  blood-pressure  falls, 
and  the  heart  becomes  progressively  weaker.  The  further 
effects  depend  on  the  dose.  If  small,  the  volatile  drug 
becomes  diffused  and  excreted  and  recovery  takes  place. 
When  a  large  dose  has  been  given,  the  respiratory,  vaso- 
motor,  and  spasm  centres  of  the  medulla,  and  the  peripheral 
afferent  nerves,  are  early  and  notably  affected  ;  and  in  all 
mammalia  death  usually  occurs  within  a  few  minutes. 
When  poisoning  is  not  immediate,  the  central  nervous 
system  is  affected  ;  there  is  giddiness,  staggering  movements, 
and  a  few  slow  inspirations,  followed  by  rapid  expirations 
and  irregular  heart  action  ;  convulsions,  coma,  anaesthesia, 


KILLS  BY  CARDIAC  OB  RESPIRATORY  ARREST   431 

and  paralysis  of  voluntary  muscles  supervene,  and  death 
from  paralysis  of  the  cardiac  or  respiratory  centre.  Unlike 
other  acids,  prussic  acid  does  not  coagulate  albumin  or 
break  down  the  formed  elements  of  the  blood.  The  potas- 
sium and  other  cyanides  are  soluble,  readily  yield  their 
cyanogen,  and  are  active  poisons,  though  less  so  than  the 
free  acid  ;  but  the  ferro-cyanides  and  other  double  cyanides 
are  greatly  less  active  and  non-toxic. 

Toxic  ACTIONS. — Horses  have  been  poisoned  in  one  or  two 
minutes  by  ten  to  twenty  minims  of  anhydrous  acid,  in- 
jected hypodermically.  Trousseaux  and  Pidoux  placed  a 
piece  of  cotton  wool,  on  which  six  minims  of  anhydrous  acid 
had  been  dropped,  in  the  nostrils  of  two  horses.  In  ten 
seconds  they  dropped  as  if  dead,  and  continued  for  an  hour 
to  exhibit  grave  nervous  symptoms — convulsions,  spasms, 
vertigo,  paralysis,  and  stupor.  Horses  swallowing  four  to 
five  drachms  of  the  two  per  cent,  medicinal  acid  may  die 
within  an  hour.  Coleman  gave  an  aged  horse  repeatedly, 
at  intervals  of  several  days,  one  to  three  drachms  of  acid, 
containing  about  four  per  cent,  of  anhydrous  acid,  and  noted 
much  excitement,  the  pulse  raised  to  100,  and  in  one  experi- 
ment to  160,  laboured  breathing  and  tetanic  contraction  of 
the  muscles  ;  but  the  effects  gradually  passed  away.  Six 
ounces  of  medicinal  acid  given  to  an  old  elephant  caused 
only  slightly  laboured  breathing.  The  horse  can  be  quickly 
killed  by  intrathoracic  injection  of  one  or  two  drachms  of 
Scheele's  acid. 

Dogs,  cats,  and  rabbits,  which  had  one  to  four  drops  of 
anhydrous  acid  placed  on  the  tongue  or  within  the  eyelids, 
in  ten  to  thirty  seconds  made  three  or  four  hurried  inspira- 
tions, a  convulsive  expiration,  often  a  cry,  had  tetanic  con- 
vulsions, and  died  in  one  to  three  minutes.  Air  saturated 
with  the  gas  killed  one  dog  in  ten  seconds,  another  in  five, 
and  a  cat  in  two  seconds.  Guinea-pigs  inhaling  it  for  one 
second  die  in  fifteen  seconds.  Strong  rabbits  inhaling  it  for 
three  seconds  die  in  thirty  seconds  ;  but  birds  are  not 
susceptible,  and  frogs  are  still  less  so.  Dogs  and  cats 
receiving  forty  to  sixty  minims  of  the  two  per  cent,  acid  were 
sometimes  poisoned  almost  as  rapidly  as  with  the  anhydrous. 
More  frequently,  however,  life  is  prolonged  for  several 


432  PRUSSIC    ACID 

minutes,  and  death  is  preceded  by  giddiness,  impaired 
voluntary  movement,  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  a  slight  rise 
and  subsequent  fall  of  blood-pressure,  slowing  of  the  pulse, 
rapid  failure  of  respiration,  and  tetanic  convulsions.  The 
heart  continues  to  beat  for  several  minutes  after  respiration 
has  ceased.  Experimentally,  two  ounces  were  found  to 
cause  rapid  death  of  Greenland  whales,  when  discharged  by 
an  ingenious  device  into  the  wound  made  by  the  harpoon. 

Post-mortem  discloses  variable  appearances.  Animals 
dying  almost  instantaneously  from  cardiac  arrest  have  the 
blood  of  an  arterial  hue,  as  if,  from  dilatation  of  the  remote 
capillaries,  it  had  passed  through  them  without  change, 
When  the  respiratory  centre  of  the  medulla  has  been 
paralysed,  causing  death  somewhat  more  slowly  by  respira- 
tory arrest,  the  appearances  are  those  of  suffocation.  For 
some  hours  after  death  the  blood  remains  fluid,  of  a  blue 
colour,  and  occasionally  evolves  the  peculiar  odour  of  the 
acid. 

ANTIDOTES. — Prussic  acid  is  usually  so  rapidly  fatal  that 
the  animal  is  often  dead  before  any  remedial  measures  can 
be  adopted  ;  but  so  volatile  is  the  poison,  and  so  rapidly  is 
it  removed  from  the  body,  chiefly  by  the  lungs,  that  if  the 
animal  lives  for  half  an  hour  it  will  generally  recover. 
Artificial  respiration,  and  subcutaneous  injection  of  ether, 
sometimes  save  animals  that  have  had  lethal  doses.  Cautious 
hypodermic  injection  of  small  doses  of  atropine  sulphate 
stimulates  the  cardiac  and  respiratory  centres,  and  may 
thus  avert  mortal  paralysis.  Inhalation  of  ammonia  and 
douching  alternately  with  cold  and  warm  water  applied  to 
the  head  and  neck,  have  also  been  advised.  The  chemical 
antidote  is  a  mixture  of  a  ferrous  and  ferric  salt,  administered 
with  magnesia  or  potassium  carbonate,  and  forming  the  in- 
soluble Prussian  blue.  But  to  be  effectual  the  antidote  must 
be  swallowed  before  the  rapidly-acting  poison  is  absorbed. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — By  paralysing  the  ends  of  the  sensory 
nerves,  the  acid  allays  the  irritation  of  urticaria,  prurigo, 
and  other  itching  skin  complaints.  In  like  manner  it  some- 
times relieves  gastrodynia  and  chronic  vomiting,  being  con- 
joined in  such  cases  with  ice,  bismuth,  and  morphine  ;  while 
in  irritable  conditions  of  the  throat  it  is  prescribed  with 


PETROLEUMS  433 

cocaine,  chlorodyne,  morphine,  or  atropine.  In  the  symp- 
tomatic treatment  of  tetanus  and  nervous  diseases  it  is 
given  to  allay  excitement.  For  destroying  the  strongyles  of 
hoose  in  calves,  and  soothing  consequent  irritation,  Williams 
prescribed  H\x.  to  H\xx.  of  acid,  conjoined  with  sodium 
carbonate  and  gentian.  Hobday  suggested  the  use  of 
hydrocyanic  acid  as  an  antidote  in  cases  of  respiratory 
failure  under  chloroform.  A  full  dose  frequently  starts 
respiration  with  a  few  deep  gasps. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  B.P.  two  per  cent,  acid,  horses  and 
cattle  take  Tl\xx.  to  H\lx.  ;  sheep,  Ti[x.  to  Tl\xv.  ;  pigs,  JT\ij. 
to  TT^vij.  ;  dogs,  TT|rj.  to  H\iv.  ;  given  in  water  sweetened 
with  syrup.  As  the  soothing  effects  are  transient,  suitable 
doses  may  be  repeated  three  or  four  times  daily,  but  their 
effects  should  be  carefully  watched ;  while,  to  prevent 
mistakes  which  are  apt  to  occur  with  such  a  poisonous, 
colourless  liquid,  it  is  often  made  up  with  compound 
tincture  of  cardamoms.  For  external  use  it  is  diluted  with 
two  hundred  parts  of  water,  a  few  drops  of  glycerin  being 
added  to  retard  evaporation.  Lotions  must  be  cautiously 
applied,  especially  where  the  skin  is  broken.  But  the 
potassium  or  other  soluble  cyanide  being  stable  and  not 
volatile,  is  more  convenient  for  most  external  uses. 


PETROLEUMS  OR  PARAFFINS 

Hard  paraffin.  Paraffinum  durum.  A  mixture  of  several 
of  the  harder  members  of  the  paraffin  series  of  hydrocarbons  ; 
obtained  by  distillation  from  shale  (B.P.). 

Liquid  paraffin.  Paraffinum  liquidum.  A  clear,  oily 
liquid,  obtained  from  petroleum,  after  the  more  volatile 
portions  have  been  removed  by  distillation  (B.P.). 

Soft  paraffin.  Paraffinum  molle.  A  semi-solid  mixture 
containing  soft  members  of  the  paraffin  series  of  hydro- 
carbons ;  obtained  by  purifying  the  volatile  portions  of 
petroleum  (B.P.). 

The  petroleums  or  paraffins  are  hydrocarbons,  produced 
by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter.  They  are  ob- 
tained from  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal,  from  bitumin- 
ous shales,  and  from  the  oil-wells  found  in  various  parts  of 

2E 


434  PETROLEUMS 

the  world.  They  occur  as  gases,  fluids,  and  solids,  and  many 
are  used  in  the  arts  and  in  medicine.  The  simplest  of  the 
series  is  marsh  gas,  methane,  fire-damp,  or  light  carburetted 
hydrogen  (CH4) — the  inflammable  gas  which  causes  coal- 
pit explosions. 

When  rock-oil  is  distilled,  ethane  and  other  gaseous 
paraffins  are  first  evolved,  are  collected,  and  in  great  part 
liquefied  by  a  condensing  pump,  and  yield  the  liquid 
cymogene,  which,  on  account  of  the  cold  produced  by  its 
rapid  evaporation,  is  used  in  freezing  machines.  Proceed- 
ing with  the  fractional  distillation,  the  products  which  come 
off  below  170°  Fahr.,  and  consist  chiefly  of  pentane  and 
hexane,  are  sold  as  petroleum  spirit,  or  petroleum  ether, 
and  used  for  making  varnishes,  for  dissolving  indiarubber, 
and  for  singeing  lamps.  The  next  portion  of  the  distillate, 
coming  off  about  212°  Fahr.,  is  heptane,  and  is  used  for 
illuminating  purposes,  under  the  names  benzoline,  paraffin 
oil,  and  mineral  sperm  oil.  For  safe  use  this  oil,  when  placed 
in  an  open  saucer  at  100°  Fahr.,  should  not  kindle  when  a 
light  is  brought  near  its  surface.  At  higher  temperatures 
there  come  off  hexadecane  and  other  paraffins,  richer  in 
carbon,  constituting  such  soft  solids  as  vaseline  and  the 
soft  petroleums,  while  still  higher  temperatures  produce 
the  hard  paraffins,  cereses,  or  paraffin  waxes.  These  soft 
and  hard  paraffins  are  also  obtained  by  distillation  from 
shale,  the  liquid  portions  being  separated  by  refrigeration, 
and  the  solid  products  purified  by  melting  and  filtration. 
They  are  frequently  substituted  for  oils,  lard,  and  wax  in 
the  making  of  ointments  and  protectives.  Liquid  paraffin 
is  useful  as  a  base  for  hypodermic  and  intratracheal  injec- 
tions of  iodine.  Mixed  with  sulphur  and  olive  oil  it  is 
employed  for  psoriasis  and  eczema,  and  with  oxide  of 
zinc  or  iodoform  as  a  protective  for  wounds.  ' 

Rangoon  petroleum,  obtained  from  wells  on  the  Caspian 
shores,  and  the  analogous  Barbados  or  mineral  tar,  found 
in  the  island  of  Barbados  floating  on  the  surface  of  springs 
or  pools,  and  in  Trinidad  forming  extensive  beds  or  lakes, 
are  of  the  consistence  of  treacle,  of  a  dull  green-brown 
colour,  with  a  petroleum  odour  and  a  bitter  taste. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  petroleums  belong  physiologi- 


VASELINE  435 

cally  to  the  fatty  or  alcohol  series  of  hydrocarbons.  Methane, 
ethane,  and  the  gases  low  in  the  series,  and  the  more 
volatile  liquids  are  more  easily  absorbed  and  excreted  than 
the  heavier  liquids  and  solids,  and  are  stimulants,  anaes- 
thetics, and  inebriant  narcotics. 

Petroleum  benzin,  or  petroleum  spirit,  is  a  topical  irritant, 
germicide  and  vermicide,  a  stimulant  and  antispasmodic. 
On  the  skin  its  irritant  action  is  very  similar  to  that  of  oil 
of  turpentine.  It  must  be  distinguished  from  benzine 
(C6H6)  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  coal-tar,  which  has 
a  higher  specific  gravity  and  a  higher  boiling-point.  Petro- 
leum benzin  is  seldom  prescribed  internally  because  of  its 
irritant  effects  on  the  digestive  tract.  The  dose  for  horses 
and  cattle  is  f §ss.  to  f  §j.  ;  for  dogs,  i~^\  to  f3J->  given  in 
milk,  olive  oil,  or  gruel. 

Animals  are  sometimes  poisoned  by  the  refuse  oils  from 
petroleum  works  contaminating  the  drinking  water.  Cases 
have  been  recorded  of  cattle  suffering  from  diarrhoea, 
wasting,  and  anaemia,  and  their  intestinal  glands  being 
found  saturated  and  darkened  with  the  oil. 

Petroleum  spirit  and  other  paraffin  oils,  in  virtue  of 
their  diffusive,  solvent,  stimulant,  and  antiseptic  actions, 
are  applied  in  limited  scaly  skin  complaints,  as  in  old- 
standing  cases  of  grease  in  horses,  to  destroy  vermin,  remove 
scurf  and  dissolve  accumulated  sebaceous  matters,  to  stimu- 
late the  dermis,  and  promote  growth  of  hair.  For  such 
purposes  they  are  frequently  used  in  conjunction  with 
alkalies,  three  parts  of  petroleum  and  alkali  to  one  hundred 
of  bland  oil,  or  vaseline.  The  application  of  petroleum 
benzin  to  the  skin  demands  care,  as  it  may  cause  poisoning. 

Vaseline,  the  petrolatum  of  the  U.S. P.,  is  prepared  by 
heating  rock-oil  in  iron  retorts,  and  filtering  the  residual 
heavier  oils  through  animal  charcoal.  It  is  red,  yellow,  or 
white,  according  to  the  proportion  of  colouring  matter 
retained.  It  has  the  consistence  of  summer  butter,  is 
tasteless,  odourless,  and  neutral.  It  melts  about  95°  Fahr., 
and  boils  about  300°  Fahr.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  glycerin, 
cold  alcohol,  and  ether,  but  is  soluble  in  chloroform,  carbon 
disulphide,  and  in  fixed  and  volatile  oils.  A  handy  solvent  is 
made  with  one  part  of  castor  oil  and  eight  of  water.  Vaseline 


436  COAL-TAB 

dissolves  bromine,  iodine,  sulphur  iodide,  and  carbolic  acid, 
as  well  as  fixed  and  volatile  oils  and  alkaloids,  and  is  a 
serviceable  base  for  ointments,  liniments,  and  pomades. 
Vaseline  is  not  absorbed  by  the  skin,  and  it  is  preferable 
to  lanoline  or  lard  in  ointments  which  are  intended  to  act 
superficially.  It  has  the  advantage  of  being  nearly  free 
from  greasiness  ;  it  is  not  oxidisable,  and  hence  does  not 
become  rancid.  Ointments  prepared  with  it  accordingly 
keep  better  than  those  made  with  animal  or  vegetable 
fats.  Neutral  or  white  vaseline  is  used  as  a  lubricant  and 
emollient  for  irritable,  inflamed,  or  blistered  mucous  and 
skin  surfaces.  It  is  used  for  making  up  boluses,  and  as  a 
protective  for  leather  and  cutlery. 

Rangoon  and  Barbados  tars  were  at  one  time  prescribed 
in  chest  diseases  and  as  anti-emetics,  but  are  not  now  used 
internally.  Externally,  they  are  applied  for  the  same 
purposes  as  wood-tar,  and  particularly  in  the  treatment 
of  skin  complaints,  thrush,  canker,  and  other  diseases  of  the 
feet.  Coal-tar  differs  from  Barbados  tar  in  having  a  stronger 
and  more  offensive  sulphurous  smell,  but  it  deserves  its 
popular  credit  as  an  antiseptic  and  stimulant  adhesive  for 
diseases  of  the  feet.  The  alcoholic  solution  of  coal-tar, 
sold  as  liquor  carbonis  detergens,  is  useful  in  eczema,  one 
or  two  drachms  in  a  pint  of  warm  water  being  applied 
either  alone  or  with  liquor  plumbi  diacetatis.  The  B.P. 
liquor  picis  carbonis,  prepared  with  two  ounces  of  soap- 
bark,  twenty  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  and  four  ounces  of 
coal-tar,  is  also  used  for  diseases  of  the  skin. 


SECTION   III 

Medicines  derived  from  the  Vegetable  Kingdom 

ALOES 

ALOE. — Inspissated  juice  from  the  transversely-cut  bases  of 

the  leaves  of  various  species  of  Aloe,  evaporated  to 

dryness.     Nat.  Ord. — Liliaceae. 
ALOIN,  C17H1807. — A  crystalline  substance  extracted  from 

aloes   by   solvents   and   purified   by   recrystallisation. 

(B.P.)   ' 

The  several  species  of  Aloe,  which  yield  the  various  com- 
mercial aloes,  are  succulent,  liliaceous  perennials,  having 
short  woody  stems  ;  strong,  thick,  fleshy,  amplexicaul 
light-green  leaves,  with  sharp,  serrated  edges,  and  a  stout 
spine  projecting  at  the  apex  ;  while  on  a  slightly  branched 
scape  is  carried  a  raceme  of  yellow,  scarlet,  or  white  tubular 
pendulous  flowers.  Underneath  the  leathery  cuticle,  and 
exterior  to  the  loose,  mucilaginous  pulp,  lie  elongated  thin 
walled  cells,  which  contain  the  yellow,  bitter,  purgative 
juice. 

BARBADOS  ALOES. — Aloe  Barbadensis,  or  Curagoa  aloes, 
the  product  of  the  aloe  vera,  aloe  chinensis,  and  probably 
other  species,  is  the  variety  chiefly  used  in  veterinary 
practice.  It  is  imported  from  Barbados  and  most  of  the 
West  Indian  islands.  A  dwarf  variety  is  cultivated  ;  the 
leaves,  measuring  a  foot  to  two  feet  in  length,  are  chopped 
off  close  to  the  stem  ;  are  placed  for  twelve  to  twenty  hours 
in  tubs  with  their  cut  ends  down  ;  from  the  longitudinal 
vessels  the  juice  trickles,  is  collected  in  casks,  and  heated 
for  four  or  five  hours,  sediment  and  impurities  being  care- 
fully kept  back.  When  sufficiently  concentrated,  the  juice 
is  poured  into  gourd  shells,  and  the  opening  closed  by  a 
portion  of  shell  let  in,  and  secured  in  its  place  by  a  piece 

437 


438  ALOES 

of  coarse  cloth  nailed  over  it.  The  gourds,  when  filled, 
usually  weigh  from  10  to  40  Ibs.  Barbados  aloes  has  a 
liver  brown  colour  ;  a  brown,  opaque,  earthy  fracture  ; 
a  disagreeable,  bitter,  persistent  taste,  and  a  strong  and 
disagreeable  odour,  especially  when  breathed  upon — an 
odour  generally  likened  to  that  of  the  human  axilla.  It  is 
hard,  tough,  and  difficult  to  pulverise  ;  small  fragments  are 
translucent,  and  of  an  orange-brown  hue  ;  its  powrder 
is  dull  olive-yellow,  and  darker  than  that  of  other  varieties. 
It  is  almost  entirely  soluble  in  alcohol  (40  per  cent.). 

SOCOTRINE  (also  known  as  East  Indian,  Bombay,  or 
Zanzibar  aloes)  is  chiefly  imported  from  Bombay  and  other 
Indian  ports.  It  is  stated  to  be  the  product  of  the  leaves 
of  Aloe  Perryi,  and  probably  also  of  other  species.  It 
occurs  in  red-brown  pieces  of  variable  size  ;  darkens  on 
exposure  ;  breaks  usually  with  a  smooth  resinous  fracture  ; 
thin  fragments  are  translucent  and  orange-red  or  orange- 
brown  ;  the  odour,  though  strong,  is  somewhat  agreeable  ; 
the  taste  is  bitter. 

CAPE  ALOES  (brought  from  Cape  Town  and  Natal)  is 
chiefly  got  from  the  Aloe  ferox,  Africana,  or  Spicata,  or 
from  hybrids  obtained  by  crossing  these  with  other  varieties. 
The  better  qualities  have  a  dark-brown  or  olive-green 
resinous  appearance,  a  compact  structure,  a  vitreous, 
conchoidal,  dark-green  fracture,  and  a  strong  and  rather 
disagreeable  sour  odour.  It  is  very  brittle,  and  easily 
reduced  to  a  gamboge-yellow  powder.  The  better  qualities 
of  Cape  are  little,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  Barbados  or  to  Socotrine 
aloes.  Gamgee's  experiments  show  that,  compared  with 
Barbados,  Cape  aloes  causes  equally  copious  but  less  watery 
discharges,  while  its  action  is  sooner  expended. 

PROPERTIES. — The  several  varieties  have  a  specific  gravity 
of  T364,  are  resinoid,  rather  brittle,  their  external  surface 
is  duller  and  darker  than  a  freshly-made  fracture.  The 
temperature  at  which  the  juice  is  concentrated  accounts 
for  such  marked  differences  in  opacity,  as  the  dull  opaque 
Barbados  and  the  translucent  East  Indian.  All  have  an 
intensely  bitter  and  persistent  taste,  and  a  strong  and  more 
or  less  disagreeable  odour,  much  increased  when  the  speci- 
men is  breathed  upon  or  heated.  When  held  in  the  hand 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  439 

for  a  few  minutes,  aloes  softens  and  becomes  adhesive. 
At  a  low  red-heat  it  is  partially  fused,  froths  up,  chars,  and 
burns.  Temperatures  exceeding  150°  Fahr.  alter  its  com- 
position and  impair  its  purgative  property.  Moistened 
with  rectified  spirit,  a  thin  stratum,  examined  under  the 
microscope,  exhibits  numerous  crystals.  It  is  almost 
entirely  soluble  in  boiling  water,  which  deposits,  however, 
as  it  cools,  60  to  80  per  cent,  of  a  brown  resin.  Good 
specimens  are  almost  entirely  soluble  in  alcohol  (40  to  60 
per  cent.).  The  watery  solution,  when  cold,  reddens 
litmus,  is  deepened  in  colour  by  alkalies,  blackened  by 
ferric  chloride,  and  yields  a  yellow-grey  precipitate  with 
lead  acetate. 

COMPOSITION. — Aloes  contains  from  25  to  30  per  cent, 
of  an  active  yellow,  crystalline,  neutral  bitter  principle — 
aloin,  which  is  noticed  more  in  detail  at  the  end  of  this 
article  ;  and  about  the  same  proportion  of  an  equally 
soluble,  uncrystallisable  aloin,  into  which  the  crystallisable 
form  is  convertible  by  heat  ;  and  a  pale-yellow,  mobile, 
mint-flavoured  volatile  oil,  of  which  only  an  ounce  is  ob- 
tained from  400  Ibs.  of  aloes.  Besides  mineral  matters  and 
albumin,  aloes  contains  about  30  per  cent,  of  a  transparent 
brown  resin,  almost  entirely  soluble  in  rectified  spirit, 
occurring  in  large  amount  in  inferior  samples,  in  which  it 
is  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  aloin,  usually  by  exposure 
of  the  juice  to  high  temperatures  during  inspissation. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Aloes  is  purgative,  and  belongs  to 
the  anthracene  group  ;  a  bitter  tonic  in  small  doses,  in- 
sufficient to  increase  the  action  of  the  bowels. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Given  by  the  mouth,  it  is  dissolved  in 
the  gastric  fluid,  and  emulsified  and  saponified  by  the  bile 
and  pancreatic  juice.  The  presence  of  bile  greatly  assists 
its  action,  and  aloes  given  in  enema  is  inactive  unless  bile 
is  injected  with  it,  or  the  aloes  is  dissolved  in  glycerin, 
which  takes  the  place  of  the  bile.  Joseph  Gamgee  made 
seven  drachms  of  Cape  aloes  into  a  ball  with  sixty  minims  of 
glycerin,  rolled  it  in  tissue  paper  and  gave  it  to  a  horse, 
which,  in  thirty- three  minutes,  was  killed  by  dividing  the 
carotid  artery.  An  hour  later  the  ball  was  found  entirely 
dissolved  ;  the  distinct  odour  of  aloes  in  the  stomach  and 


440  BARBADOS    ALOES 

duodenum  had  not,  however,  extended  to  the  large  intes- 
tine. Aloes  enters  the  circulation,  communicates  its 
bitterness  and  purgative  properties  to  the  milk  and  other 
secretions,  and  is  excreted  chiefly  by  the  intestinal  glandular 
apparatus,  and  also  in  less  amount  by  the  kidneys,  when  it 
causes  diuresis.  It  is  prone  to  cause  hyperaemia  of  the 
kidneys,  uterus,  and  pelvic  organs.  While  in  contact  with 
the  intestines  it  produces  both  peristalsis  and  increased 
secretion.  It  acts  chiefly  on  the  large  intestine,  which 
in  part  explains  its  rather  slow  effects.  It  causes  copious 
evacuations,  but  not  such  fluid  discharges  as  usually  follow 
full  doses  of  salines,  gamboge,  or  croton.  It  is  not  so 
irritant  as  croton,  colocynth,  elaterium,  or  podophyllum. 
It  increases  the  secretion  of  bile.  W.  Rutherford  introduced 
aloes  into  the  duodenum  of  a  fasting  dog,  and  found  that, 
although  only  slight  purgation  ensued,  all  the  bile  constitu- 
ents were  increased.  It  is  said  to  produce  evacuations  which 
possess  a  peculiar  disagreeable  odour  (Hertwig). 

Six  drachms  of  Barbados  aloes,  dissolved  in  twenty-four 
ounces  of  water,  and  injected  into  the  jugular  vein  of  a 
horse,  caused  nausea,  frequent  straining,  and  colic — which, 
however,  was  only  of  short  duration — and,  after  twelve 
hours,  purgation.  Administered  intravenously,  it  some- 
times acts  more  powerfully  on  the  kidneys  than  the  bowels. 
Moiroud  injected  four  drachms,  dissolved  in  diluted  alcohol, 
into  a  vein  of  a  horse,  and  next  day  eight  drachms,  dissolved 
in  a  similar  manner  ;  but  instead  of  catharsis,  observed  only 
diuresis. 

The  several  varieties  differ  somewhat  in  the  degree  of  their 
action.  Barbados  aloes,  although  not  the  most  expensive, 
is  generally  preferred  by  veterinarians.  It  is  the  most  active 
and  uniform  in  its  effects,  but  not  more  drastic  than  Soco- 
trine,  while  it  is  certainly  less  liable  than  Cape  aloes  to  pro- 
duce diuresis.  Every  sort  is  most  effective  when  freshly 
powdered,  and  hence,  except  for  immediate  use,  should  be 
kept  in  pieces,  preserved  from  moisture  in  oiled  silk  or  in 
tin.  A  temperature  approaching  150°  Fahr.  applied, 
whether  in  the  extraction  of  the  juice,  or  in  making  it  up  for 
use,  impairs  activity  by  converting  the  active  aloin  into 
inert  resin. 


MEDICINAL   USES  441 

In  the  horse,  a  cathartic  dose  generally  causes  in  a  few 
hours  dryness  and  increased  warmth  of  the  mouth  ;  a  rise 
of  one  or  even  two  degrees  in  temperature  occasionally 
occurs  ;  the  pulse  is  somewhat  quickened  ;  nausea,  colic, 
and  copious  secretion  of  urine  may  result.  Such  diuresis 
occurs  sometimes  with  good  Barbados  aloes,  especially  when 
the  bowels  are  constipated,  and  more  commonly  with  in- 
ferior specimens  of  Cape  and  other  kinds,  in  which  the  aloin 
has  been  converted  into  resin.  Combination  with  jalap, 
calomel,  and  other  purgatives,  usually  counteracts  this 
diuretic  tendency.  Combination  with  ginger  or  other 
aromatic,  or  with  hyoscyamus  or  belladonna,  wards  off 
nausea  and  straining.  The  purgative  effect  is  usually 
accelerated  and  increased  by  giving  the  drug  in  solution, 
or  conjoined  with  oil  or  calomel,  and  combination  with  an 
alkali  or  a  small  dose  of  an  iron  salt  increases  its  action. 

The  time  required  for  the  operation  of  aloes  differs  con- 
siderably in  different  horses,  being  modified  by  various  cir- 
cumstances, especially  by  the  previous  feeding.  Four  to  six 
drachms  generally  operate  in  sixteen  to  twenty-four  hours. 
The  degree  and  continuance  of  the  action  are  also  liable  to 
variation  ;  in  some  horses  purging  is  over  in  two  or  three 
hours  ;  in  others  it  extends  over  twenty-four  hours.  When 
aloes  fails  to  move  the  bowels  it  is  seldom  wise  to  prescribe 
another  dose  until  forty-eight  hours  have  elapsed.  A  second 
dose  too  closely  following  the  first  is  liable  to  cause  nausea  or 
superpurgation.  If  more  physic  should  be  deemed  abso- 
lutely necessary,  oil  and  a  little  calomel  may  be  given,  and 
enemata  should  be  diligently  used.  In  order  to  prevent 
superpurgation,  which  even  ordinary  doses  of  aloes  and 
other  cathartics  occasionally  produce  in  horses,  it  is  im- 
portant, until  purging  has  ceased,  that  the  quantity  of  cold 
water  allowed  be  carefully  regulated,  and  that  the  animal, 
although  at  walking  exercise,  be  not  put  to  work.  Neglect 
of  such  precautions  may  lead  not  only  to  superpurgation 
but  to  enteritis  and  congestion  of  the  feet. 

Ruminants  are  neither  promptly  nor  powerfully  purged 
by  aloes  alone.  When  given  to  cattle,  even  in  the  fluid 
state,  and  in  doses  of  several  ounces,  it  fails  to  produce 
copious  evacuations.  Hertwig  mentions  that,  in  an  experi- 


442  ALOES 

ment,  a  cow  got  six  ounces  of  aloes,  partly  in  solution,  partly 
in  electuary  ;  but  although  uneasiness  and  loss  of  appetite 
were  observed,  the  bowels  remained  unmoved.  Gilbert 
also  gave  six  ounces,  with  an  infusion  of  four  ounces  of  senna 
leaves,  without  effect.  Sheep  and  goats  take  doses  varying 
from  two  drachms  to  an  ounce  without  being  speedily  or 
effectively  purged.  This  tardy  and  uncertain  action  has 
been  attributed  to  the  drug  being  delayed  by  the  gastric 
contents  and  to  peristalsis  of  the  bowel  being  more  difficult 
to  excite  in  ruminants. 

For  the  dog,  aloes,  when  given  alone,  is  neither  so  speedy 
nor  so  safe  a  cathartic  as  calomel,  jalap,  buckthorn,  or  castor 
oil.  It  has  also  the  disadvantage  of  occasionally  producing 
irritation  of  the  rectum  ;  but  this  may,  in  great  part,  be 
overcome  by  combining  it  with  other  purgatives.  The  dose 
required  to  purge  a  dog  is  large  when  compared  with  that 
administered  either  to  man  or  to  the  horse.  The  doses  of 
most  medicines  for  men  and  dogs  are  very  similar  ;  but  man 
is  purged  by  an  eighth  or  tenth  of  the  aloes  requisite  to 
physic  the  dog.  Aloes  is  a  good  though  slowly  acting 
cathartic  for  swine.  It  operates  usually  in  about  twelve 
or  fifteen  hours. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Aloes  is  the  purgative  in  general  use 
for  horses.  In  dyspepsia,  where  the  appetite  is  capricious, 
the  bowels  irregular,  the  coat  staring,  or  where  there  is 
itching  with  swelling  of  the  limbs,  a  dose  of  aloes  is  pre- 
scribed, and  generally  followed  by  salines,  acids,  or  bitters. 
In  torpidity  of  the  bowels  it  is  conjoined  with  nux  vomica, 
which  stimulates  peristalsis.  In  flatulent  or  spasmodic 
colic  it  is  prescribed  either  in  bolus  or  rubbed  down  with 
warm  water,  and  followed  with  volatile  oils,  ethers,  ammoni- 
acal  or  other  stimulants  and  antiseptics.  Dick  recommended 
four  or  five  drachms  of  aloes  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  hot 
water,  with  an  ounce  each  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  laudanum. 
Some  colic  cases  are  relieved  by  conjoining  with  the  aloes 
twenty  minims  of  tincture  of  aconite.  In  obstinate  tor- 
pidity, eserine  sulphate,  conveniently  given  hypodermically, 
promptly  produces  in  most  cases  copious  evacuations. 
When  the  bowels  are  overloaded  with  indigestible  food, 
aloes  is  frequently  given,  but  linseed  oil  and  calomel  are 


DOSES    AND    ADMINISTRATION  443 

often  preferable.  Whatever  physic  is  used,  enemata  of 
water  should  be  thrown  into  the  colon  with  an  extra  long 
tube,  in  quantities  of  six  to  eight  gallons.  In  obstruction, 
obstinate  torpidity,  and  severe  colic,  copious  injections 
introduced  into  the  large  intestine  are  very  important 
adjuncts.  Aloes,  in  virtue  of  its  bitterness  and  power  of 
increasing  peristalsis,  is  a  useful  anthelmintic.  For  entozoa 
it  is  administered  with  oil  of  turpentine,  ether,  santonin, 
sometimes  with  iron  or  copper  sulphate.  Although  aloes  is 
effectual  in  sweeping  out  excess  of  bile  lodged  in  the  intes- 
tines, it  is  unsuitable  in  jaundice  or  torpidity  of  the  liver,  in 
which  the  bile  requisite  for  its  solution  is  deficient.  In  such 
cases,  salines,  oils,  and  calomel  are  preferable,  or  the  aloes 
may  be  prescribed  with  ox  bile,  which  greatly  assists  its 
action. 

Aloes  promotes  excretion  of  waste  products,  and  hence 
usefully  relieves  febrile  symptoms,  rheumatic  attacks,  skin 
irritation,  swollen  limbs,  and  inflamed  joints.  It  is  effectual 
alike  in  preventing  and  removing  lymphangitis  ;  while  it 
also  hastens  the  removal  of  oedematous  swellings,  when 
not  depending  upon  debility  or  serious  disease  of  internal 
organs.  Removing  excreta,  and  withdrawing,  by  deriva- 
tion or  counter-irritation,  blood  from  congested  or  inflamed 
parts,  it  relieves  congestion  and  inflammation  of  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  full  doses  being  usually  requisite  ;  while  it 
is  also  serviceable  in  the  onset  of  paralysis,  especially  in 
subjects  in  gross  or  high  condition,  or  suffering  from  gastro- 
intestinal derangement.  Repeated  doses  lessen  the  forma- 
tion of  superfluous  blood  and  fat,  are  given  both  profession- 
ally and  empirically  to  promote  condition — an  object 
usually,  however,  more  safely  and  effectually  secured  by 
judicious  feeding  and  well-regulated  exercise. 

To  cattle  and  sheep,  in  constipation  and  indigestion,  as 
well  as  in  febrile  and  inflammatory  complaints,  aloes  is 
occasionally  given  ;  but,  as  already  stated,  it  is  less  reliable 
in  ruminants  than  in  horses.  If  used  for  cattle  and  sheep, 
it  should  be  combined  with  salines,  gamboge,  or  croton,  and 
given  in  drench.  For  dogs  it  is  sometimes  prescribed  in  the 
same  class  of  cases  for  which  it  is  given  to  horses  ;  but 
calomel  and  jalap,  or  some  of  the  oils,  act  more  promptly. 


444      ALOES— INFUSIONS,    TINCTURES,    EXTRACTS 

Aloes  should  be  avoided  in  irritation  or  inflammation  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  in  piles  or  haemorrhage  from  the 
rectum  ;  in  bronchitis,  inflammatory  affections  of  mucous 
membranes  or  the  skin,  in  inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  and 
in  influenza.  In  such  cases  if  used  at  all,  it  must  be  with 
great  caution  ;  for  in  these  diseases  the  intestinal  mucous 
membrane  is  unusually  irritable,  and  superpurgation  is 
readily  induced.  During  pregnancy,  both  in  the  mare  and 
bitch,  the  violent  operation  of  aloes  must  be  carefully 
avoided.  Some  practitioners  give  it  to  both  foals  and 
calves,  but  for  these  young  animals  linseed  or  castor  oil,  or 
a  mixture  of  the  two,  is  more  suitable. 

As  a  bitter  aloes  is  occasionally  prescribed  in  enfeebled 
and  relaxed  conditions  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  where 
there  is  suspicion  of  intestinal  worms.  It  is  sometimes 
applied  externally,  as  a  gentle  stimulant  and  desiccant,  and 
is  an  ingredient  of  the  once  famous  friar's  balsam.  (See 
Benzoin.) 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  receive  3ij-  to  3vuJ-> the  dose  depend- 
ing upon  the  rapidity  and  degree  of  catharsis  required.  For 
foals  several  months  old,  the  dose  may  be  readily  ascertained 
by  allowing  grs.  v.  for  every  week  of  the  patient's  age. 
Cattle  take  §i.  to  gij.  ;  sheep,  gss.  to  §i.  ;  dogs,  grs.  xxx. 
to  3iss-  ;  an(i  swine,  3J-  to  "^iv. 

As  a  tonic,  the  dose  of  aloes  for  any  of  the  domesticated 
animals  is  about  an  eighth  or  tenth  of  that  given  as  a 
purgative.  Tonic  doses  may  be  administered  daily,  or 
every  second  day,  in  combination  with  other  bitters  and 
aromatics.  A  convenient  laxative  for  the  horse  is  made 
with  two  drachms  each  of  aloes,  gentian,  and  ginger,  made 
into  a  ball  with  treacle.  Another  is  prepared  with  a 
drachm  each  of  aloes  and  iron  sulphate,  and  half  an  ounce  of 
ginger,  made  up  with  treacle  and  linseed  meal.  Either  of 
these  may  be  repeated  daily,  or  every  second  day. 

Aloes  is  generally  administered  in  ball  or  in  watery 
solution.  A  ball  for  immediate  use  is  made  with  freshly- 
powdered  aloes,  mixed  with  about  one-eighth  of  ginger,  and 
made  up  with  soft  soap,  lard,  glycerin,  or  vaseline.  The 
physic  mass  of  the  Edinburgh  Veterinary  College  was  com- 
posed of  equal  weights  of  Barbados  aloes  and  treacle, 


ALOIN  445 

with  two  ounces  of  ginger  to  every  pound  of  aloes.  The 
addition  of  ginger,  or  some  such  aromatic,  hastens  catharsis, 
and  diminishes  nausea  and  griping.  The  ingredients  were 
mixed  over  a  slow  fire,  and  constantly  stirred  until  properly 
melted,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  the  temperature  rising 
above  120°  Fahr.  The  mass  should  be  kept  in  air-tight  jars, 
the  balls  being  made  up  as  required.  Another  good  and 
less  bulky  mass  is  prepared  by  adding  to  melted  aloes  about 
one-fourth  of  its  weight  of  rectified  spirit,  or  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, which  keeps  the  mass  soft  and  moist.  Aloetic 
balls  made  with  lard,  oils,  or  soap  are  only  suitable  for 
immediate  use,  and,  if  kept  for  several  weeks,  become  dry 
and  hard.  Drying  may,  however,  be  retarded  by  adding 
a  little  glycerin  and  an  ounce  of  potassium  carbonate  or 
acetate  to  every  pound  of  the  compound.  Twenty  grains 
each  of  powdered  aloes,  jalap,  ginger,  and  soap,  made  into  a 
pill,  with  glycerin  or  vaseline,  is  a  good  purge  for  a  large 
dog,  and  will  make  two  doses  for  a  smah1  one. 

Watery  infusions  for  immediate  use  are  prepared  by 
rubbing  down  the  aloes  in  hot  water,  avoiding  a  temperature 
exceeding  120°  Fahr.  Tinctures  made  by  macerating  the 
drug  in  alcohol  (60  per  cent.)  for  seven  days,  and  afterwards 
filtering,  may  be  of  such  strength  as  suits  the  practitioner's 
convenience.  The  B.P.  tincture  is  prepared  with  extract 
of  Barbados  aloes,  liquid  extract  of  liquorice,  and  alcohol 
(45  per  cent.).  Extracts  made  with  the  view  of  removing  a 
portion  of  the  resin  have  nothing  to  recommend  them. 
Aloes  is  slowly  dissolved  when  introduced  into  the  rectum, 
and  hence  exerts  little  laxative  effect ;  but  one  or  two 
drachms  are  occasionally  ordered  as  an  enema  for  the  horse, 
dissolved,  with  soap  and  a  drachm  of  potassium  carbonate, 
in  two  quarts  of  warm  water. 

ALOIN. — The  active  crystalline  principle  aloin  was  first 
discovered  in  Barbados  aloes,  and  subsequently  in  the 
other  varieties.  An  analogous  crystalline  substance  has 
been  separated  from  Natal  aloes,  and  named  nataloin,  while 
from  Socotrine  aloes  socaloin  has  been  obtained.  These 
three  aloins  are  generally  believed  to  be  isomeric,  although 
some  authorities  regard  them  as  a  homologous  series. 
They  are  derivatives  of  anthraquinone,  and  so  are  related 


446  ALOIN— ACTION    ON   HORSES, 

to  the  active  principles  of  rhubarb  and  senna  and  other 
members  of  the  anthracene  group  of  purgatives. 

Pure  barbaloin  is  odourless ;  its  taste,  at  first  slightly  sweet,  soon 
becomes  intensely  and  permanently  bitter,  and  distinctly  aloetic.  It  is 
entirely  combustible,  burning  with  a  yellow  flame  and  much  smoke.  It 
yields,  by  destructive  distillation,  an  aromatic  volatile  oil,  and  a  resinous 
residue.  It  is  neutral  to  test  paper,  is  soluble  in  rectified  spirit,  but  less 
so  in  cold  water,  an  ounce  of  which  dissolves  about  a  grain  of  aloin.  The 
solvent  power  both  of  water  and  alcohol  is  greatly  increased  by  heat. 
Barbaloin  is  also  dissolved  by  acetic  acid  and  alkalies,  forming  with  the 
latter  orange-yellow  solutions,  which  deepen  in  colour  by  oxidation.  It  is 
insoluble  in  ether,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  chloroform.  Watery  solutions 
rapidly  darken  by  exposure  to  air  and  light ;  and  when  heated  above  150° 
Fahr.,  the  aloin  is  oxidised,  decomposed,  and  converted  into  a  resinous 
substance  of  little  activity. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Aloin  has  been  used  with  growing 
favour  in  medical  practice,  and  with  some  practitioners  it 
has  entirely  superseded  aloes.  The  dose  for  an  adult  is 
from  one  to  two  grains,  or  about  one- third  of  the  quantity 
of  Barbados  aloes  usually  prescribed.  Drachm  doses  made 
up  with  flour  and  glycerin  were  administered  to  six  three- 
parts-bred  carriage  horses,  four  and  five  years  old,  15  to  16 
hands  high,  in  good  health  and  condition,  and  prepared  with 
one  bran  mash  given  four  hours  previously.  No  effect  was 
observable  on  the  pulse,  temperature,  appetite,  or  secretion 
of  urine  ;  the  bowels  were  relaxed  to  a  slight  extent  in  two 
of  the  animals,  when  they  were  exercised  twenty-four  hours 
after  receiving  their  ball ;  whilst  in  two  of  the  subjects 
of  experiment  fulness  and  itching  about  the  joints  dis- 
appeared, although  no  sensible  effect  was  observed  on  the 
bowels.  Drachm  doses  of  aloin,  conjoined  with  half  an 
ounce  each  of  gentian  and  ginger,  proved  serviceable  in 
abating  febrile  symptoms,  and  removing  heat  and  fulness  of 
the  limbs  in  hard- worked  or  grossly-fed  horses.  Two 
drachms  of  aloin  given  to  strong  five  and  six  years  old 
hunters,  well  prepared  by  mashes  for  upwards  of  twenty-four 
hours,  caused,  in  thirteen  or  fourteen  hours,  abundant  fluid 
evacuations.  Nothing  notable  was  observed  as  to  the 
pulse  or  temperature  ;  there  was  less  dulness  or  loss  of 
appetite  than  usually  accompanies  the  full  action  of  the 
ordinary  aloetic  ball ;  there  was  no  nausea  or  griping  ; 
the  purging  usually  continued  six  or  eight  hours.  In  these 


CATTLE,    AND    BOGS  447 

horses,  which  were  in  the  country,  it  will  be  noted  that  two 
drachms  of  aloin  operated  several  hours  earlier,  without 
impairment  of  appetite  or  spirits,  and  with  the  certainty 
and  effect  usually  following  six  drachms  of  Barbados 
aloes. 

F.  Smith  and  C.  Rutherford  made  several  experiments 
with  aloin  on  healthy  horses.  Five  grains  were  given 
hypodermieally  to  one  subject,  and  eight  grains  were 
injected  into  the  right  jugular  of  another.  Neither  case 
exhibited  any  evidence  of  gastro-intestinal  disturbance. 
In  a  third  case  twelve  grains  were  injected  hypodermieally  ; 
in  three  hours  the  animal  lay  down,  apparently  pained, 
and  the  bowels  were  moved.  During  the  next  four  hours 
were  noted  dulness,  uneasiness,  scraping,  circling  round  the 
box,  bowels  repeatedly  moved,  but  the  droppings  were  hard 
and  dark,  and  the  effects  gradually  wore  off.  A  fourth 
case  received  twenty-four  grains  injected  hypodermieally. 
In  an  hour  and  a  half  rumbling  in  the  intestines  was  heard, 
and  hard  pellets  were  passed.  To  these  symptoms  were 
shortly  added  dulness,  scraping,  circling  round  the  box, 
pain,  exhaustion,  and  further  passage  of  hard  faeces.  These 
effects  continued  for  nine  hours  from  the  exhibition  of  the 
drug,  but  gradually  passed  away  without  the  bowels  being 
notably  relaxed. 

A  strong  shorthorn  cow  received  by  the  mouth  two 
drachms  dissolved  in  hot  water,  with  an  ounce  of  ginger  ; 
the  bowels  were  only  slightly  relaxed  ;  but  three  drachms 
operated  tolerably  freely  in  twenty  hours.  Two  drachms, 
with  half  a  pound  Epsom  salt,  acted  as  rapidly  and  effectually 
as  one  and  a  quarter  pounds  Epsom  salt.  English  terriers, 
twenty  pounds  weight,  are  little  affected  by  doses  of  twenty 
grains  given  in  bolus  ;  even  drachm  doses  have  scarcely  any 
effect  on  pointers  and  setters  ;  but  when  two  or  three  grains 
of  calomel,  or  twenty  to  thirty  grains  of  jalap  are  added, 
full  effects  occur  in  six  or  eight  hours. 

Old  horses,  familiar  with  the  smell  of  aloes,  and  induced 
to  swallow  it  with  difficulty,  show  much  less  antipathy  to 
the  inodorous  aloin.  Definite  and  uniform  in  composition, 
concentrated  in  form,  aloin  should  come  into  more  general 
use  as  a  cathartic  for  horses. 


448  BUCKTHORNS 


BUCKTHORNS 

The  recently-expressed  juice  of  the  ripe  berries  of  Rhamnus 

catharticus,  or  purging  buckthorn. 
The  dried  bark  of  Rhamnus  frangula  or  black  alder.     (Not 

official.) 
The  dried  bark  of  Rhamnus  purshianus  or  sacred  bark 

(B.P.).     Nat.  Ord.—  Rhamnese. 

The  buckthorns  are  shrubby,  spinous  trees,  eight  or  ten 
feet  high.  The  berried  fruit  and  barks  contain  a  glucosidal 
body,  three  resins,  one  concentrating  the  activity  of  the 
drug,  with  mallic  and  tannic  acids. 

The  berries  of  R.  catharticus  are  about  the  size  of  black 
currants,  contain  an  acrid,  nauseous,  bitter  juice,  which 
is  evaporated,  strained,  and  gently  heated  with  sugar, 
ginger,  and  pimento,  forming  a  mild  cathartic  syrup,  of 
which  dogs  take  fgi.  to  f §ij.  ;  and  cats,  f3iv.  to  fgi.  A 
little  senna  confection,  jalap,  or  castor  oil  renders  this  syrup 
more  prompt  and  certain. 

The  bark  of  Black  Alder,  when  fresh,  acts  as  a  gastro- 
intestinal irritant  ;  but  when  dried  and  kept  for  twelve 
months,  oxidation  of  the  resinoid  active  matters  appears  to 
occur,  and  the  fluid  extract  prepared  from  the  bark  may  be 
used  as  a  cholagogue  laxative. 

Cascara  Sagrada,  or  sacred  bark,  brought  from  the  North 
Pacific  coast,  has  a  persistent,  nauseous,  bitter  taste ; 
contains  cascarin,  a  volatile  oil,  an  acid,  a  glucoside,  and 
several  resins.  It  is  useful  in  habitual  constipation ;  it 
produces  peristalsis,  especially  in  the  large  intestine,  but, 
unless  in  very  large  doses,  does  not  materially  increase  the 
glandular  secretions.  It  is  generally  used  as  the  liquid 
extract,  which  American  practitioners  prescribe  for  dogs 
and  cats  as  a  stomachic  bitter  and  tonic,  in  doses  of  TT[v.  to 
Tl\x.,  and  as  a  laxative  in  doses  of  H\v.  to  3J->  mixed  with 
mucilage  or  syrup.  Cascara  evacuant  (Parke,  Davis  and 
Co.)  is  prescribed  in  doses  of  3ij-  to  ^iv.  for  well-bred  horses  ; 
ll\x.  to  3J-  f°r  dogs  ;  and  H|i.  to  n\x.  for  cats. 


CASTOR   OIL  449 


CASTOR   OIL 

RICINI.     The  oil  expressed  from  the  seeds  of  Ricinus 
communis.     (B.P.)     Nat.  Ord. — Euphorbiaceae. 

The  castor  oil  plant,  or  Palma  Christi,  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  Jonah's  gourd.  Cultivated  in  the  colder  parts 
of  Europe,  it  is  an  annual  shrub,  four  or  five  feet  high  ;  in 
Spain  and  Sicily  it  reaches  a  height  of  twenty  feet ;  in  the 
southern  latitudes  of  India,  in  Central  Africa,  and  various 
parts  of  North  and  South  America,  it  becomes  a  large  tree. 
The  natural  order  Euphorbiaceae,  besides  the  castor  oil  and 
croton,  includes  a  tall  Brazilian  tree,  the  coco-purgatif, 
which  yields  the  oil  of  Danda,  or  assu  juice,  resembling 
castor  oil,  but  greatly  more  active. 

Of  the  seeds,  which  are  contained  in  capsules,  two  varieties 
are  met  with,  one  the  size  of  beans  ;  the  other,  and  com- 
moner, somewhat  smaller.  Both  have  the  shining  yellow- 
white  epidermis,  mottled  with  red-brown  streaks  and  spots. 
The  seeds  comprise  upwards  of  25  per  cent,  of  ligneous  husk, 
8  per  cent,  of  moisture,  and  nearly  70  per  cent,  of  kernel, 
containing  about  50  per  cent,  of  oil.  They  contain  small 
quantities  of  the  vegetable  proteid  poison  (tox-albumin) 
ricin.  Castor  oil  contains  glyceryl  ricinoleate,  palmitate, 
stearate,  cholesterin  ;  an  alkaloid,  ricinine,  which  is  not 
purgative  ;  and  a  resin,  but  is  free  of  ricin. 

Castor  oil  is  manufactured  in  London,  largely  imported 
from  the  East  Indies  and  America,  and  in  smaller  quantities 
from  Italy,  the  West  Indies,  and  Australia.  Various  modes 
of  extraction  and  purification  are  employed.  The  carefully 
shelled  seeds  are  crushed  in  a  hydraulic  press,  the  oil 
purified  by  rest,  filtration,  and  bleaching.  In  the  East 
Indies  mucilage  and  albumin  are  got  rid  of  by  heating 
the  expressed  oil  with  boiling  water,  and  straining  it  through 
flannel.  In  America,  the  seeds,  deprived  of  husk,  are  ex- 
posed to  gentle  heat,  in  order  that  the  oil  may  be  more 
readily  expressed  ;  the  crude  oil  is  freed  from  mucilage  and 
albumin  by  boiling  with  water  until  perfectly  transparent 
when  cool ;  25  per  cent,  of  best  oil  is  thus  got.  In  Jamaica 
the  bruised  seeds  are  boiled  with  water,  and  the  oil  skimmed 

2F 


450  CASTOR    OIL 

off  as  it  rises  to  the  surface — a  process  which  yields,  how- 
ever, an  inferio  and  dark-coloured  specimen.  The  Conti- 
nental plan  of  extracting  the  oil  by  alcohol  or  carbon 
bisulphide  is  expensive  and  inconvenient. 

PROPERTIES. — Oil  obtained  by  these  various  methods 
differs  slightly  in  activity,  but  considerably  in  colour,  flavour, 
solubility,  and  keeping  properties.  Cold-drawn  castor  oils, 
prepared  by  expression  alone,  or  with  only  a  very  slight 
degree  of  heat,  are  generally  preferred. 

Castor  oil,  when  fresh  and  well  prepared,  is  viscid,  almost 
colourless,  and  of  a  faint  oily  odour  and  taste.  Although 
lighter  than  water,  it  is  one  of  the  heaviest  of  the  fixed  oils, 
its  specific  gravity  being  O950  to  0-970.  Exposed  in  a  thin 
layer  it  thickens,  gets  rancid,  and  after  a  time  entirely  dries 
into  a  varnish-like  film.  Castor  oil  and  alcohol  are  mutual 
solvents  ;  the  oil  is  soluble  in  one  volume  of  absolute  alcohol 
and  five  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  and  in  ether  ;  is  easily 
miscible  with  other  oils  ;  saponifies  with  alkalies,  yielding 
glycerin,  palmitic,  and  other  fatty  acids,  and  the  special 
ricinoleic  acid.  Thus  saponification,  caused  by  the  alkaline 
secretions  of  the  bowels  develops,  as  in  the  case  of  croton  oil, 
the  irritant,  active  principle  from  the  bland  oil. 

IMPURITIES. — Castor  oil  is  adulterated  with  croton  oil  to 
increase  its  activity,  with  lard  and  bland  oils  to  reduce  its 
cost.  Inferior  sorts  are  dark-coloured,  but  become  trans- 
lucent by  exposure  to  sunlight  and  filtration  through  animal 
charcoal ;  while  the  disagreeable  acrid  taste  and  odour  may 
in  great  part  be  removed  by  repeated  agitation  with  water 
containing  calcined  magnesia  and  coarse  animal  charcoal. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Castor  oil  seeds  are  irritant  and  pur- 
gative, and  have  caused  fatal  gastro-enteritis  both  in  human 
patients  and  in  animals.  This  irritant  action  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  t ox-albumin  ricin.  This  substance  is 
extremely  toxic  if  injected  intravenously,  less  so  given 
subcutaneously,  and  is  largely  neutralised  by  the  gastric 
juice,  and  rendered  harmless  when  given  by  the  mouth. 
It  may,  however,  escape  this  neutralisation,  and  will  then 
exert  all  its  toxic  effects.  It  causes  vomiting  and  diarrhoea, 
and  post  mortem  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestine  is 
found  inflamed,  and  there  are  haemorrhages  into  the  serous 


A   MILD    PURGATIVE  451 

membranes.  In  vitro  ricin  has  a  characteristic  action  on 
blood,  causing  an  agglutination  or  clumping  of  the  red 
corpuscles,  so  that  they  will  not  pass  through  a  filter. 
Ricin  is  interesting  because  it  was  by  means  of  experiments 
with  this  agent  that  Ehrlich  discovered  many  facts  relating 
to  immunity  and  serum-therapy.  A  decoction  of  the  leaves 
is  applied  by  the  women  of  South  Africa  to  their  breasts  to 
increase  the  lacteal  secretion.  The  oil  is  a  mild  purgative, 
closely  resembling  linseed  and  the  other  fixed  oils. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — The  oil,  emulsified  mainly  by  the 
alkaline  bile,  is  in  part  absorbed  ;  but  the  greater  amount, 
little  changed,  passes  through  the  bowels,  increases  both 
secretion  and  peristalsis,  rarely  causes  griping,  and  imparts 
to  the  dejections  a  glazed  appearance. 

For  horses  it  is  a  mild  cathartic,  prescribed  in  diarrhoea, 
dysentery,  enteritis,  and  peritonitis  ;  in  hernia,  advanced 
pregnancy,  affections  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder  ;  in  pur- 
pura  and  bilious  influenza,  when  more  drastic  purgatives 
might  unduly  irritate,  or  where  repeated  doses  require  to  be 
given.  It  has  no  cholagogue  action,  nor  is  it  a  vermicide  ; 
its  occasional  effect  as  a  vermifuge  depends  upon  its  pur- 
gative action.  Foals  and  calves,  for  several  days  after  birth, 
sometimes  have  no  movement  of  the  bowels,  and  the  re- 
moval of  obstructing  masses  of  meconium,  and  a  natural 
action  of  the  intestine,  are  best  secured  by  administration 
of  castor  oil  and  enemata. 

In  cattle  practice  it  is  useful  in  diarrhoea,  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  digestive  organs,  and,  united  with  Epsom  salt,  in 
doses  of  eight  to  twelve  ounces  of  each,  produces  prompt 
and  certain  effects.  For  young  calves  it  is  the  best  of 
purgatives. 

In  the  dog  it  is  more  active  than  in  man,  and  for  delicate 
subjects  a  mixture  of  equal  quantities  of  castor  and  olive  oils 
is  often  used.  It  occasionally  causes  emesis,  an  effect  which 
results  from  its  nauseous  oleaginous  taste,  and  not  from  any 
specific  emetic  action.  This  may  be  obviated  by  giving  oil 
of  good  quality  and  mixed  with  an  egg,  mucilage,  and  a  little 
ether.  It  proves  a  safe  and  easy  purge  for  pigs,  and  also  for 
poultry. 

The  bruised  seeds  are  much  used  by  native  Indian  farriers 


452  CROTON   OIL 

for  the  cure  of  mange.  For  enemata  it  is  generally  super- 
seded by  rape  or  linseed  oil.  As  an  external  demulcent 
it  is  unsuitable  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  become  rancid. 
A  few  drops  applied  to  the  conjunctiva  lessen  irritation  after 
removal  of  a  foreign  body  from  the  eye.  Castor  oil  is  often 
employed  with  cocaine. 

DOSES,  etc. — Castor  oil  seeds  are  occasionally  given  to 
the  dog  or  pig  to  the  number  of  six  or  eight,  triturated 
with  linseed  meal,  made  into  bolus,  or  rolled  in  a  piece  of 
meat.  The  dose  of  oil  for  the  larger  quadrupeds  is  about 
a  pint ;  for  sheep  and  pigs,  f §ij.  to  fgiv.  ;  for  dogs,  f3Jv. 
to  fjij. ;  for  cats,  3ij-  to  3JV- ;  f°r  poultry,  f3ss.  to  f3J. 
It  may  be  given  alone  or  mixed  with  linseed  oil,  with  gruel, 
milk,  or  aromatics  ;  to  increase  its  activity  it  is  combined 
with  a  small  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine  or  of  croton  ; 
to  remove  the  cause  of  undue  irritation,  as  in  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery,  it  is  prescribed  with  laudanum,  or  chloro- 
form, and  warm  starch  gruel.  For  delicate  or  pampered 
dogs,  a  palatable  laxative  emulsion  is  made  by  shaking 
together  equal  parts  of  castor  oil  and  syrup  of  buckthorn 
with  ten  to  twenty  minims  of  spirit  of  nitrous  ether. 


CROTON  SEEDS  AND   OIL 

CROTON  SEEDS.     Semina  Crotonis.     The  seeds  of  Croton 

tiglium.     (Not  official.) 
CROTOIST   OIL.     Oleum  Crotonis.     Oil   expressed  from  the 

seeds  of  Croton  tiglium.     (B.P.)     Nat.  Ord. — Euphor- 

biaceae. 

The  Croton  tiglium  is  a  tree  growing  on  the  Indian  con- 
tinent, in  Ceylon,  and  in  many  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago. Its  oval-shaped  fruit  or  nut  is  somewhat  larger 
than  a  hazel,  and  contains  three  seeds  about  the  size  of 
French  beans,  resembling  castor  oil  seeds,  brown,  but  un- 
mottled,  and  when  shelled  weighing  on  an  average  three 
grains  each.  They  are  odourless,  with  a  taste  at  first  mild 
and  mucilaginous,  but  soon  becoming  hot  and  acrid.  When 
heated  they  yield  irritating  fumes.  The  thin,  brittle,  ex- 
ternal shell  constitutes  fully  one-third  of  the  weight  of 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  453 

the  seed.     The  seed  kernel  contains  50  to  60  per  cent,  of 
fixed  oil. 

The  oil  is  viscid,  of  a  brownish-yellow  colour,  with  a 
peculiar  nauseous  odour  and  a  persistent  acrid  taste.  This 
acridity  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  variable  small  amount 
of  free  crotonoleic  acid.  It  is  freely  soluble  in  ether,  chloro- 
form, light  petroleum  spirit,  and  oils,  fixed  and  volatile. 
Specific  gravity,  0'940  to  0'960.  When  the  oil  comes  into 
contact  with  the  alkaline  intestinal  secretions  and  the  bile, 
it  is  saponified,  producing  glycerin  and  free  crotonoleic 
acid.  The  residual  cake  left  after  expression  of  the  oil, 
owing  to  the  variable  amount  of  oil  it  contains,  is  dangerous, 
and  should  not  be  used.  Croton  tiglium  seeds  contain  a 
toxalbumin,  Crotin,  which  is  similar  to  but  less  toxic  than 
ricin  (p.  449).  Crotin  is  not  found  in  the  oil. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Croton  oil  containing  free  croton- 
oleic acid  irritates  the  living  textures  with  which  it  comes 
into  contact.  The  oil,  undiluted,  and  in  various  degrees 
of  dilution,  is  occasionally  used  as  a  counter-irritant,  and 
when  rubbed  into  the  skin  produces  an  eruption  which 
becomes  pustular.  It  is  a  drastic,  hydragogue  cathartic. 
Full  doses  cause  gastro-enteritis  and  much  prostration. 
If  the  free  acid  be  removed  the  irritant  effects  on  the  skin, 
mouth,  and  stomach,  are  prevented,  although  the  purgative 
action  remains. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Croton  oil,  undiluted  and  freely  used, 
produces  pustules,  seriously  and  deeply  inflames  the  skin, 
leaving  permanent  blemishing,  and  causing  besides  pyrexia, 
sometimes  purgation.  It  resembles  tartar  emetic  in  its 
action  on  the  skin.  Used  with  an  alkali,  the  irritant  action 
is  more  readily  developed,  and  its  effects  intensified. 

Purgation  is  produced  when  the  oil  is  freely  applied  to 
the  skin,  or  enters  the  body  by  any  other  channel.  When 
full  doses  are  given,  the  drug  is  excreted  not  only  by  the 
bowels,  but  by  the  kidneys,  inducing  diuresis,  with  much 
irritation.  As  a  drastic  and  hydragogue  cathartic,  croton 
resembles  gamboge  and  elaterium.  It  operates  more 
speedily  than  aloes,  and  produces  more  frequent,  full,  and 
fluid  dejections.  For  horses,  croton  is,  however,  too  violent 
for  general  use.  For  cattle  it  is  sometimes  valuable, 


454  CROTON    OIL — TOXIC    EFFECTS 

operating  with  certainty  when  most  other  purgatives  fail, 
and,  if  carefully  used,  is  rarely  attended  with  evil  con- 
sequences. For  sheep  it  is  too  irritating  and  depressing 
to  be  generally  prescribed.  For  dogs  and  pigs  it  is  an 
effectual  drastic  purge,  requiring,  however,  as  in  other 
patients,  to  be  used  with  much  caution.  W.  Rutherford 
and  Vignal  have  shown  that,  although  causing  great  dilata- 
tion of  the  vessels  of  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane  it 
has  no  special  cholagogue  action. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Forty  seeds  destroyed  a  horse  in  seven 
hours,  with  acute  gastro-enteritis ;  half  that  quantity 
usually  produced  fatal  inflammation  (Hertwig).  Morton 
administered  twenty  bruised  seeds  to  two  horses  and 
observed  superpurgation,  accelerated  pulse  and  respira- 
tion, injected  mucous  membranes,  collapse,  and  death  in 
eighteen  and  twenty-four  hours.  Medicinal  doses  some- 
times cause,  alike  in  horses  and  dogs,  unexpected  and 
serious  irritation.  In  India  the  seeds  are  occasionally  used 
to  poison  horses.  Orfila  gave  a  dog  three  drachms,  which 
killed  him  in  three  hours  ;  one  drachm  was  also  fatal ; 
while  Hertwig  found  that  ten  or  twelve  grains  induced 
violent  purgation,  gastro-enteritis,  and  death  in  four  to 
seven  hours,  if  vomiting  was  prevented  by  tying  the  oeso- 
phagus. About  the  same  quantity  of  the  bruised  seed  or 
oil,  which  proves  fatal  when  given  internally,  has  the  like 
effect  when  placed  in  the  areolar  tissues,  or  applied  to  a 
wound.  Hertwig  states  that  eight  drops  injected  into  the 
jugular  vein  killed  a  horse,  while  two  drops  killed  a  dog. 
Moiroud  records  that  twelve  drops  injected  into  the  veins 
of  a  horse  produced  in  a  few  minutes  alvine  evacuations, 
while  thirty  drops  were  quickly  fatal.  Fifty  drops  in  alco- 
holic solution,  applied  to  the  belly  of  a  small  horse,  induced, 
for  two  days,  alvine  evacuations  of  normal  consistence, 
but  three  or  four  times  more  abundant  than  usual.  Thirty 
drops  had  similar  effects  on  sheep,  fifteen  to  twenty  on 
dogs  (Hertwig). 

Post-mortem  examination  discovers  inflammation  of  the 
small  and  large  intestines.  In  horses  poisoned,  the  caecum 
and  colon  are  especially  affected,  usually  exhibiting  much 
extravasation  of  blood,  and  occasionally  patches  of  erosion  ; 


AND    MEDICINAL   USES  455 

sometimes  the  lungs  are  congested,  and  occasionally  they 
are  inflamed. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Croton  is  used  as  an  active  hydragogue 
cathartic  for  cattle  suffering  from  gastric  impaction  and 
other  forms  of  constipation,  and  from  indigestion  associated 
with  phrenitis  or  other  disordered  state  of  the  nervous 
system.  It  is  serviceable  where  bulky  medicines  are  in- 
admissible, where  animals  are  unmanageable,  or  have  diffi- 
culty in  swallowing,  where  it  is  requisite  promptly  to  produce 
copious  fluid  evacuations  and  extensive  counter-irritation. 
It  is  contra-indicated  in  young  and  delicate  subjects,  in  all 
debilitating  complaints,  and  wherever  any  portion  of  the 
alimentary  canal  is  in  an  irritable  or  congested  state.  The 
effects  of  overdoses  are  abated  by  demulcents  and  opium, 
given  by  the  mouth  and  rectum,  by  hot  cloths  to  the 
abdomen,  and,  if  need  be,  by  stimulants  to  counteract 
depression. 

As  a  counter-irritant  its  effects  may  be  regulated  by 
diluting  it.  When  undiluted  it  is  too  irritant  either  for 
horses  or  dogs  ;  but  is  less  apt  either  to  purge  or  blemish 
cattle,  to  which  it  is  occasionally  applied  in  laryngitis, 
chronic  glandular  enlargements,  and  articular  rheumatism. 

DOSES,  etc. — Ten  or  twelve  seeds,  which,  allowing  three 
grains  for  each,  weigh  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  grains,  form 
the  dose  for  the  horse,  fifteen  to  twenty  seeds  for  cattle, 
three  or  four  for  sheep,  two  or  three  for  pigs,  and  one  or 
two  for  dogs.  The  dose  of  croton  oil  for  the  horse  is  Tl\x. 
to  H\xx.  ;  for  cattle,  f3ss.  to  f3J.  ;  for  sheep  and  swine, 
ll\v.  to  1\x.  ;  and  for  the  dog,  Tl\i.  to  ff\iij.  The  bruised 
seeds  and  the  oil  are  administered  made  into  bolus  with 
linseed  meal,  or  dissolved  in  castor  or  linseed  oil  or  mucilage. 
They  are  less  irritating  and  more  certain  and  regular  when 
conjoined  with  other  purgatives.  In  obstinate  constipa- 
tion or  torpidity  of  the  bowels  of  cattle,  half  doses  are  given, 
with  twenty  or  thirty  grains  of  calomel,  a  pound  of  salts, 
or  a  pint  of  linseed  oil ;  and  few  purgative  mixtures  are  more 
effectual.  The  oil  is  sometimes  dropped  on  the  tongue, 
but,  unless  freely  diluted,  is  apt  to  irritate  both  tongue  and 
fauces.  For  external  purposes  it  is  dissolved  in  six  or 
eight  parts  of  bland  oil  or  soap  liniment.  Small  quantities 


456  ELATERIUM 

added  to  blistering  ointments  promote  their  activity,  but 
indorses  also  increase  their  tendency  to  blemish. 

Linimentum  crotonis  is  made  with  one  ounce  croton 
oil,  3J  ounces  of  oil  of  cajuput,  and  3J  ounces  of  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.).  A  tincture — prepared  with  1J  ounce  of 
bruised  croton-seeds  and  20  ounces  of  rectified  spirit  is 
occasionally  used  as  a  counter-irritant. 


ELATERIUM 

Elaterium.  A  sediment  from  the  juice  of  the  fruit  of 
Ecballium  elaterium,  the  squirting  cucumber.  Nat.  Ord. 
— Cucurbitacese . 

Elaterin.  C20H2805,  the  active  principle  of  Elaterium 
(B.R). 

Elaterium  occurs  in  light,  friable,  flat,  or  slightly  curved 
opaque  cakes,  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  thick,  pale  green 
or  greyish-green  in  colour,  odour  faint,  taste  bitter  and 
acrid.  It  should  contain  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  active 
principle  elaterin,  which  is  neutral,  insoluble  in  water, 
soluble  in  115  parts  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  in  220  of 
ether,  and  very  soluble  in  chloroform. 

Elaterium  is  a  very  active  irritant  on  mucous  membranes, 
large  doses  causing  gastro-enteritis  and  haemorrhage.  Medi- 
cinally it  is  a  powerful  drastic,  hydragogue  cathartic,  much 
too  energetic  for  general  use.  Its  action  is  followed  by 
depression.  It  has  been  prescribed  in  the  treatment  of 
abdominal  dropsy  in  dogs.  Its  action  on  horses  or  cattle 
has  not  been  ascertained. 

DOSES,  etc. — (Elaterium  for  dogs,  gr.  -^  to  gr.  J  ;  (Ela- 
terin) gr.  -^j-  to  gr.  TL  in  mucilage,  milk,  or  pill  (Kaufmann). 
To  facilitate  dispensing,  the  compound  powder  of  elaterin, 
containing  5  grains  of  the  active  principle  and  195  grains 
of  milk  sugar  may  be  used. 

Euonymin,  an  extract  obtained  from  the  root-bark  of 
Euonymus  atro-purpureus  (Celastracese),  is  employed  as  a 
liver  stimulant  and  laxative  for  the  dog,  in  doses  of  grs.  ii. 
to  grs.  v. 


GAMBOGE  457 


GAMBOGE 

GAMBOGIA.     A  gum-resin  obtained  from  Garcinia  Hanburii 
(B.P.).     Nat.  Ord.— Guttifera. 

Gamboge,  imported  from  Singapore,  Siam,  and  Ceylon, 
is  the  produce  of  a  moderate-sized  dioecious  tropical  tree, 
and  is  obtained  from  incisions  into  the  middle  layer  of  the 
bark,  or  by  breaking  the  leaves  and  branchlets,  when  the 
yellow  milky  juice  exuding  is  collected  in  leaves,  in  cocoa- 
nut  shells,  or  in  joints  of  bamboo,  is  transferred  into  flat 
earthen  vessels,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  It  occurs  in  cylindri- 
cal, solid  or  hollow  rolls,  four  to  eight  inches  long,  two  to 
three  inches  in  diameter,  and  in  cakes  ;  breaks  easily  with 
a  conchoidal  reddish-yellow  fracture ;  powder  bright 
yellow  ;  odourless,  taste  very  acrid.  It  is  feebly  soluble 
in  water,  makes  with  it  a  yellow  emulsion,  and  is  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  consists  of  15  to  20  per  cent,  of 
soluble  gum,  and  about  70  of  an  active  orange-yellow  resin, 
gambogic  acid.  It  is  largely  used  as  a  pigment. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  a  powerful  irritant  and  drastic 
hydragogue  cathartic,  inferior  in  activity  only  to  croton 
and  elaterium.  Slightly  diuretic,  it  colours  the  urine 
yellow. 

It  undergoes  solution  in  the  alkaline  intestinal  juices, 
and  in  large  doses  causes  gastro-enteritis.  Moiroud  gave 
horses  six  to  twelve  drachms,  and  found  the  dejections 
frequent  and  fluid,  the  pulse  irregular,  the  animal  shivering 
and  anxious.  Two  drachms  killed  a  sheep,  two  ounces  and 
a  half  had  little  effect  upon  a  cow,  but  five  ounces  caused 
dysentery,  which  continued  for  seventeen  days. 

Gamboge  is  too  drastic  and  uncertain  to  be  safely  given 
to  either  horses  or  dogs.  It  causes  profuse  watery 
discharges  and  increased  peristalsis,  and  although 
W.  Rutherford's  experiments  demonstrate  that  it  has  no 
special  stimulant  action  on  the  liver,  like  all  purgatives  act- 
ing on  the  small  intestine  it  is  a  cholagogue,  in  the  sense 
that  it  promptly  moves  onwards  the  bile  in  the  duodenum, 
and  thus  prevents  its  reabsorption.  It  has  no  direct  vermicide 
effect,  but  produces  diuresis,  especially  when  given  in  small 


458  JALAP 

doses  dissolved  in  alkalies.  For  ruminants  it  is  safe,  speedy, 
and  manageable  when  in  combination  with  other  purgatives. 
Half  a  pound  each  of  Epsom  and  common  salts  and  an  ounce 
of  gamboge  form  a  prompt  and  effectual  purgative  in 
indigestion,  gastric  impaction,  and  brain  diseases  of  cattle. 
Although  neither  gamboge  nor  aloes  is  particularly  certain 
when  used  alone,  an  ounce  of  each,  rubbed  down  and  given 
in  solution,  constitute  an  effectual  purge  for  ordinary 
cattle  cases.  Applied  to  wounds  it  is  said  to  promote  heal- 
ing (Key). 

DOSES,  etc. — For  cattle,  §ss.  to  §j.  ;  for  sheep,  grs.  xx. 
to  grs.  xxx.,  given  in  combination  with  other  purgatives, 
and  in  solution  ;  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  viii. 


JALAP 

JALAPA.     The  dried  tubercules  of  Ipomoea  purga  (Hayne). 

(B.P.)     Nat.  Ord.— Convolvulacese. 
JALAPJE  RESLNA.     Jalap  resin,  obtained  from  Jalap  digested 

and  percolated  with  alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 

Jalap  derives  its  name  from  Xalapa  or  Jalapa,  a  town  in 
Mexico,  whence  it  was  first  obtained.  The  hardy  climbers 
yielding  it  grow  on  the  Andes  6000  feet  above  sea-level,  are 
cultivated  in  Southern  India,  and  in  sheltered  spots  in  this 
country  produce  their  salver-shaped  crimson  or  light-red 
flowers.  The  perennial  root-stock  throws  off  underground 
shoots,  which  at  intervals  send  down  roots,  gradually 
thickening,  becoming  irregularly  oblong  or  ovoid,  ranging  in 
size  from  a  walnut  to  an  orange,  invested  with  a  thin,  brown, 
furrowed,  wrinkled  cuticle,  and  presenting  within  a  dirty 
yellow  colour,  with  dark-brown  concentric  lines.  The 
larger  roots,  or  tubercules,  are  divided  into  halves  or  quarters 
or  gashed  to  facilitate  drying.  They  are  tough,  and  difficull 
to  reduce  to  powder,  which  has  a  pale-brown  colour,  a  faint 
disagreeable  odour,  and  a  taste  at  first  sweet  and  mawkish 
but  afterwards  acrid  and  nauseous.  Water  dissolves  the 
sugar  and  mucilage  without  the  cathartic,  resinous  prin- 
ciple, which  is,  however,  readily  soluble  in  rectifiec 
spirit. 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  459 

With  starch,  cellulose,  uncrystallisable  sugar,  and  gum, 
jalap  contains  9  to  11  per  cent,  of  the  active  resin,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  the  glucoside  eonvolvulin,  which  differs 
from  the  jalapin  of  scammony  in  being  insoluble  in  ether. 
Jalap  resin  occurs  in  dark-brown  fragments,  readily  re- 
duced to  powder,  with  a  sweetish  odour,  and  acrid  taste. 
Soluble  in  rectified  spirit,  but  not  in  water  or  in  oil  of 
turpentine. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Jalap  is  a  hydragogue  cathartic, 
and  a  vermifuge.  The  ordinary  jalap  closely  resembles 
the  larger-rooted  male  jalap,  or  orizaba  root,  the  smaller 
paler  tubercules  of  the  tampico  root,  the  dried  root  of 
Convolvulus  scammonia,  and  the  roots  of  Bryonia  alba  and 
B.  dioica,  as  well  as  the  Kaladana  seeds  used  roasted 
as  a  purgative  by  the  nations  of  Hindustan.  It  is  more 
active  than  senna,  the  leaves  of  Cassia  acutifolia,  and 
the  other  anthracene  purgatives,  but  less  powerful  and  irri- 
tant than  the  drastics,  gamboge,  podophyllum,  elaterium, 
and  colocynth. 

Jalap  has  very  gentle  cathartic  action  on  either  horses  or 
cattle.  Two  or  three  ounces  given  to  the  horse  have  slight 
effect  on  the  bowels,  but  increase  the  activity  of  the  kidneys 
(Moiroud).  White  reports  administering  half  a  pound  to 
horses  without  causing  purgation.  Dun  repeatedly  gave 
cows  four  ounces  without  perceptible  effect.  Probably  the 
B.P.  jalap  resin  would  be  more  energetic.  For  dogs,  cats, 
and  pigs  it  is,  however,  a  good  purgative,  although  full  doses 
occasionally  produce  nausea  and  sometimes  vomiting.  It  is 
prescribed  for  most  purgative  purposes,  acts  tolerably 
speedily  and  certainly,  produces  full  watery  discharges, 
and  is  specially  effective  when  given  with  a  grain  or 
two  of  calomel.  As  with  several  other  purgatives  the 
presence  of  bile  in  the  intestine  is  necessary  for  its 
action. 

DOSES,  etc.,  of  Jalap  powder.— Dogs  take  3i.  to  3ij. ; 
cats,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  xx.  ;  pigs,  ^i.  to  ^iv.  It  is  best  given 
in  combination  with  calomel.  Dogs,  if  fasted  for  six  hours, 
are  effectively  purged  in  three  or  four  hours  by  3SS-  to  3*- 
of  jalap,  with  two  or  three  grains  of  calomel,  made  into 
bolus  with  any  convenient  excipient. 


460  PODOPHYLLTJM 


PODOPHYLLUM 

The  dried  rhizome  and  roots  of  Podophyllum  peltatum. 
Nat.  Ord. — Berberidacese. 

The  Podophyllum,  May  apple,  or  mandrake,  is  a  perennial 
herbaceous  plant,  plentiful  in  the  Northern  States  of 
America,  where  its  subacid  fruit  is  eaten  under  the  name  of 
wild  lemons.  The  root  is  imported  in  flattened  cylindrical 
pieces  of  variable  length,  one-fifth  to  one-third  of  an  inch 
thick ;  marked  with  irregular  tuberosities  giving  off  brittle 
brown  rootlets.  It  is  reddish-brown  externally,  white 
within,  and  breaks  with  a  short  fracture.  The  powder 
has  a  yellow-grey  colour,  a  disagreeable  odour,  a  bitter, 
sub-acrid,  nauseous  taste. 

Podophyllum  resin,  the  active  principle,  is  prepared  from 
a  strong  tincture,  made  by  exhausting  the  root  with  rectified 
spirit.  It  is  a  pale-brown  amorphous  powder,  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  ammonia,  and  consisting  of  an  inert,  fatty, 
resinous  acid,  and  two  amorphous,  bitter,  active  resins — 
podophyllotoxin  and  picropodophyllin,  the  former  being  the 
more  powerful. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Both  root  and  resin  are  topical 
irritants  and  drastic  purgatives.  The  resin  is  dissolved  by 
the  alkaline  secretions  of  the  duodenum ;  stimulates 
glandular  secretion  and  peristalsis,  in  full  doses  causing 
spasm  ;  carrie.d  into  the  liver,  it  increases  secretion  of  bile. 
In  dogs  and  cats,  as  in  human  patients,  it  is  an  emetic.  In 
horses  and  dogs  repeated  doses  reduce  the  force  and  fre- 
quency of  the  pulse,  even  when  the  bowels  are  only  slightly 
affected.  It  is  eliminated  by  the  bowels,  in  smaller  amount 
by  the  kidneys. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — The  root  has  long  been  used  by  the 
American  Indians  as  an  emetic  and  anthelmintic.  Its 
actions  being  supposed  to  resemble  those  of  calomel,  it  has 
been  styled  vegetable  mercury.  The  eholagogue  action  of 
podophyllum  was  investigated  by  W.  Rutherford.  Moder- 
ate doses  introduced  into  the  duodenum,  whether  of  fasting 
or  recently-fed  dogs,  increased  secretion  both  of  the  fluid 
and  solid  constituents  of  the  bile.  Podophyllum  directly 


PODOPHYLLTJM   AN    UNCERTAIN    CATHARTIC      461 

stimulates  the  hepatic  cells,  but  does  not  increase  the 
blood-supply  of  the  liver.  Excessive  doses  are  imperfectly 
absorbed,  and  do  not  increase  biliary  secretion.  In  common 
with  other  purgatives  acting  upon  the  small  intestine,  it 
sweeps  out  food,  which,  when  absorbed,  stimulates  the 
liver  ;  while,  moreover,  it  carries  away  bile  poured  into  the 
canal,  and  thus  prevents  its  reabsorption. 

In  the  domestic  animals  the  cathartic  effects  of  podo- 
phyllum  are  produced  tardily,  and  moderate  doses  are  apt 
to  cause  nausea  and  griping.  The  depressant  action  on 
the  heart  and  central  nervous  system  is  probably  due  to 
shock  from  its  irritant  effects  on  the  small  intestine.  Anstie, 
experimenting  with  alcoholic  solutions  containing  one  to 
two  grains  podophyllum,  injected  into  the  peritoneum  of 
dogs,  cats,  and  rats,  produced  in  ten  to  fifteen  hours  vomit- 
ing, bloody  faeces,  hurried,  shallow  breathing,  and  death 
from  exhaustion. 

Howell  found  podophyllum  to  be  a  prompt  and  effectual 
purgative  for  dogs,  acting  usually  in  four  hours.  One 
drachm  to  one  drachm  and  a  half,  with  two  drachms  ginger, 
moved  the  bowels  of  horses  in  six  to  eight  hours.  The 
action  was  prompt  and  effective,  and  unattended  with 
noticeable  griping,  even  when  the  resin  was  given  without 
preparation,  and  water  was  allowed  ad  libitum. 

Dun  was  unable  to  obtain  such  marked  results.  Kepeat- 
edly  he  gave  healthy  horses,  prepared  by  mashes,  two 
drachms  podophyllum  without  perceiving  any  increased 
action  of  the  bowels.  Two  drachms  resin,  with  one  or  two 
drachms  of  aloes,  added  to  determine,  if  possible,  its  action 
on  the  bowels,  produced  little  more  softening  of  the  dis- 
charges than  might  be  expected  from  the  aloes  alone. 
Three  healthy  shorthorn  cows  were  each  given  three  drachms, 
and  another  cow  received  half  an  ounce,  without  producing 
any  laxative  effect.  Doses  of  one  grain,  given  in  pill  or  in 
meat,  to  English  terriers  weighing  about  twenty  pounds, 
produced  no  notable  effect  upon  the  bowels  ;  while  two 
grains  acted  as  a  gentle  laxative,  but  only  after  six  or  eight 
hours. 

To  a  well-bred  hunter  under  treatment  for  injury  of  the 
psoas  muscles,  and  fed  for  twenty-four  hours  on  bran, 


462  PODOPHYLLTJM 

Dollar  administered  two  drachms  podophyllum  in  a  ball, 
and  two  ounces  Epsom  salt  in  solution.  Scarcely  any 
perceptible  action  was  observed  on  the  bowels  ;  and  two 
days  later  two  drachms  podophyllum  and  one  drachm 
calomel  were  given,  also  without  purgative  effect,  but 
with  a  reduction  in  the  pulse  of  nearly  ten  beats  per 
minute. 

A  powerful  cart-horse,  under  treatment  for  sand-crack, 
and  previously  restricted  for  twenty-four  hours  to  a  mash 
diet,  received  four  drachms  podophyllum  resin  in  a  ball. 
Although  no  purgation  followed,  there  was  nausea,  and  in 
two  hours  the  pulse,  soft  and  somewhat  weakened,  fell  from 
36  to  24,  and  did  not  recover  its  natural  force  or  number 
until  next  day.  The  appetite  continued  impaired  for  a 
week. 

A  Scotch  terrier,  eight  months  old,  received  half  a  grain 
of  the  resin  in  a  pill,  without  apparent  effect ;  and  on  the 
foUowing  day  a  grain,  which  in  the  course  of  an  hour  caused 
nausea  and  vomiting.  Considerable  dulness  remained  for 
twenty-four  hours. 

A  bull  terrier  bitch,  thirty-six  pounds  weight,  received 
four  grams  in  a  pill,  without  showing  any  notable  symptoms, 
and  on  the  following  day  had  a  further  dose  of  six  grains, 
which  in  twelve  hours  produced  great  uneasiness,  griping, 
and  gentle  catharsis.  During  the  two  following  days  the 
bitch  refused  food,  and  for  a  week  continued  dull  and  list- 
less. 

A  French  poodle,  suffering  from  mange  and  constipation,, 
had  a  pill  containing  two  grains  podophyllum  resin,  half  a 
grain  calomel,  and  twenty  grains  jalap.  No  effect  was 
observable  at  the  end  of  twelve  hours,  when  the  dose  was 
repeated,  and  after  eight  hours  the  dog  was  briskly  purged. 
Half  the  above  dose  was  repeated  every  second  day  for  a 
fortnight,  with  the  result  of  gently  moving  the  bowels. 
In  all  these  cases  the  pulse  was  reduced  in  number  and  in 
strength,  the  urinary  secretion  was  unchanged,  and  the 
faeces  were  little  altered  in  colour  (Dollar). 

MEDICINAL  USES. — These  experiments  demonstrate  that 
for  veterinary  patients  podophyllum  resin  is  a  tardy  and 
uncertain  purgative,  especially  when  used  alone,  and  there 


MEDICINAL    USES  463 

are  many  more  reliable  agents.  In  combination,  however, 
with  aloes,  jalap,  or  calomel,  it  relieves  torpidity  or  congestion 
of  the  liver  ;  while  its  nauseant  and  sedative  effects  may 
occasionally  be  used  for  lowering  cardiac  action  in  acute 
lymphangitis,  rheumatism,  and  other  inflammatory  disorders 
in  robust  patients.  Although  possessed  of  vermifuge 
powers,  depending  upon  its  purgative  effect,  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  any  special  vermicide  action.  For  human 
patients  it  is  prescribed,  both  in  this  country  and  America, 
in  habitual  constipation,  hepatic  congestion,  in  some  forms 
of  sick  headache,  and,  in  smaller  doses,  as  an  alterative  in 
skin  diseases  and  rheumatism.  Half  a  grain  to  a  grain  of 
the  resin  slowly  empties  the  bowels. 

'  DOSES,  etc. — For  cholagogue  or  sedative  purposes,  horses 
and  cattle  take  Jj.  to  3ij-  of  podophyllum  resin,  with  aloes, 
calomel,  nitre,  or  Epsom  salt.  For  dogs,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  ij.  ; 
with  calomel,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  ij.,  may  be  conjoined  with  half  a 
dose  of  jalap  or  olive  oil.  Nausea  and  griping  are  obviated 
by  admixture  of  ginger  or  other  carminative,  and  of  henbane 
or  cannabis  indica.  The  B.P.  tincture  contains  two  grains 
of  podophyllum  resin  in  each  fluid  drachm. 


RHUBARB 

RHEI  RADIX.  The  erect  rhizome,  or  so-called  root,  deprived 
of  more  or  less  of  its  cortex,  and  dried,  of  Rheum 
palmatum,  Rheum  officinale,  and  probably  other 
species.  Collected  in  China  and  Thibet  (B.P.).  Nat. 
Ord. — Polygonaceae . 

The  perennial,  herbaceous  rheums  grow  on  the  hill  ranges 
of  the  interior  of  China  and  Thibet ;  the  roots,  after  five 
years'  growth,  are  collected  in  summer,  are  cleaned,  peeled, 
cut  into  round  or  flat  reddish-yellow  pieces,  and  each  piece 
is  usually  bored  with  a  hole,  through  which  a  cord  is  run  in 
order  to  dry  it  hanging  in  the  sun.  The  powder  is  bright 
yellow-brown,  has  a  strong,  peculiar,  aromatic  odour,  with  a 
bitter  astringent  taste,  and  when  chewed  is  gritty,  from  the 
presence  of  calcium  oxalate  crystals.  It  is  dissolved  by 
ether  and  rectified  spirit,  and  less  readily  by  cold  and  hot 


464  RHUBARB 

water,  forming  with  the  latter  an  orange-coloured  solution. 
The  East  Indian  rhubarb  is  coarser  and  less  aromatic. 
English  rhubarb,  the  produce  of  R.  raponticum,  generally 
cultivated  for  its  familiar  leaf-stalks,  the  pleasant  acid  taste 
of  which  is  due  to  the  presence  of  malic  and  oxalic  acids,  is 
grown  extensively  for  its  roots  near  Banbury,  and  is  some- 
times mixed  with  or  substituted  for  the  Chinese  ;  but  it  is 
softer  and  more  mucilaginous,  has  less  aroma  and  grittiness, 
contains  fewer  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  and  is  deficient  in 
purgative  power. 

Rhubarb  is  one  of  the  anthracene  group  of  purgatives  to 
which  belong  also  senna  and  aloes.  The  active  principles 
in  these  drugs  are  derivatives  of  anthraquinone.  Among 
other  constituents  rhubarb  contains  (1)  ehrysophanie  acid, 
in  the  proportion  of  about  2  per  cent.,  extracted  by  ether  or 
alcohol,  insoluble  in  water,  and  occurring,  as  its  name 
indicates,  in  brilliant  yellow  crystals.  It  appears  to  have 
tonic  properties,  and  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  remedies 
for  ringworm  of  the  human  scalp.  (2)  Chrysophan,  a  bitter 
soluble  glucoside,  which,  when  boiled  with  sulphuric  or 
hydrochloric  acid,  splits  into  ehrysophanie  acid  and  sugar. 
(3)  PhSBorretin  and  other  resinous  bodies  appear  to  confer 
the  cathartic  properties.  (4)  Rheotannic  acid  imparts 
astringency.  (5)  Mineral  substances  are  largely  present, 
consisting  chiefly  of  calcium  oxalate,  35  per  cent. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.  Rhubarb  is  stomachic,  tonic,  mildly 
cathartic,  and  afterwards  astringent.  SmaU  and  repeated 
doses  improve  the  appetite,  correct  slight  gastric  derange- 
ment ;  in  virtue  of  their  tannin  may  even  diminish  secretion 
and  peristalsis  ;  by  their  ehrysophanie  acid  impart  to  the 
faeces  a  yellow-brown  hue,  and  may  be  detected  in  the 
blood,  urine,  and  occasionally  in  the  milk.  Larger  doses, 
in  dogs  and  cats,  as  in  human  patients,  are  mild  cathartics, 
stimulate  the  peristaltic  movements,  especially  of  the 
stomach  and  small  intestine,  and  are  said  to  increase 
secretion  of  bile.  Even  small  doses,  insufficient  to  purge 
fasting  dogs,  slightly  increase  all  the  constituents  of  bile 
(W.  Rutherford).  In  horses  and  cattle  rhubarb  has  scarcely 
any  purgative  effect ;  a  pound  has  been  given  to  cattle 
without  moving  the  bowels,  while  half  a  pound  to  a  poum 


STOMACHIC,  TONIC,  LAXATIVE,  AND  CHOLAGOGUE    465 

caused  in  horses  only  slight  laxative  effects  after  thirty- 
six  hours  (Moiroud).  On  skin  or  mucous  surfaces  it  acts 
as  a  mild  astringent. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  a  stomachic,  repeated  several  times  a  day, 
horses  take  §j.  ;  cattle,  §ij.  ;  sheep,  3J-  5  dogs  and  cats, 
grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.  As  a  laxative,  dogs  take  3J-  to  3uJ-> 
usually  combined  with  one  or  two  grains  of  calomel,  or  with 
twenty  grains  of  jalap.  Rhubarb  is  used  in  powder,  in- 
fusion, syrup,  and  tincture.  The  compound  powder,  or 
Gregory's  mixture,  prepared  by  mixing  thoroughly  six  parts 
magnesia,  one  part  ginger,  and  two  parts  rhubarb — all  in 
fine  powder — is  an  excellent  stomachic  and  antacid,  and  is 
given  in  doses  twice  as  large  as  those  of  the  simple  rhubarb. 
In  diarrhoea  in  calves  and  foals  it  exerts  carminative, 
laxative,  and  subsequently  astringent  effects.  When  the 
bowels  are  persistently  relaxed,  two  drachms  each  of 
rhubarb  and  magnesia,  with  half  a  drachm  of  opium,  may 
be  given  night  and  morning  in  well-boiled  wheat-flour 
gruel,  with  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  of  brandy  or  sweet 
spirit  of  nitre.  One-third  to  one-half  this  quantity  is 
prescribed  for  diarrhoea  in  lambs. 

Syrupus  Rhei  is  made  with  two  parts  each  of  rhubarb  and 
coriander,  twenty-four  of  sugar,  eight  of  alcohol  (90  per 
cent.),  and  twenty-four  of  water ;  and  the  compound 
tincture  with  two  parts  of  rhubarb,  one-fourth  part  each 
of  coriander  and  cardamoms,  two  of  glycerin,  and  eighteen 
of  alcohol  (60  per  cent.). 


OPIUM 

The  juice  obtained  by  incision  from  the  unripe  capsules 
of  Papaver  somniferum,  inspissated  by  spontaneous 
evaporation  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — Papaveraceae. 

MORPHINE.  Morphia.  Morphina.  An  alkaloid  prepared 
from  opium. 

MORPHINE   HYDROCHLORIDE.     Morphinse   Hydrochloridum 

(B.P.). 

MORPHINE  TARTRATE.     Morphinse  Tartras  (B.P.). 
MORPHINE  ACETATE.     Morphinse  Acetas  (B.P.). 


466  OPIUM 

CODEINE.     Codeina.     An  alkaloid  obtained  from  opium  or 

morphine  (B.P.). 
APOMORPHINE    HYDROCHLORIDE.      Apomorphinae     Hydro- 

chloridum  (B.P.). 
HEROIN.     Diacetylmorphine.     A  morphine  derivative. 

Opium,  one  of  the  most  ancient  articles  of  the  Materia 
Medica,  derives  its  name  from  the  Greek  word  OTTO?  (opos), 
signifying  juice.  The  stem,  unripe  capsules,  and  other  suc- 
culent parts  of  any  species  of  poppy,  contain  a  milk- 
white  narcotic  juice,  which,  as  it  dries,  becomes  darker  in 
colour,  and  constitutes  opium.  The  fresh  purple  petals 
of  the  Papaver  rhceas,  or  corn  rose,  which  contains  no 
morphine,  and  only  minute  traces  of  rhoeadine,  are  used 
as  colouring  agents,  but  not  medicinally.  The  roots  of 
some  species  contain  a  cathartic  principle.  The  nearly 
ripened  poppy  heads,  or  capsules,  gathered  about  twelve 
days  after  the  petals  fall,  when  digested  in  hot  water 
produce  a  mucilage  used  for  anodyne  purposes  ;  when  dried 
they  yield  less  morphine  and  codeine  than  when  green, 
and  besides  contain  the  feebly  alkaline  crystalline  rhcea- 
dine.  Within  the  capsules  are  numerous  white  or  brown 
reniform  seeds,  devoid  of  narcotism,  but  yielding  a  bland 
drying  oil,  similar  to  that  of  flax  or  rape.  The  cake  or 
residue  left  after  expression  of  this  oil  is  used  for  cattle 
food. 

The  Papaver  somniferum — the  common  white  or  garden 
poppy — is  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia,  but  it  also 
thrives  in  this  country.  It  flowers  from  May  to  July,  and 
the  capsules  ripen  about  two  months  later.  It  is  two  to 
four  feet  high  ;  has  a  round,  smooth,  erect  stem,  with  a 
few  hairs  on  the  extremities  and  peduncles  ;  large,  sessile, 
glaucous  green  leaves,  with  cut  and  wavy  margins  ;  large 
terminal  white,  red,  or  purple  flowers,  drooping  before  they 
open  ;  and  globose  capsules  about  the  size  of  a  duck's  egg, 
and  containing  numerous  kidney-shaped  white  or  brown 
seeds.  Of  the  several  varieties  the  white-flowered  have 
hitherto  been  preferred,  but  the  darker-flowered,  especially 
the  purple,  are  now  stated  to  yield  a  larger  quantity  and 
better  quality  of  opium. 


VARIETIES  467 

The  several  varieties — of  which  the  most  notable  are 
Turkey,  East  Indian,  and  Egyptian,  owe  their  character- 
istics to  differences  in  soil  and  climate,  and  also  to  the 
time  and  manner  of  collecting  and  making  up  the  juice. 
Any  suitable  variety  of  opium  may  be  employed  as  a 
source  of  tincture  of  opium  and  extract  of  opium  of  the 
respective  alkaloidal  strengths,  provided  that  when  dry  it 
contains  not  less  than  7|  per  cent,  of  anhydrous  morphine  ; 
but  when  otherwise  used  for  officially  recognised  purposes, 
opium  must  be  of  such  a  strength  that,  when  dried  and 
powdered,  it  shall  yield  not  less  than  9-5  to  10'5  per  cent, 
of  morphine  (B.P.). 

Turkey  or  Smyrna  opium,  mostly  of  fine  quality,  and 
highly  prized  in  the  English  market,  is  chiefly  collected  in 
the  north-western  districts  of  Asia  Minor.  It  occurs  in 
round,  flattened  pieces,  usually  weighing  from  half  a 
pound  to  two  pounds,  covered  with  poppy  leaves  and  the 
chaffy  seeds  of  the  rumex.  It  is  soft,  moist,  and  ductile, 
and  when  minutely  examined  is  seen  to  be  made  up 
of  small  tears.  Its  odour  is  peculiar,  but  not  disagree- 
able ;  its  taste  bitter ;  its  recent  fracture  pale  liver-brown. 
It  readily  yields  its  active  principles  to  water,  forming 
a  red-brown  solution,  and  to  alcohol  of  all  strengths, 
forming  darker -coloured  tinctures.  Good  samples  in 
a  fresh  state  contain  an  average  of  10  per  cent,  of 
morphine. 

East  Indian  opium,  a  large  proportion  of  which  is  imported 
to  China,  is  of  uniform  and  good  quality. 

Egyptian  opium,  being  generally  grown  on  moist  soils 
and  collected  before  the  capsules  are  ripe,  is  inferior  to 
the  best  Turkey  opium,  and  contains  on  an  average  about 
6  per  cent,  of  morphine. 

CHARACTERS. — Opium  occurs  in  irregular,  red-brown  or 
red-black  masses,  which  weigh  from  four  ounces  to  two 
pounds,  when  fresh,  plastic,  and  internally  moist,  coarsely 
granular  or  nearly  smooth,  and  reddish-  or  chestnut-brown, 
but  becoming  harder  on  keeping,  and  darkening  to  blackish 
brown  (B.P.).  Odour  strong  and  characteristic ;  taste 
bitter,  persistent,  and  disagreeable.  Turkey  opium,  recently 
imported,  contains  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  water,  and  is  moist 


468  OPIUM 

and  plastic  ;  when  long  kept,  or  artificially  dried,  it  is  hard, 
and  easily  reduced  to  a  brown  powder,  which  is  apt,  unless 
carefully  preserved,  to  absorb  moisture.  When  heated  it 
softens,  and  at  high  temperatures  burns  with  a  strong, 
peculiar  odour.  Cold  water  dissolves  about  60  per  cent, 
of  a  good  dried  specimen,  and  forms  a  red-brown  solution, 
including  most  of  the  active  constituents.  Rectified  spirit 
dissolves  about  80  per  cent.,  and  forms  a  dark-brown 
tincture,  which  includes  all  the  active  principles.  Acids, 
when  strong,  decompose  opium,  but  when  diluted  are  ex- 
cellent solvents  for  it.  The  watery  solution  reddens  litmus, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  meconic  and  other  acids,  and  is 
precipitated  by  vegetable  astringents,  salts  of  calcium,  lead, 
copper,  and  other  metals. 

IMPURITIES. — Inferior  specimens  of  opium  are  distin- 
guished by  narrowly  examining  their  consistence,  texture, 
colour,  odour,  and  taste.  They  are  sometimes  dry,  hard, 
and  resinous,  or  oleaginous  and  waxy  ;  their  fresh  fracture 
devoid  of  the  characteristic  red  tint  and  agreeable  aromatic 
odour  ;  while  water  and  alcohol  dissolve  them  imperfectly. 
Of  the  several  substances  used  for  adulterating,  the  most 
common  are  starch  and  molasses,  the  bruised  leaves  and 
chips  of  the  poppy,  the  juice,  pulp,  or  extract  of  the  prickly 
pear,  and  opium  from  which  the  morphine  has  been  ex- 
tracted. Inorganic  matters,  such  as  sand,  clay,  and  mud, 
may  be  detected  by  inspection,  especially  if  the  specimens 
be  dried.  But  the  official  and  most  certain  test  of  quality 
or  purity  is  the  proportion  of  morphine.  One  hundred 
grains  of  good  opium  should  yield  9- 5  to  10' 5  grains  of 
anhydrous  morphine  ;  but  picked  specimens  have  produced 
22  per  cent. 

COMPOSITION. — Opium  is  a  complex  substance.  Besides 
15  to  25  per  cent,  of  water,  it  contains  50  of  gum,  pectine, 
wax,  and  albumin  ;  2  to  6  of  ash  ;  traces  of  an  aromatic 
volatile  oil ;  while  combined  with  meconic,  thebolactic, 
phosphoric,  and  sulphuric  acids  are  a  number  of  alkaloids 
in  variable  proportions,  together  amounting  to  about  20 
per  cent.  The  most  important  are  morphine,  codeine, 
narcotine,  and  thebaine.  There  are  also  two  neutral  bodies, 
meconin  and  meconiasin. 


COMPOSITION  469 

Subjoined  is  a  list  of  these  opium  alkaloids,  arranged 
according  to  their  chemical  composition  :— 

Hydrocotarnine,    .  .  C12H15N03  Papaverine,  .  C21H21N04 

Morphine  (12  per  cent.),  C17H19N03  Meconidine,  C21H23N04 

Oxymorphine,       .  ,  C17H19N04  Laudanosine,  C21H27N04 

Codeine         .         .  .  C18H21N03  Cryptopine,  C21H23N05 

Thebaine,      .         k  .  C19H21N03  Narcotine,    .  C22H23NO7 

Laudanine,    .       . .  . '   ...  C20H25N04  Lanthopine,  C23H25N04 

Protopine,     .         .  .  C20H19N05  Narceine,      .  C23H29N09 

Some  of  these  alkaloids,  such  as  codeine  and  oxymorphine, 
are  derivatives  of  morphine.  (1)  The  codeine  series  is  pre- 
pared from  morphine  by  the  addition  of  alcohol  radicles  ; 
others  are  got  by  (2)  oxidation  ;  (3)  others  by  dehydration. 

Opium  alkaloids  differ  greatly  in  their  action.  Morphine 
is  analgesic,  and  more  or  less  hypnotic.  Thebaine  is  stimu- 
lant and  convulsant,  and  allied  to  strychnine.  The  best 
known  of  the  others — oxymorphine,  papaverine,  codeine, 
and  narcotine — form  a  series,  in  which  the  first  resembles 
the  narcotic  morphine,  and  the  last  the  tetanising  thebaine. 

Morphine  and  its  salts  are  got  by  macerating  opium  in 
successive  portions  of  water,  which  dissolve  the  morphine 
meconate  ;  calcium  chloride  is  added  to  the  solution  ; 
calcium  meconate  precipitates,  and  morphine  hydrochloride 
remains  in  solution,  from  which,  when  concentrated,  the 
morphine  salt  crystallises,  is  subjected  to  pressure  in  flannel 
or  stout  calico,  thus  removing  narcotine  and  colouring 
matter,  and  is  redissolved  in  hot  water,  and  repeatedly 
crystallised.  By  the  use  of  animal  charcoal  colouring 
matter  is  removed  ;  while,  to  get  rid  of  codeine,  ammonia 
is  added  to  the  watery  solution,  when  pure  morphine  is 
precipitated. 

Morphine  crystallises  in  minute,  transparent,  right  rhombic 
prisms,  usually  arranged  in  tufts.  It  has  an  intensely 
bitter  taste  and  an  alkaline  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in 
ether,  benzol,  and  chloroform  ;  dissolves  in  1000  times 
its  weight  of  cold  water,  in  400  of  boiling  water,  and  still 
more  readily  in  oils,  caustic  alkalies,  and  weak  acids,  with 
which  it  forms  crystallisable  and  usually  soluble  salts. 

Morphine  hydroehloride  (C17H19N03.HC1.3H20)  is  prefer- 
able to  the  alkaloid  on  account  of  its  solubility,  is  the  salt 


470  MORPHINE   SALTS 

in  common  use,  and  is  prepared  by  diffusing  morphine  in 
hot  distilled  water,  gradually  adding  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
setting  aside  the  solution  to  crystallise.  It  is  a  snow-white 
powder,  consisting  of  broken-down  crystals,  which,  when 
entire,  are  needle-like  prisms  clustering  in  radiated  groups. 
It  is  without  odour,  but  has  the  intensely  bitter  taste  of 
morphine.  It  is  soluble  in  twenty-four  parts  of  cold  water, 
one  part  of  boiling  water,  eight  parts  of  glycerin,  and  in 
fifty  parts  of  rectified  spirit. 

Morphine  acetate  and  tartrate  are  sometimes  used,  and 
are  prepared  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  hydrochloride.  The 
acetate  is  a  white  powder,  almost  entirely  soluble  in  two  and 
a  half  parts  of  water,  in  five  of  glycerin,  and  in  one  hundred 
of  rectified  spirit.  The  tartrate  is  soluble  in  eleven  parts  of 
cold  water,  but  not  in  alcohol. 

Codeine  is  methyl-morphine.  Morphine  =  C17H18N02 
(OH);  codeine  =  (C17H18(CH3)N03H20).  It  is  present  in 
opium  in  the  proportion  of  J  to  1  per  cent.  It  is  a  colour- 
less, bitter  alkaloid,  crystallising  in  trimetric  crystals, 
soluble  in  eighty  parts  cold  water,  in  less  than  two  parts 
of  alcohol  and  chloroform,  in  ammonia  and  dilute  acids. 
Unlike  morphine,  it  is  insoluble  in  cold,  weak,  caustic 
potash,  and  is  unaffected  by  ferric  chloride.  Like  the 
other  opium  alkaloids,  it  exhibits  the  twofold  stimulant  and 
hypnotic  action,  but  its  hypnotic  power  is  slight,  and, 
like  methyl  compounds  of  the  alkaloids,  it  notably  stimu- 
lates the  motor  centres,  and  full  doses  cause  tetanic  con- 
vulsions similar  to  those  produced  by  strychnine  or  picro- 
toxin.  Codeine  depresses  sympathetic  nerve  cells  more 
effectively  than  morphine,  and  so  prevents  inhibition  of 
the  intestinal  movements.  Thus  it  often  causes  vomiting 
and  purgation  when  given  to  dogs  and  cats,  although  its 
continued  use  lessens  irritability  of  the  digestive  tract. 
When  given  for  several  days  to  dogs,  cats,  or  rabbits, 
arsenic  or  other  irritants  administered  cause  neither  vomit- 
ing nor  purging.  It  also  diminishes  the  production  of 
hepatic  sugar,  and  is  hence  prescribed  in  canine  diabetes 
mellitus.  The  dose  for  the  dog  is  gr.  TT^  to  gr.  \. 

Apomorphine  hydrochloride,  C17H17N023HC1,  is  the  hydro- 
chloride  of  an  alkaloid  obtained  by  heating  morphine  hydro- 


OPIUM   ALKALOIDS  471 

chloride  or  codeine  hydrochloride  in  sealed  tubes  with 
hydrochloric  acid  (B.P.).  It  occurs  in  small,  greyish- 
white,  shining,  acicular  crystals,  soluble  in  sixty  parts  cold 
water,  and  more  soluble  in  rectified  spirit.  It  is  neutral  to 
litmus  solution.  It  is  a  prompt  and  effectual  emetic  in 
animals  that  vomit,  acting  on  the  vomiting  centre.  When 
gr.  J,  dissolved  in  water,  is  swallowed  by  either  man  or  dog, 
repeated  vomiting  occurs,  but  is  not  followed  by  so  much 
nausea  as  usually  follows  the  use  of  tartar  emetic.  In  dogs 
and  cats,  freshly  prepared  solutions  have  the  advantage  of 
producing  emesis  usually  in  three  or  four  minutes,  when  used 
hypodermically  in  doses  of  gr.  ^  to  ^ .  It  increases  bronchial 
salivary,  and  intestinal  secretions.  It  appears  to  act  speci- 
ally on  the  medulla,  stimulating  the  vomiting  centre  to 
produce  emesis  and  also  the  respiratory  centre  causing 
quickened  respiration.  Large  doses  in  cats,  dogs,  as  well 
as  in  rabbits,  cause  excitation  of  the  higher  brain-centres — 
cerebrum  and  cerebellum — producing  inco-ordinate  manege 
movements  and  tetanic  spasms.  Subsequently  the  excite- 
ment gives  way  to  depression,  loss  of  reflexes,  difficult 
breathing,  and  muscular  paralysis.  Friedberger  states  that 
sucking  lambs,  suffering  from  gastric  obstruction  produced 
by  wool,  are  reported  to  have  been  promptly  relieved  by 
1^  to  3  grains,  given  hypodermically.  F.  Smith  states  that 
2-grain  doses  given  to  horses  produce  intense  delirium  and 
nervousness,  constant  movement  of  the  limbs,  sweating, 
and  every  appearance  of  approaching  dissolution.  The 
B.P.  Injectio  Apomorphinae  Hypodermica  contains  1  grain 
of  apomorphine  hydrochloride  in  110  minims.  Dose,  as  an 
emetic  for  the  dog,  gr.  -^  to  gr.  ^ ;  small  dogs,  gr.  -£%  to 
gr.  -^ ;  cats,  gr.  -^  to  gr.  T^,  given  subcutaneously. 

Thebaine  or  Paramorphine  is  present  to  the  extent  of 
O3  per  cent.,  is  obtained  in  minute,  colourless,  rectangular 
prisms,  melting  at  380°  Fahr.,  has  an  alkaline  taste  and 
reaction,  is  almost  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  forty- 
five  parts  of  rectified  spirit,  and  in  ether  and  chloro- 
form. It  has  very  slight  hypnotic  action,  prominently 
exhibits  the  excitant  effects  of  opium,  stimulates  the 
motor  tract  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  causes,  like  strychnine, 
muscular  rigidity  and  convulsions.  One  to  two  grains, 


472  OPIUM —MORPHINE 

injected  hypodermically,  produced  fatal  tetanus  in  dogs 
(Harley).  ' 

Narcotine  exists  in  opium  in  quantities  varying  from  4  to  6 
per  cent.,  and  is  got  by  treating  the  insoluble  residue  left 
in  the  preparation  of  morphine  with  diluted  acetic  acid, 
precipitating  the  solution  with  ammonia,  and  purifying 
with  hot  alcohol  and  animal  charcoal.  It  is  a  feeble  base, 
and  is  distinguished  from  morphine  by  having  no  bitter 
taste,  no  reaction  on  vegetable  colouring  matter,  and  no 
effect  on  ferric  chloride.  Inappropriately  named,  it  is 
devoid  of  narcotism  ;  is  tonic  and  antiperiodic  ;  and  has 
been  used  in  India  as  a  substitute  for  quinine  in  the  treat- 
ment of  malarial  fevers.  Large  doses  are  convulsant. 

Narceine  occurs  as  a  light,  colourless,  bitter,  asbestos-like 
body,  made  up  of  soft,  needle-like  crystals,  soluble  in  100 
parts  of  boiling  water,  400  of  cold,  and  rather  more  soluble 
in  glycerin  and  diluted  hydrochloric  acid.  Somewhat 
contradictory  opinions  are  expressed  regarding  its  actions. 
In  dogs,  grs.  v.,  subcutaneously  injected,  produced  calmative 
and  hypnotic  effects,  similar,  it  is  said,  to  those  induced  by  a 
grain  of  morphine.  Poisonous  doses  arrest  respiratory 
movements,  but  do  not  cause  convulsions. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Opium  has  a  complex  and  somewhat 
variable  composition,  and  its  alkaloids  have  different,  and 
some  of  them  opposite,  effects  ;  hence  its  actions  are  liable 
to  variation  ;  although  in  the  main  opium  acts  in  the  same 
manner  as  morphine,  its  chief  alkaloid.  The  effects  differ 
in  the  same  individual  according  to  the  dose,  and  in  man 
and  the  lower  animals  according  to  the  relative  development 
of  the  several  parts  of  the  central  nervous  system.  In  man, 
the  higher  brain  centres,  on  which  the  drug  acts  primarily 
and  prominently,  are  paralysed,  and  the  patient  is  usually 
calmed,  sleeps,  and,  where  large  doses  are  given,  becomes 
comatose.  In  the  lower  animals  opiates  stimulate  in 
addition  the  reflex  centres  of  the  cord,  and  instead  of  being 
quieted  and  hypnotised,  the  subject  at  first  is  excited, 
exhibits  irregular,  involuntary  movements,  tetanic  convul- 
sions, and,  as  death  approaches,  coma,  from  which,  however, 
it  can  be  readily  roused.  This  action  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  the  higher  (cerebral)  controlling  centres  being 


GENERAL   ACTIONS  473 

depressed  the  lower  reflex  centres  are  free  and  unchecked. 
Opiates  kill  by  respiratory  arrest.  Medicinal  doses  are 
analgesic  and  antispasmodic,  diminish  the  several  secre- 
tions, excepting  those  of  the  skin,  and,  in  combination 
with  other  drugs,  are  sometimes  used  as  calmatives  for 
horses  and  dogs.  They  are  frequently  applied  locally  to 
relieve  irritability  and  pain,  but  experimentally  it  has 
been  found  that  they  have  no  effect  on  either  sensory  or 
motor  nerve-endings,  so  that  local  application  is  of  little 
value. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — When  administered  by  the  mouth, 
opiates  slightly  augment  the  secretion  of  the  salivary  and 
gastro-intestinal  glands  with  which  they  are  brought  into 
contact.  Full  doses  cause  some  amount  of  gastric  irritation, 
occasionally  producing  vomiting  in  man  and  dogs  (partly 
by  central  action),  but  shortly,  and  more  notably  and  per- 
manently, they  diminish  gastro-intestinal  secretion  and 
movement. 

After  absorption,  full  doses  induce  primary,  usually  brief, 
stimulation,  followed  by  depression  and  paresis  of  the  central 
nervous  system.  In  veterinary  patients  the  prominent 
phenomena  are  agitation,  unrest,  inco-ordinate,  generally 
manege,  movements,  diminished  sensibility  to  pain,  indis- 
position for  voluntary  movement,  and,  in  toxic  doses,  con- 
vulsions, coma,  and  death  by  respiratory  arrest.  Moderate 
doses  dilate  the  blood-vessels  of  the  skin  and  quicken  heart 
action,  and  this  is  more  notable  in  horses  than  in  man.  But 
repeated  full  doses  slow  heart  action  in  all  animals.  Moder- 
ate doses  affect  respiration  and  render  it  shallow,  slow,  and 
then  irregular.  The  rectal  temperature  is  temporarily 
raised  ;  skin  temperature  from  increased  transpiration  is 
reduced  ;  but  lethal  doses,  depressing  the  heat-producing 
centres,  eventually  lower  the  general  temperature.  Opium, 
morphine,  and  narceine  diminish  all  secretions  excepting 
those  of  the  skin  and  kidneys,  their  effect  on  the  latter  organs 
being  variable.  By  lessening  reflex  activity,  and  depressing 
all  sensory  nerve  cells,  they  are  notable  antispasmodics. 
The  effect  on  the  iris  varies  in  the  different  animals.  In 
man  the  pupil  is  typically  contracted  to  pinhole  size.  In 
the  horse  and  cat  it  is  dilated  throughout,  whilst  in  the 


474      OPIUM — EFFECTS    ON   HORSES,    CATTLE,    DOGS 

dog  little  change  is  seen,  but  the  action  is  a  central  one  and 
the  pupil  is  not  affected  by  topical  applications. 

Different  animals  are  somewhat  differently  affected  by 
opiates,  depending  upon  the  relative  development  of  differ- 
ent parts  of  their  central  nervous  system.  The  higher  the 
development,  the  greater  is  the  susceptibility  of  an  organ  to 
the  operation  of  the  drugs  which  act  upon  it.  Compared 
with  the  lower  animals,  the  cerebrum  of  man  is  relatively 
heavier  and  more  highly  organised  than  the  mesencephalon, 
the  cerebellum,  and  the  spinal  cord  ;  and  this  explains  why 
opiates  given  to  man  in  relatively  small  doses  quickly  and 
without  marked  stimulation  paralyse  the  human  cerebral 
centres,  inducing  sleep,  and,  in  large  doses,  coma.  Horses, 
with  less  development  of  these  higher  brain  centres,  have 
relatively  more  development  of  the  locomotor  centres  and  of 
the  reflex  centres  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  upon  these  lower 
centres  opiates  in  equine  subjects  exert  their  primary 
stimulant  effects.  Full  doses  produce,  at  first,  restless, 
involuntary  movements  of  the  head  and  limbs,  pawing,  or 
walking  continuously  round  the  box  ;  followed  by  sleepi- 
ness, disinclination  to  move,  and  when  moved  staggering. 
Excessive  doses  cause  tetanic  convulsions. 

Ruminants,  like  horses,  are  usually  excited  and  restless. 
Cattle  bellow,  digestion  is  deranged,  and  tympanites  fre- 
quently supervenes.  Sleep  is  not  quickly  or  readily  induced, 
excepting  by  full  and  repeated  doses. 

Dogs  exhibit  effects  intermediate  between  those  observed 
in  man  and  in  horses.  Relatively  to  their  body- weight,  they 
take  eight  or  ten  times  the  doses  prescribed  for  man.  They 
show  more  preliminary  excitement  than  man,  but  less 
involuntary  muscular  movement  than  the  horse,  and  during 
drowsiness  and  sleep  muscular  twitchings  occur.  Sleep,  how- 
ever, is  never  very  profound  ;  the  dogs  are  easily  awakened  ; 
they  dream,  and  appear  to  have  hallucinations,  and  after 
full  doses  remain  stupid  for  a  day.  There  is  some  salivation, 
in  the  majority  of  cases  vomiting  occurs,  and  often  defseca- 
tion.  After  twenty  minutes  or  so  the  narcosis  is  sufficiently 
pronounced  to  permit  of  even  major  operations,  such  as 
amputations  and  laparotomy.  Although  the  skin  is  con- 
gested and  hot,  there  is  no  notable  increase  of  secretion 


TOXIC    EFFECTS  475 

such  as  occurs  in  man  and  occasionally  in  horses.  Cats  are 
as  much  excited  as  horses  or  cattle,  more  so  than  dogs, 
and  hypnosis  is  produced  with  difficulty. 

Rabbits  also  have  their  motor  and  spinal  centres  promi- 
nently affected,  and  convulsions  are  more  common  than 
hypnotism.  Mice  receiving  a  fraction  of  a  grain  of  morphine 
are  restless,  have  spasms,  breathe  irregularly,  but  sleep  only 
when  dangerous  doses  are  given.  Birds  are  curiously 
insusceptible ;  relatively  to  their  weight  they  take  three 
hundred  times  the  dose  given  to  man,  do  not  sleep,  or  show 
any  alteration  of  the  pupil.  Pigeons  swallowing  ten  grains, 
or  receiving  hypodermically  three  grains,  are  seized  with 
inco-ordinate  movements,  laboured  breathing,  and  convul- 
sions ;  the  temperature  falls  sometimes  five  or  six  degrees, 
and  usually  they  die.  Mixed  with  the  food  of  poultry, 
opium  retards  digestion,  the  crop  remaining  full  for  three 
times  the  normal  period.  Cold-blooded  animals  are  even 
less  susceptible  than  birds.  In  proportion  to  their  weight, 
frogs  take  with  impunity  a  thousand  times  the  dose  that 
would  poison  a  man,  and  one  or  two  grains  cause  convul- 
sions, paralysis,  and  respiratory  arrest. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Opium  and  its  preparations  annually 
destroy  in  Great  Britain  upwards  of  one  hundred  human 
lives,  three-fourths  being  children  under  five  years.  In  the 
domesticated  animals  accidental  poisoning  with  opiates 
occurs  occasionally,  intentional  poisoning  very  rarely. 

Horses  without  danger  may  be  given  by  the  mouth  about 
one  hundred  times  as  much  opium  as  would  poison  a  man. 
Hertwig  mentions  that  two  to  four  drachms  produce  slight 
stimulation,  and  that  an  ounce  in  solution  caused  first 
increased  liveliness,  and,  after  two  hours,  dulness,  diminished 
sensibility,  slower  circulation,  less  frequent  evacuations,  and 
stupor — symptoms  which  continued  for  twelve  hours,  but 
entirely  disappeared  the  following  day.  Two  ounces  and  a 
half  induced  similar  effects,  with  convulsions  and  death  in 
about  twenty  hours.  Four  drachms  powdered  opium  caused 
little  effect  for  seven  hours,  and  then  only  acceleration  of 
the  pulse.  Even  four  ounces  of  laudanum  are  stated  to 
have  had  little  effect. 

Dun  gave  a  strong,  healthy  cart-horse  one  ounce  powdered 


476  OPIUM— MORPHINE 

opium  dissolved  in  water  ;  the  pulse  in  eight  minutes  fell 
from  44  to  34  beats  per  minute  ;  the  superficial  muscles 
were  relaxed,  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  blanched,  and 
the  animal  was  dull  and  dejected.  After  half  an  hour  four 
drachms  were  given,  increasing  the  dulness  and  lowering 
the  pulse  to  32.  Half  an  hour  later  the-  animal,  continuing 
in  the  same  state,  was  destroyed  by  cutting  the  carotid 
artery.  A  mare,  aged  and  rather  feeble,  had  drachm  doses 
in  solution  thrice  a  day.  She  exhibited  dulness,  loss  of 
appetite,  torpidity  of  the  bowels,  diminished  force  of  the 
pulse,  and  died  on  the  fourth  day,  having  received  nine 
doses.  One  drachm,  given  thrice  a  day  to  a  healthy 
donkey,  induced  after  the  sixth  dose  acceleration  of  the 
pulse  to  88,  restlessness,  vertigo,  nausea,  champing  of  the 
jaws,  and  death  on  the  third  day. 

In  horses,  Harley  and  Mavor  hypodermically  injected 
four  grains  of  morphine  acetate,  and  recorded  marked 
acceleration  of  the  pulse,  increase  alike  of  its  force  and 
volume,  restlessness,  pawing,  augmented  moisture  of  mouth 
and  skin,  elevation  of  temperature,  and  slight  dilatation  of 
the  pupils.  Twelve  grains,  dissolved  in  three  drachms  of 
water,  injected  by  three  punctures,  produced  light  drowsi- 
ness, followed  after  three  hours  by  excitement,  restlessness, 
and  slight  delirium,  continuing  about  six  hours.  Thirty-six 
grains,  in  seven  drachms  of  water,  introduced  by  three 
punctures  into  a  seven-year-old  hunter  in  good  condition, 
caused  drowsiness  and  stupor,  coming  on  in  fifteen  minutes, 
and  continuing  for  three  hours,  slight  muscular  tremors, 
awkward,  staggering  gait,  leaning  against  the  sides  of  his 
box,  dilated  and  fixed  pupils,  blindness  and  insensibility  to 
light ;  the  respiration,  at  first  slow  and  sighing,  gradually 
became  accelerated.  The  dilatation  of  the  pupil  is  opposed 
to  the  contraction  so  constantly  seen  in  man.  After  the 
third  hour  restlessness  and  delirium  set  in,  continuing  for 
seven  hours  ;  he  walked  rapidly,  and  even  ran  round  his 
box  ;  his  pulse  was  96,  full  and  thrilling  ;  the  skin  damp 
with  perspiration  ;  the  membranes  of  the  eyes,  nose,  and 
mouth  intensely  injected.  For  twenty-four  hours  the  effects 
continued  ;  the  secretions  were,  however,  unaffected,  but  the 
horse  was  left  exhausted. 


TOXIC    EFFECTS  477 

F.  Smith  and  C.  Rutherford  made  a  series  of  experiments 
with  alkaloids  at  Aldershot,  and  furnished  the  following 
notes  : — A  bay  gelding  had  three  grains  morphine  injected 
hypodermically,  and  in  fifteen  minutes  had  shaking  of  the 
head,  which  continued  more  or  less  for  a  couple  of  hours  ; 
but  there  were  no  other  appreciable  symptoms.  A  bay 
gelding,  fed  on  hay  and  grass,  with  a  pulse  of  38,  respirations 
12,  and  pupil  half  an  inch  vertical  diameter,  had  five  grains 
morphine  injected.  In  forty  minutes  the  pulse  was  42, 
respiration  and  pupils  unchanged.  He  walked  occasionally 
round  his  box,  threw  back  his  ears  ;  a  patch  of  perspiration 
appeared  on  the  breast,  around  the  seat  of  injection  ;  the 
head  was  frequently  shaken  ;  the  animal  was  easily  startled. 
The  effects  wore  off  in  about  an  hour  and  a  half. 

In  experiments  with  morphine  and  atropine  injected 
together,  C.  Rutherford  records  that  the  horses  were  more 
readily  excited  than  when  morphine  was  given  alone. 
They  moved  almost  constantly  round  the  box,  had  rhyth- 
mical movements  of  the  head,  and  dilated  pupils.  Morphine 
five  grains,  injected  with  fifteen  minims  atropine  solution, 
caused,  in  fifteen  minutes,  uneasiness,  walking  round  the 
box,  throwing  up  and  shaking  of  the  head,  slight  pawing, 
dilated  pupils,  nervousness,  and  excitability.  These  symp- 
toms continued  for  one  and  a  half  hours  when  they  gradually 
abated  ;  but  the  animal  for  six  hours  still  remained  easily 
excited,  and  a  '  little  on  the  move.' 

Twelve  grains  morphine  acetate,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of 
water  and  swallowed  by  a  horse,  had  no  effect  beyond 
increasing  the  pulsations  eight  beats.  One  hundred  grains 
of  the  acetate,  swallowed  in  solution,  caused  convulsions  and 
killed  the  horse  in  three  hours  (Wood).  Kaufmann  states 
that  forty-five  to  seventy-five  grains  of  the  hydrochloride, 
given  hypodermically,  poison  horses. 

Ruminants  are  not  so  susceptible,  especially  to  opiates 
given  by  the  mouth.  Cows  and  sheep,  to  which  Dun  gave 
respectively  an  ounce  and  four  drachms  of  opium,  exhibited 
dryness  of  the  mouth,  occasional  nausea  and  restlessness, 
acceleration,  and  subsequently  slight  slowing  of  the  pulse. 
Frohner  hypodermically  injected  a  cow  with  fifteen  grains 
morphine  hydrochloride  ;  she  lowed  hoarsely,  became  ex- 


478  OPIUM—MORPHINE 

cited,  and  tympanitic  ;  but  the  effects  passed  off  in  an  hour. 
Kaufmann  gives  one  to  two  drachms  as  the  toxic  dose  for 
cattle,  and  fifteen  to  thirty  grains  for  sheep  and  goats. 
Swine,  receiving  one  or  two  drachms  of  opium,  become  first 
lively  and  then  dull  and  sleepy,  with  hot  skin  and  consti- 
pated bowels. 

Dogs,  swallowing  moderate  doses,  usually  become  stupid 
and  drowsy,  but  occasionally  are  rendered  delirious,  especi- 
ally by  large  doses.  The  pupil  is  not  dilated,  as  is  frequent 
in  the  horse  and  cat,  nor  continuously  contracted,  as 
in  man,  but  is  contracted  while  the  dog  is  asleep  or 
narcotised.  Two  to  three  drachms  of  opium  cause,  within 
a  few  minutes,  increased  force  and  frequency  of  the 
pulse ;  followed  by  nausea,  a  staggering,  unsteady  gait, 
twitching  of  the  limbs,  clonic  spasms,  stertorous  breathing, 
drowsiness,  stupor,  and  sometimes  death.  The  symptoms 
continue  from  three  to  fifteen  hours,  and  most  animals 
surviving  the  latter  period  recover.  Harley  injected  twenty 
minims  laudanum  under  the  skin  of  a  bitch  about  25  Ibs. 
weight ;  she  was  nauseated  ;  in  fifteen  minutes  she  vomited  ; 
had  spasms  of  the  diaphragm,  the  bowels  acted,  mucus  ran 
from  the  mouth  ;  within  an  hour  the  pulse  had  fallen  from 
120  to  78,  and  was  irregular  ;  the  animal  lay  quiet,  but  did 
not  sleep  or  show  narcotism.  Twenty  minims  more  were 
injected  ;  the  pulse  fell  to  72,  and  was  regular  ;  respira- 
tions 16,  and  regular  ;  half  an  hour  later  she  closed  her 
eyes  and  was  drowsy,  continued  so  for  an  hour,  but  did 
not  actually  sleep. 

Morphine  acetate,  half  a  grain,  subcutaneously  injected 
into  a  bitch  weighing  25  Ibs.,  in  a  few  minutes  caused 
vomiting  and  urination.  She  lay  motionless,  her  nose  on 
the  rug,  her  fore  and  hind  limbs  fully  extended.  For 
upwards  of  three  hours  she  was  so  completely  narcotised 
that  the  eyes  were  insensible  to  light,  the  pupils  much 
contracted  ;  -the  pulse  fell  from  120  to  50,  and  became 
irregular  ;  the  respirations  went  down  from  20  to  14,  and 
were  shallow  ;  the  muscles  were  flaccid.  Two  to  three 
grains,  subcutaneously  injected,  killed  dogs  of  12  Ibs.  to 
16  Ibs.  in  ten  or  twelve  hours  ;  doses  insufficient  to  kill 
develop  in  most  dogs  excitant  instead  of  soporific  effects. 


ANTIDOTES  479 

The  spinal  cord  is  more  notably  affected  than  the  brain  ; 
vomiting,  nausea,  restlessness,  and  delirium  are  the  usual 
symptoms. 

Post-mortem  examination  discovers  the  results  of 
asphyxia.  The  blood  is  fluid  and  dark-coloured,  but  it 
does  not  yield  on  analysis  any  indications  of  the  poison. 
There  is  general  venous  engorgement ;  the  lungs  and 
brain  are  markedly  congested.  The  ventricles  of  the  brain 
and  subarachnoid  spaces  contain  more  fluid  than  usual. 

ANTIDOTES. — Opium  is  not  very  quickly  absorbed  ;  when 
a  poisonous  dose  has  been  swallowed,  the  stomach  should 
be  emptied  as  soon  as  possible,  preferably  by  the  stomach 
pump,  and  washed  with  solution  of  potassium  permanganate. 
Administration  of  nitrites,  and  of  small  doses  of  atropine, 
hypodermically,  maintain  cardiac  action  ;  but  the  atropine 
must  be  used  cautiously,  as  full  doses  are  apt  to  intensify 
paralysis  both  of  the  heart  and  cord.  Even  better  than 
atropine  is  caffeine,  and  the  lethal  tendency  can  be  further 
combated  by  strychnine,  used  hypodermically,  and  by  arti- 
ficial respiration.  Coma  is  prevented  by  giving  strong 
coffee  and  stimulant  enemata,  and  keeping  the  patient 
moving.  Tincture  of  galls  and  other  chemical  antidotes 
are  of  little  avail. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Opium  and  morphine  are  used  to 
relieve  symptoms  rather  than  to  remove  the  conditions 
on  which  they  depend.  Small  doses  are  nerve  stimulants, 
and  retard  digestion  and  metabolism.  The  Cutch  horsemen 
share  their  opium  with  their  jaded  steeds,  and  increased 
capability  of  endurance  is  observed  alike  in  man  and  beast. 
In  the  lower  animals,  as  already  indicated,  they  do  not 
produce  the  general  calmative  and  hypnotic  effects  which 
characterise  their  use  in  man.  In  human  patients  opiates 
cause  notable  vascular  dilatation  in  the  skin,  and  hence 
relieve  congestion  and  inflammation  (Brunton).  But  in 
the  lower  animals  this  vascular  dilatation  occurs  only  when 
toxic  doses  are  used  (Frohner),  and  accordingly  the  anti- 
pyretic and  anti-inflammatory  power  of  opiates  must  be 
considerably  less  than  in  man.  Moreover,  owing  to  the 
greater  excitant  action  in  veterinary  patients,  the  adminis- 
tration of  opium  does  not  blunt  the  perception  of  pain  as 


480  OPIUM— MORPHINE 

effectually  as  it  does  in  human  patients.  When,  however, 
a  morphine  salt  is  injected  hypodermically,  fifteen  to  thirty 
minutes  previous  to  the  inhalation  of  chloroform  or  ether, 
anaesthesia  is  intensified  and  prolonged,  and  the  anaesthetic 
is  economised. 

In  gastritis  and  gastro-enteritis,  whether  produced  by 
disease  or  by  swallowing  acrid  poisons,  opiates  are  anodyne, 
astringent,  and  haemostatic.  Obstinate  chronic  vomiting, 
in  either  dogs  or  pigs,  whether  depending  upon  irritation 
of  the  stomach  or  of  the  vomiting  centre,  is  generally  re- 
lieved by  a  few  grains  of  opium,  given  with  chloroform  or 
chloral  hydrate.  In  gastric  irritability  it  is  sometimes 
prescribed  with  bismuth  subnitrate.  When,  in  weakly, 
young,  growing  animals,  food  is  hurried  too  rapidly 
through  the  digestive  canal,  opium  checks  excessive  secre- 
tion and  peristalsis,  and,  conjoined  with  mineral  acids  or 
arsenic,  should  be  given  shortly  before  feeding. 

Diarrhoea,  whether  occurring  from  congestion  of  the 
alimentary  mucous  membrane,  or  as  a  symptom  of  other 
ailments,  is  often  checked  by  a  laxative,  which  carries 
away  offending  matters.  Occasionally,  however,  the  bowels 
continue  irritable  and  relaxed  ;  opium  in  such  cases  abates 
irritability,  diminishes  excessive  secretion,  and  is  adminis- 
stered  with  well-boiled  starch  gruel,  sometimes  conjoined 
with  an  antacid,  sometimes  with  acids,  bitters,  or  vegetable 
astringents.  For  such  purposes  the  following  recipes  are 
used,  alike  in  horses  and  cattle  : — A  drachm  each  of 
powdered  opium,  kino,  gentian,  and  sodium  carbonate  ; 
or  a  drachm  of  opium,  a  drachm  of  catechu,  or  half  a  drachm 
of  tannin,  with  half  an  ounce  of  chalk.  These  drugs  may 
be  made  into  bolus  with  treacle  or  meal  and  water,  or 
dissolved  in  ale  or  gruel,  and  given  twice  daily,  or  as 
required.  An  ounce  of  laudanum,  thirty  drops  sulphuric 
acid,  two  drachms  powdered  catechu,  with  an  ounce  of 
ginger,  aniseed,  or  fenugreek,  make  an  astringent  anodyne 
drench  for  diarrhoea  in  cattle,  which  may  be  given  in  gruel, 
ale,  or  spirit  and  water.  Another  useful  prescription  for 
relaxed  bowels  consists  of  an  ounce  each  of  laudanum, 
decoction  of  oak  bark,  ginger,  and  sodium  bicarbonate,  given 
several  times  daily  in  starch  gruel.  One-third  of  this  dose 


MEDICINAL   USES  481 

suffices  for  calves  of  six  months.  For  dogs,  three  to  eight 
drachms  laudanum,  two  to  three  drachms  chalk,  one 
drachm  aromatic  confection,  and  two  drachms  gum  acacia, 
are  added  to  seven  ounces  of  water,  and  of  this  mixture 
one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  may  be  given  every  time  the 
bowels  are  relaxed. 

For  dysentery,  whether  in  horses,  cattle,  or  dogs,  opium  is 
of  service  in  allaying  pain  and  straining,  and  may  usually 
be  freely  given,  along  with  antiseptics,  both  by  the  mouth 
and  rectum.  A  drachm  each  of  opium  and  tannin,  with 
half  a  drachm  powdered  copper  sulphate,  may  be  repeated 
twice  a  day,  for  either  horses  or  cattle.  Whilst  febrile 
symptoms  continue,  any  such  opium  mixture  must  be  used 
cautiously.  In  gastro-intestinal  cases,  opium  is  generally 
contra-indicated  when  secretion  is  impaired,  or  the  liver 
and  kidneys  act  imperfectly. 

In  enteritis  in  horses,  Robertson  used  half  a  drachm  each 
of  powdered  opium  and  camphor,  with  five  minims  Fleming's 
tincture  of  aconite,  in  a  pint  of  gruel,  with  or  without  a 
dose  of  oil.  In  the  rapidly  fatal  mueo-enteritis  amongst 
the  heavier  breeds  of  hard- worked  horses,  opium  and  calomel 
were  prescribed  in  the  earlier  stages,  and  opium,  belladonna, 
chloral  hydrate,  and  ether  in  the  second  stages  ;  but  more 
prompt  measures  are  needful  to  avert  the  deadly  passive 
congestion  and  haemorrhage,  and  morphine  and  atropine, 
sometimes  used  with  ergotin,  are  hypodermically  injected, 
and  repeated  every  two  hours. 

In  peritonitis,  and  hernia,  to  arrest  intestinal  movements, 
full  doses  of  opium  are  administered.  Antagonising  mus- 
cular spasm,  opium  or  morphine  is  valuable  in  spasmodic 
colic  in  horses,  being  usually  conjoined  with  ether,  sweet 
spirit  of  nitre,  chloral  hydrate,  chloroform,  spirit  of  ammonia, 
or  oil  of  turpentine,  and  with  laxatives  as  aloes,  and  lin- 
seed or  castor  oil.  For  general  service  four  or  five  drachms 
of  aloes  are  rubbed  down  in  a  quart  of  tepid  water,  and, 
when  the  solution  is  nearly  cold,  an  ounce  each  of  laudanum 
and  ether  is  added  ;  while  for  large  horses  the  dose  of  the 
anodyne  and  stimulant  may  be  doubled.  If  more  con- 
venient, the  aloes  may  be  given  in  bolus,  the  laudanum 
and  ether  in  draught. 


482  OPIUM — MORPHINE 

As  an  antispasmodic  for  the  dog,  Stonehenge  advised 
half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  each  of  laudanum  and  ether, 
given  in  an  ounce  of  camphor  mixture.  The  following 
case  illustrates  the  antispasmodic  effect  of  morphine  on 
the  dog  : — A  collie  poisoned  with  strychnine,  and  so  con- 
vulsed that  recovery  seemed  impossible,  had  five  grains 
morphine  injected  hypodermically  ;  the  muscular  spasms 
ceased,  he  slept  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  recovered 
(F.  Smith). 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs,  with  shallow,  embar- 
rassed breathing,  are  unsuitable  cases  for  full  doses  of 
either  opium  or  morphine,  which  is  apt  still  further  to 
depress  the  respiratory  centre,  and  lead  to  death  by  apnoea. 
Pleurisy,  however,  may  be  treated  by  large  and  more  fre- 
quently repeated  doses  than  bronchitis  or  pneumonia. 
Opiates,  when  absorbed,  diminish  excitability  of  the  respira- 
tory centre,  and  thus  relieve  cough,  and  pain  of  the  throat 
and  chest.  Belladonna  and  opium,  although  in  large  doses 
opposed  in  their  effects  on  the  respiratory  centre — the 
former  acting  as  an  excitant,  the  latter  as  a  depressant — 
in  medicinal  doses  are  sometimes  advantageously  conjoined 
in  allaying  bronchial  irritability.  In  the  catarrhal  epi- 
zootics of  horses,  after  a  few  doses  of  salines,  half  a  drachm 
each  of  opium  and  belladonna  extract,  conjoined  with  an 
ounce  of  spirit  of  chloroform,  ether,  or  sweet  spirit  of  nitre, 
and  repeated  two  or  three  times  daily,  frequently  abates 
vascular  congestion  and  cough.  A  similar  prescription 
is  useful  in  asthma — a  common  complaint  in  dogs  ;  but 
in  this,  as  in  other  diseases,  more  prompt  and  certain 
effects  are  obtained  by  the  hypodermic  injection  of  mor- 
phine and  atr opine. 

Rheumatism  is  sometimes  advantageously  treated  with 
opium,  prescribed  in  the  earlier  and  more  acute  stages 
with  calomel  and  salines,  and  in  chronic  cases  with  turpentine 
and  other  stimulants,  smart  friction  and  warm  clothing. 
Neuralgic  pains  occurring  in  horses,  and  causing  puzzling — 
sometimes  frequently  shifting — lameness,  are  relieved,  and 
occasionally  removed,  by  morphine  injected  deeply  into 
the  affected  muscles. 

American  practitioners  prescribe  opium  and  also  morphine 


ALLAY   IRRITABILITY,    PAIN,    AND    SPASM        483 

by  the  mouth  and  hypodermically,  in  combating  the  rigidity 
and  pain  of  spinal  meningitis.  Tetanus,  occurring  in  young 
animals,  is  sometimes  treated  by  opium,  conjoined  with 
antiseptics  and  chloral  or  conium  ;  while  in  the  more 
serious  cases  amongst  adults,  spasms  and  morbidly  acute 
sensibility  have  been  checked  for  several  hours  by  the 
hypodermic  injection  of  morphine.  In  hysteria  it  is 
prescribed  with  potassium  bromide,  and  camphor. 

Opiates  are  of  service  alike  in  mares,  cows,  and  bitches,  in 
allaying  post-partum  irritability,  straining,  and  bleeding, 
for  which  they  are  sometimes  conjoined  with  chloral  or 
chloroform.  Morphine,  given  either  by  the  mouth  or  hypo- 
dermically, alone,  or,  better  still,  conjoined  with  atropine, 
is  often  effectual  in  arresting  premature  labour  pains. 
Some  practitioners  recommend  opiates  in  epilepsy  and 
chorea,  but  they  are  of  little  use  in  either.  They  were 
formerly  used  in  polyuria  of  horses,  but  are  not  so  effectual 
as  iodine.  Although  powerless  to  arrest  tuberculosis,  they 
are  often  serviceable  in  relieving  the  accompanying  cough 
and  diarrhoea. 

Opiates  are  contra-indicated  in  acute  fever,  in  congestive 
and  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  brain  or  kidneys,  and  in 
obstinate  constipation.  Full  doses,  depressing  respiratory 
functions,  prove  injurious  when  there  is  a  tendency  to  death 
by  suffocation. 

Externally,  opium  has  been  used  to  relieve  the  pain  of 
wounds,  bruises,  boils,  blistered  and  cauterised  surfaces, 
and  superficial  inflammation  of  the  eye,  skin,  and  joints. 
For  such  purposes  five  to  ten  drops  each  of  the  tincture  (or 
aqueous  solution),  and  Goulard's  extract,  may  be  mixed 
with  an  ounce  of  water.  With  borax  or  alkaline  car- 
bonate, it  is  useful  in  abating  the  irritation  of  prurigo 
and  acute  eczema.  For  haemorrhoids,  opium  is  conjoined 
with  gall  ointment.  It  is  the  anodyne  chiefly  relied  on  for 
injections  and  suppositories  in  enteritis  and  dysentery,  as 
well  as  in  irritation  and  inflammation  of  the  uterus,  kidneys, 
bladder,  and  rectum.  As  a  clyster,  opium  is  used  in  about 
the  same  quantities  as  are  given  by  the  mouth.  Not  only 
does  opium  relieve  pain,  but  peristalsis  is  lessened  and  the 
animal  quietened. 


484  OPIUM— MORPHINE 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  opium,  horses  take  3SS-  to  39-  5  cattle, 
3ij.  to  3iv. ;  sheep,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  Ix. ;  pigs,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  xx. ;  dogs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  vj. ;  cats,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  ij.  Of 
morphine  salts,  horses  and  cattle  take  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  xv. ; 
sheep,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  ii. ;  pigs,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  ss. ;  dogs,  gr.  ^ 
to  gr.  J,  given  in  pill  or  dissolved  in  diluted  spirit,  slightly 
acidulated  either  with  hydrochloric  or  acetic  acid.  In  canine 
practice  lozenges  containing  gr.  ^  opium,  or  gr.  ^  mor- 
phine hydrochloride,  will  be  found  convenient.  Morphine 
is  unsuitable  for  cats.  For  hypodermic  and  intratraeheal 
injections,  the  B.P.  Injeetio  Morphinse  Hypodermiea, 
containing  5  grains  morphine  tartrate  in  110  minims, 
should  be  used.  Stronger  solutions  of  the  acetate  and 
hydrochloride  are  also  prepared.  Tablets,  lamellae,  pellets, 
and  discs,  containing  from  gr.  J  to  several  grains  of  a 
morphine  salt  are  very  convenient,  especially  for  hypo- 
dermic use. 

Tolerance  alike  of  opium  and  morphine  is  as  quickly 
acquired  in  the  lower  animals  as  in  man.  It  is  increased 
not  only  by  frequent  use  but  by  acute  pain.  Special  suscep- 
tibility is  observable  in  young  animals,  in  which,  accordingly, 
reduced  doses  must  be  used.  Although  opium  and  morphine 
resemble  each  other,  the  crude  drug  is  more  apt  to  cause 
gastric  disturbance  and  constipation,  while  the  alkaloid, 
when  used  hypodermically  or  intratracheally,  is  more 
effectual  in  arresting  pain. 

The  several  actions  are  altered,  intensified,  or  repressed 
by  combination  with  other  drugs.  Hypnosis  and  quieting 
of  nervous  excitability  are  determined  by  combining  the 
opiate  with  cannabis  indica,  chloral  hydrate,  and  bromides  ; 
antispasmodic  effects,  by  conjunction  with  ethers  or  volatile 
oils  ;  the  checking  of  intestinal  secretion,  by  prescription 
with  lead  acetate,  tannic  or  sulphuric  acid  ;  sudorific  action 
is  promoted  by  ipecacuanha,  pilocarpine,  ammonium  acetate 
solution,  diluents,  and  warm  clothing  ;  anodyne  properties 
are  increased  by  combination  with  atropine,  and  occasionally 
with  aconite  or  prussic  acid  ;  while  in  malarial  fevers, 
Indian  and  American  practitioners  prescribe  opiates  with 
quinine. 

Veterinarians  do  not  use  so  many  preparations  as  are 


DOSES    AND    ADMINISTRATION  485 

employed  in  human  medicine.  Crude  opium  is  given  to 
horses  and  dogs  made  into  bolus  or  pill,  and  no  other  solid 
form  is  necessary.  To  reduce  it  to  powder,  it  is  first  dried 
in  a  vapour  bath,  and  its  trituration  is  facilitated  by  mixture 
with  potassium  sulphate,  or  other  hard  salt.  The  extract, 
containing  20  per  cent,  of  morphine,  though  somewhat  less 
bulky  than  crude  opium,  is  seldom  prescribed.  Dover's 
powder,  the  pulvis  ipecacuanhse  compositus,  consists  of  one 
part  each  of  powdered  opium  and  ipecacuanha,  and  eight 
parts  potassium  sulphate,  added  to  facilitate  trituration  and 
intermixture  of  the  vegetable  matters.  It  contains  10  per 
cent,  of  opium,  and  is  given  to  dogs  in  doses  of  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  xv.  A  watery  solution,  made  by  rubbing  down  opium 
in  hot  water,  and  giving  both  dissolved  matters  and  residue, 
has  the  merit  of  being  cheaper  than  the  tincture,  and  is 
more  prompt  and  effectual  than  the  solid  drug. 

The  B.P.  tincture  of  opium,  popularly  known  as  laudanum, 
is  made  with  three  ounces  of  opium  and  equal  parts  of 
distilled  water  and  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  It  is  now  standar- 
dised to  contain  0*75  per  cent,  of  anhydrous  morphine. 
An  ounce  contains  the  soluble  matter  of  nearly  33  grains  of 
opium,  or  about  one  grain  in  15  minims.  For  immediate 
effects  laudanum  is  usually  preferable  to  solid  opium.  The 
dose  for  horses  and  cattle  is  fgj.  to  f§iij.  ;  for  sheep  and 
pigs,  f3ij.  to  f3vj.  ;  for  dogs,  TI\v.  to  Tl\xl.  The  vinegar 
and  wine  of  opium  are  seldom  used  in  veterinary  practice  ; 
but  the  Ammoniated  tincture,  known  as  Scotch  paregoric, 
containing  one  grain  of  opium  in  96  minims  is  sometimes 
given.  Tinctura  eamphorse  composita  or  English  paregoric, 
made  with  tincture  of  opium,  benzoic  acid,  camphor,  oil  of 
anise,  and  alcohol  (60  per  cent.),  contains  J  grain  opium  in 
each  fluid  drachm.  The  liquid  extract  of  opium  contains 
gr.  |  of  morphine  in  110  minims;  or  gr.  i.  of  opium  in 
15  minims.  Equal  parts  of  laudanum  and  soap  liniment 
make  an  excellent  anodyne,  much  used  externally. 

Heroin  (diacetyl-morphine),  derived  from  morphine,  is 
a  white  crystalline  powder,  alkaline,  odourless,  with  a  bitter 
taste  ;  soluble  in  acidulated  water.  The  hydrochloride, 
soluble  in  two  parts  of  water,  is  sometimes  employed  as  a 
substitute  for  morphine  in  the  treatment  of  respiratory 


486  BELLADONNA 

diseases  (cough,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  etc.).  In  many 
cases  it  is  preferable  to  morphine,  as  it  does  not  constipate, 
and  very  small  doses  suffice.  For  the  dog  it  is  five  times 
more  toxic  than  morphine.  Dose. — Dogs,  gr.  ^th  to 
gr.  Jth,  in  pill  in  solution.  For  horses  heroin  is  generally 
prescribed  as  a  compound  glycerol,  containing  -j-'g-th  grain  of 
heroin  in  each  drachm,  in  doses  of  about  an  ounce  two  or 
three  times  a  day.  Dogs  take  lT|x.  to  Tl\xxx. 


BELLADONNA 

BELLADONNA  FOLIA.  Belladonna  Leaves.  The  fresh  leaves 
and  branches  of  Atropa  belladonna,  collected  when  the 
plant  is  in  flower.  Deadly  Nightshade.  Nat.  Ord  — 
Atropacese  or  Solanacese. 

BELLADONNA  RADIX.  The  root  of  Atropa  belladonna, 
collected  in  the  autumn  and  dried. 

ATROPINA.  Atropine.  An  alkaloid  obtained  from  bella- 
donna leaves  or  root.  C17H23N03. 

HOMATROPINJE  HYDROBROMiDUM.  Homatropine  Hydro- 
bromide.  C16H21N03.HBr.  The  hydrobromide  of  an 
alkaloid  prepared  from  tropine  (B.P.). 

Belladonna  grows  wild  in  most  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
especially  about  old  walls,  edges  of  plantations,  and  shady 
places  ;  but  the  great  demand  for  its  preparations  has  led  to 
its  extensive  cultivation.  It  has  a  fleshy,  wrinkled,  branch- 
ing, perennial  root,  a  round,  branched,  reddish,  downy, 
annual  stem,  three  to  five  feet  high  ;  broadly  ovate,  acute, 
entire,  smooth  leaves,  supported  on  short  leaf -stalks  of  a 
sombre-green  colour,  and  having  a  faint  bitter  taste  ;  pendu- 
lous, dark-purple,  bell-shaped  flowers,  appearing  in  June  or 
July  ;  a  round,  violet,  berried,  mawkish-tasted  fruit,  the  size 
of  a  small  cherry,  and  containing  numerous  kidney-shaped 
seeds.  The  plant  has  greatest  activity  towards  the  end  of 
June  and  throughout  July,  when  flowering  is  over,  and  before 
the  fruit  and  seeds  are  ripe. 

The  active  alkaloid  atropine  occurs  in  the  plant  as  a 
bimalate.  The  leaves  contain  0*46  per  cent.,  the  younger 
roots  as  much  as  0*60  per  cent.  It  is  prepared  from  a  strong 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  487 

tincture.  It  occurs  in  colourless  acicular  crystals,  is  volatile, 
has  a  bitter  taste,  is  soluble  in  300  parts  water,  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  in  chloroform.  The 
more  soluble  sulphate,  obtained  by  neutralising  atropine 
with  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  is  used  in  preference  to  the 
alkaloid.  It  gives  a  citron-yellow  precipitate  with  gold 
perchloride.  An  alcohol  solution  of  mercuric  chloride  added 
to  a  crystal  or  strong  solution  of  atropine  causes  a  precipi- 
tate, which  becomes  red  on  standing  or  when  boiled.  It 
powerfully  dilates  the  pupil. 

Atropine  can  be  split  up  into  tropic  acid  and  tropine, 
and  this  base,  reunited  with  other  acids,  forms  tropeines. 
When  combined  with  oxytoluylic  acid,  the  crystalline 
homatropine  is  produced,  and  is  used  as  the  soluble  hydro- 
bromide.  It  is  similar  to  but  weaker  than  atropine,  and 
the  solution  is  preferred  by  oculists,  as  its  effects,  although 
as  promptly  and  effectually  produced,  are  not  so  incon- 
veniently persistent  as  those  of  atropine  sulphate.  Isomeric 
with  atropine  is  hyoscyamine,  whilst  hyoscine  differs  only 
slightly  in  its  formula.  They  occur  along  with  atropine  in 
belladonna  and  other  plants  of  the  order  Solanaceae. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Belladonna  and  atropine,  combined 
with  glycerin,  alcohol  or  chloroform,  which  promote  pene- 
tration, and,  applied  topically,  paralyse  sensory  nerve- 
endings,  and  hence  relieve  irritability  and  pain.  Mainly  by 
paralysing  the  terminals  of  the  third  nerve,  they  dilate  the 
pupil,  and  are  serviceable  in  relieving  congestion  and 
inflammation  of  the  eye,  and  in  facilitating  its  examination. 
Atropine  is  readily  absorbed  by  mucous  surfaces,  and  exerts 
its  physiological  effects  on  the  organs  with  which  it  is 
brought  into  contact.  Toxic  doses,  after  stimulating, 
paralyse  the  spinal  cord,  brain,  and  medullary  centres, 
causing  irregular  movements  and  delirium,  with  coma  from 
impaired  respiration,  and  kill  by  asphyxia.  Medicinal  doses 
stimulate  respiratory  and  cardiac  action,  and  hence  combat 
collapse,  respiratory  depression,  and  poisoning  by  ptomaines. 
They  antagonise  spasm,  are  used  both  topically  and  inter- 
nally in  cases  of  intestinal  and  urinary  colic  and  in  con- 
stipation. They  diminish  the  secretion  of  the  salivary, 
sweat,  gastric,  mucous,  and  mammary  glands,  but  not 


488  BELLADONNA 

that  of  the  kidneys,  by  which  atropine  is  quickly  excreted 
unchanged. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Atropine  depresses  the  functions  of 
sensory  nerve-endings,  and  hence  allays  irritability  and  pain 
when  applied  to  the  itching  or  erythematous  skin,  when 
injected  subcutaneously  into  a  tender  muscle,  or  into  the 
neighbourhood  of  an  irritated  nerve,  and  also  when 
carried  in  large  doses  to  internal  organs.  Moderate  or 
large  doses  increase  heart  action,  by  paralysis  of  the 
vagus-endings  in  the  heart,  while  they  raise  blood-pressure 
by  stimulating  the  medullary  centre.  They  powerfully 
stimulate  the  respiratory  centre.  These  cardiac  and 
respiratory  actions  explain  the  value  of  atropine  in  the 
treatment  of  collapse,  difficult  or  impaired  breathing,  and 
weakness  from  toxins  and  other  sedative  poisons. 

Paralysing  the  special  secretory  nerve-endings  of  glands, 
atropine  is  a  powerful  antisecretory,  diminishing  or  arresting 
secretion,  and  exerting  this  effect  in  whatever  way  it  is 
used.  Although  devoid  of  action  on  voluntary  muscles, 
moderate  and  large  doses  paralyse  involuntary  muscles, 
probably  indirectly  through  the  local  nervous  mechanism, 
and  thus  prevent  griping  and  relax  spasm  of  the  hollow 
organs.  A  similar  action  on  the  bronchial  muscles  prevents 
spasmodic  contraction  of  the  bronchioles  in  asthma.  In 
almost  all  animals  atropine  dilates  the  pupil,  renders  the  eye 
bright,  dry,  and  injected,  paralyses  the  power  of  accommoda- 
tion, and  slightly  increases  intraocular  tension.  These 
effects  result  alike  from  the  local  and  internal  use  of  atropine, 
and  depend  upon  its  paralysing  the  third  nerve  terminals, 
and  perhaps  stimulating  the  sympathetic.  Dilatation  of  the 
pupil  reaches  its  maximum  in  dogs  in  twenty  to  twenty-five 
minutes,  in  herbivora  in  thirty-five  to  forty-five  minutes. 
The  effects  of  full  doses  of  atropine  last  several  days,  but 
those  of  homatropine,  although  as  quickly  produced,  pass 
off  more  rapidly. 

Full  doses  cause  dryness  of  the  mouth,  thirst,  difficulty 
in  swallowing,  quickened  pulse,  delirium,  with  a  tendency  to 
irregular  movements.  The  brain  centres  are  stimulated, 
but  the  ends  of  motor  nerves  are  paralysed,  and  hence  result 
the  concurrence  of  delirium,  irregular  movements,  and 


ATROPINE  489 

lassitude.  Like  alcohol,  atropine  exerts  primary  stimulant 
and  secondary  paralysant  action.  It  stimulates,  then 
depresses  the  respiratory  centre,  and  death  results  chiefly 
from  paralysis  of  respiration.  Small  doses  stimulate,  but 
large  paralyse  the  motor  areas  of  the  brain  and  the  centres 
of  the  medulla.  The  vaso-motor  medullary  centres,  as  well 
as  the  peripheral  vaso-motor  ganglia,  are  stimulated  by 
small,  but  paralysed  by  large  doses.  Small  doses  conse- 
quently raise  blood-pressure  and  temperature.  Continued 
use  does  not  confer  any  tolerance  as  occurs  with  opium  or 
arsenic. 

Belladonna  resembles  hyoscyamus  and  stramonium,  but 
is  more  active.  It  is  somewhat  similar  to  opium  in  its 
antispasmodic  and  anodyne  effects  ;  but  the  distinctions 
between  the  two  are  marked  and  various.  Fairly  large 
doses  of  belladonna  or  atropine  stimulate  and  subsequently 
paralyse  the  central  nervous  system,  and  produce  delirium, 
restlessness,  and  continued  movements,  followed  by  depres- 
sion and  coma  ;  while  similar  doses  of  opium  or  morphine 
paralyse  more  particularly  the  brain  centres  causing  narcosis 
and  coma.  Belladonna  paralyses  the  vagus-endings  and 
inhibitory  mechanism  of  the  heart,  and  hence  accelerates 
the  pulse,  while  opium  slows  it  by  central  action.  Atropine 
stimulates,  while  morphine  depresses  the  respiratory  centre. 
Atropine  dilates,  morphine  contracts  the  pupil.  The  second- 
ary effects  of  belladonna  ally  it  to  hemlock,  which  it  also 
resembles  in  dilating  the  pupil,  and  paralysing  the  ends 
of  sensory  nerves.  Atropine  has  no  direct  physiological 
antagonist,  but  morphine,  caffeine,  Calabar  bean,  prussic 
acid,  and  especially  pilocarpine  oppose  some  of  its  actions. 
Methyl  and  ethyl  atropine,  although  paralysing  the  ends 
of  motor  nerves  and  retaining  the  specific  effects  of  atropine 
on  the  eye,  heart,  and  respiratory  centre,  have  no  tendency 
to  tetanise. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Horses  were  subjected  to  experiment  by 
Hertwig.  Twenty  received  four  to  six  ounces  of  the  dry 
pulverised  herb,  with  meal  and  water,  in  four  separate 
doses,  at  intervals  varying  from  four  to  eight  hours.  In 
four  or  five  hours,  and  on  the  succeeding  day,  he  observed 
dulness,  languor,  uneasiness,  dilated  pupils,  and  a  feverish 


490         BELLADONNA  AND  ATROPINE 

mouth  ;  inappetence,  impaired  digestion,  gas  abundantly 
evolved  from  the  stomach  and  intestines.  The  pulse 
about  90,  was  small,  hard,  and  scarcely  perceptible  ; 
breathing  was  short,  quick,  and  accompanied  by  flapping 
of  the  nostrils  ;  sensibility  slightly  diminished,  but  no 
drowsiness.  Some  of  the  cases  exhibited  abdominal  pain ; 
others  imperfect  power  in  the  hind  extremities  ;  others 
terminated  fatally  in  thirty  to  fifty  hours  after  receiving  the 
first  dose  ;  but  in  most  the  symptoms  gradually  subsided, 
and  in  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours  the  animals  were 
perfectly  well.  Two  to  three  ounces  of  the  dried  root 
acted  on  horses  in  a  similar  manner,  and  six  ounces  usually 
proved  fatal. 

With  atropine  sulphate,  subcutaneously  injected,  Harley 
and  Mavor  made  an  extended  series  of  experiments  on 
a  healthy  six-year-old  horse  and  a  weakly  two-year-old 
thoroughbred.  One-twelfth  of  a  grain  dissolved  in  water 
caused  in  about  half  an  hour  acceleration  of  the  pulse 
from  32  to  42  beats  ;  half  an  hour  later  a  further  rise  of 
ten  beats  was  noted.  The  tongue  and  mouth  were  dry, 
and  the  temperature  increased.  The  pupils  began  dilating 
after  thirty-five  minutes,  and  reached  their  maximum  in 
an  hour,  when  the  iris  was  scarcely  visible.  The  symptoms 
gradually  receded,  and  in  two  to  three  hours  had  dis- 
appeared. 

One-sixth  of  a  grain  caused  restlessness  and  dryness 
of  the  mouth,  and  in  thirty-five  minutes  an  increase  of 
34  beats  in  the  pulse,  which  was  full,  soft,  and  compressible, 
and  only  fell  to  its  original  number  after  six  hours  ;  the 
dilated  pupils  returned  to  their  normal  state  after  three 
hours  ;  the  secretions  were  unaffected. 

One-fourth  of  a  grain  in  twelve  minutes  increased  the 
pulsations  from  38  to  56,  producing  also  slight  irregularity  ; 
the  pupils  gradually  dilated,  and  in  an  hour  reached  their 
fullest  expansion.  These  effects  on  the  pulse  and  pupil, 
with  dryness  of  the  mouth  and  lips,  continued  unabated  dur- 
ing three  hours.  For  eighteen  hours  the  animal  remained 
dull  and  quiet. 

Half  a  grain  in  twelve  minutes  fully  dilated  the  pupils  ; 
the  pulse  rose  to  68  ;  the  mouth,  tongue,  and  lips  became 


EXPERIMENTS  491 

dry  ;  the  horse  gaped  occasionally,  and  stood  perfectly 
quiet ;  after  three  hours  he  showed  considerable  nervous- 
ness, and  was  restless  when  disturbed  ;  for  six  hours  the 
pulse  continued  weak  and  compressible,  but  the  effects 
gradually  declined. 

Two  grains,  given  subcutaneously,  after  fifteen  minutes 
raised  the  pulse  35  beats,  and  weakened  it,  and  caused 
dryness  of  the  mouth,  yawning,  restlessness,  and  nervous- 
ness. The  animal  was  confused,  misjudged  distances,  and 
appeared  under  the  influence  of  illusions  ;  the  membrane 
of  the  eye  was  injected.  Occasional  hiccough,  tremulous- 
ness,  and  twitching  of  the  superficial  muscles  continued 
for  fourteen  hours,  when  the  symptoms  gradually  declined  ; 
but  the  pupils  remained  dilated  for  twenty-four  hours. 
Urine  was  frequently  voided,  and  in  increased  amount ; 
the  mucus  of  the  bowels  and  the  bile  were  slightly  aug- 
mented, the  skin  and  the  respiratory  functions  were  not 
disturbed. 

These  and  other  experiments  demonstrate  that  the  maxi- 
mum stimulation  of  the  heart  results  from  doses  insufficient 
to  produce  nervous  excitement.  Medicinal  doses  seem  to 
dull  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system,  but  over-doses 
cause  increased  sensibility  to  external  impressions,  wakeful- 
ness,  and,  in  extreme  cases,  delirium. 

F.  Smith  and  C.  Rutherford,  experimenting  on  healthy 
horses  with  liquor  atropinse  sulphatis,  containing  one  grain 
of  the  alkaloid  to  100  of  water,  injected  into  the  chest 
quantities  ranging  from  15  to  30  minims  without  producing 
any  notable  effects.  Injections  of  30  to  60  minims  reduced 
the  pulse  two  or  three  beats,  but  had  scarcely  any  effect 
on  the  pupil.  Injections  of  120  to  180  minims  slightly 
slowed  the  pulse  and  rendered  it  softer,  and  increased  the 
size  of  the  pupil.  Most  of  the  subjects  were  quiet,  some 
slightly  sleepy,  but  all  easily  roused.  Two  experiments 
were  made  by  introducing  intratraeheally  T3F  grain  of 
atropine  sulphate,  which  caused  immediately  a  gulp  and 
cough ;  but  the  only  further  effects  were,  dryness  of  the 
mouth  and  slightly  increased  fulness  and  quickening  of 
the  pulse,  which  continued  for  about  three  quarters  of  an 
hour. 


492        BELLADONNA  AND  ATBOPINE 

Cattle,  according  to  Hertwig,  are  as  susceptible  to  the 
action  of  belladonna  as  horses.  He  states  that  two  to  four 
ounces  of  the  root  caused  in  cows  violent  symptoms,  lasting 
forty-eight  hours,  and  that  large  doses  are  dangerous. 

Dogs  receiving  full  doses  of  belladonna  exhibit  less 
marked  cerebral,  but  more  pronounced  and  prolonged  cardiac 
effects  than  horses.  This  apparently  depends  upon  the 
heart  in  dogs  being  more  under  the  regulating  influence  of 
the  vagi  and  inhibitory  ganglia,  which  the  drug  specially 
paralyses.  Harley  found  that  while  f  grain  of  atropine 
sulphate  doubled  the  pulse-rate  in  horses,  J  grain  trebled 
it  in  dogs.  Doses  of  -fa  to  J  grain  raised  the  dog's  pulse 
in  a  few  minutes  from  120  to  400,  the  beats  continuing  strong 
and  regular  ;  the  pupils  were  so  fully  dilated  that  vision 
was  confused  ;  the  mouth  and  nose  were  dry  and  hot. 
The  larger  doses  further  caused  slowness  and  unsteadiness 
of  movement,  but  no  loss  of  sense  or  intelligence. 

A  Scotch  terrier  weighing  16  Ibs.  received  ^  grain  atro- 
pine sulphate,  injected  under  the  skin  ;  in  four  minutes 
the  pulse  rose  from  118  to  280  ;  the  respirations  advanced 
from  19  to  30;  the  pupils  dilated  to  their  full  extent, 
the  mucous  membranes  were  dry,  the  animal  excited 
and  whining  ;  these  effects  continued  four  hours.  Dogs 
weighing  15  Ibs.  and  16  Ibs.  were  killed  in  three  hours 
by  |  grain,  with  symptoms  of  prostration,  rapid  and 
feeble  pulse,  irregular  and  shallow  respiration,  muscular 
twitchings,  and  paralysed  sphincters,  death  occurring  in 
convulsions. 

Hertwig  found  that  30  to  50  grains  of  the  dried  herb  or 
root,  given  to  dogs,  in  thirty  minutes  dilated  the  pupil, 
so  that  the  iris  was  out  of  view,  and  rendered  the  eye 
insensible  to  bright  light.  Vomiting  sometimes  occurred, 
the  nose  became  dry  and  hot,  and  the  gait  tottering  from 
inability  to  move  the  hind  extremities.  In  one  to  three 
hours  the  symptoms  began  to  abate,  but  diminished  irrita- 
bility of  the  iris  remained  even  after  twenty-four  hours. 
Orfila  poisoned  dogs  with  15  grains  of  extract.  Christison 
found  that  half  an  ounce  of  the  watery  extract  given  by 
the  mouth  killed  dogs  in  about  thirty  hours,  half  that 
quantity  introduced  into  a  wound  killed  in  twenty-four 


MEDICINAL   USES  493 

hours,  while  even  smaller  doses  were  more  speedily  fatal 
when  injected  into  the  jugular  vein. 

Rodents,  such  as  rabbits,  guinea-pigs,  and  rats,  as  well 
as  pigeons,  do  not  exhibit  the  marked  acceleration  of  the 
pulse  so  remarkable  in  dogs  and  cats.  Rabbits  require 
15  grains  of  green  extract  to  poison  them,  pigeons  2  grains. 
The  mydriatic  action  is  much  less  marked  in  rabbits  than 
in  dogs  or  cats,  and  is  scarcely  noticeable  in  birds. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  are  those  of  asphyxia.  The 
blood  is  dark-coloured,  and  coagulates  slowly  ;  the  ventricles 
are  generally  empty  and  firmly  contracted. 

The  antidotal  treatment  consists  largely  in  treating  the 
symptoms  presented.  In  the  early  stages  with  excitement 
and  hyperaesthesia  it  may  be  advisable  to  use  morphine 
or  other  sedatives.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  stimulating  effect  of  large  doses  of  atropine  is  soon 
followed  by  its  depressant  sedative  action,  and  the  com- 
bination of  atropine  and  morphine  may  produce  dangerous 
results  on  the  respiratory  centre.  Stupor,  if  impending,  is 
combated  by  moving  the  patient  about,  by  the  administra- 
tion of  alcohol,  ammonia,  and  strong  coffee,  or  by  the 
galvanic  battery.  Subcutaneous  injection  of  caffeine  is 
recommended  for  human  patients,  with  the  cautious  use 
of  eserine,  and  artificial  respiration  (Brunton).  Pilocarpine 
is  the  direct  antagonist  of  atropine  with  regard  to  secretion 
and  involuntary  muscle,  but  is  of  little  service  as  an 
antidote  to  toxic  doses  of  atropine.  As  atropine  is  rapidly 
eliminated  in  the  urine,  recovery  usually  results  if  dangerous 
symptoms  can  be  relieved,  and  life  preserved  for  a  few 
hours.  Where  urination  is  difficult,  the  catheter  should 
be  used. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Stimulating  the  respiratory  centre, 
abating  excessive  mucous  secretion,  combating  spasm  of 
involuntary  muscles,  and  soothing  irritability,  belladonna 
and  atropine  are  serviceable  in  catarrh,  pharyngitis,  laryn- 
gitis, and  bronchitis  in  all  patients,  and  are  used  in  the 
several  forms  of  inhalation,  spray,  electuary,  and  hypo- 
dermic injection.  In  influenza  in  horses,  they  besides 
beneficially  stimulate  the  weakened  heart.  Robertson 
prescribed  belladonna,  with  small  doses  of  aconite,  in  the 


494        BELLADONNA  AND  ATROPINE 

acute  stages  of  respiratory  diseases  in  horses ;  but  it 
is  chiefly  indicated  in  the  second  stages,  when  secretion 
is  over-abundant,  swallowing  difficult,  and  the  throat 
irritable. 

The  noisy  respiration  accompanying  some  cases  of 
catarrh,  and  the  loud,  prolonged,  spasmodic  cough  of  laryn- 
gitis, are  usually  relieved  by  its  use.  Along  with  ether  or 
ammonium  carbonate,  belladonna  abates  the  distressed 
breathing  and  cough  occurring  in  bronchitis,  as  well  as  in 
distemper  of  dogs.  In  asthma  it  is  useful,  by  preventing 
spasm  of  the  bronchial  muscle  and  the  consequent  constric- 
tion of  the  tubes.  In  cardiac  syncope  belladonna  and 
atropine  are  also  useful.  In  colic  cases,  as  well  as  in 
enteritis,  belladonna  is  conjoined  with  opium,  and  is  stated 
to  be  specially  indicated  when  the  glandular  structures  of 
the  bowels  are  implicated.  Belladonna  is  given  in  obstinate 
constipation  and  obstruction  of  the  bowels,  with  the  view 
of  relieving  griping,  and  aiding  the  action  of  laxatives  ; 
and  in  irritable,  spasmodic  conditions  of  the  rectum  it  is 
used  in  the  form  of  suppository.  For  controlling  the 
symptoms  of  tetanus  in  horses,  3*-  ^°  3nJ-  °f  extract 
may  be  placed  within  the  teeth  several  times  a  day.  Neither 
the  crude  drug  nor  the  alkaloid  confers  permanent  benefit 
in  epilepsy  or  chorea. 

Whether  prescribed  internally,  or  as  an  injection,  bella- 
donna allays  irritation  of  the  bladder,  rectum,  and  uterus. 
The  extract  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  neck  of  the  uterus 
to  promote  dilatation  in  cases  of  delayed  parturition.  In 
acute  mammitis  belladonna  given  internally,  and  applied 
locally,  is  a  serviceable  anodyne.  By  diminishing  the 
activity  of  the  secretory  nerves,  it  checks  the  flow  of 
milk,  and  allays  congestion  and  inflammation.  Belladonna 
and  atropine  are  antidotes  in  poisoning  by  opium,  Calabar 
bean,  pilocarpine,  and  anaesthetics. 

In  examinations  and  diseases  of  the  eye  atropine  sul- 
phate or  homatropine  hydrobromide  is  used  for  dilating 
the  pupil,  assisting  in  the  detection  of  cataract,  and  in 
testing  the  condition  of  the  refracting  media.  For 
ophthalmic  purposes  solutions  containing  grs.  ij.  to 
grs.  iv.  to  the  ounce  of  distilled  water  are  employed, 


PREPARATIONS  495 

and  are  sometimes  conjoined  with  cocaine.  They  pre- 
vent prolapse  of  the  iris  in  lesions  of  the  cornea, 
suoh  as  perforating  ulcer,  which  is  frequent  in  dogs. 
In  iritis  mydriatics  relieve  congestion,  and  prevent  or 
break  down  adhesions  between  the  iris  and  the  capsule 
of  the  lens,  in  such  cases  being  generally  alternated  with 
myotics. 

External  topical  applications  often  increase  the  effects  pro- 
duced by  internal  administration,  belladonna  plasters  being 
applied  to  the  spine  in  tetanus,  to  the  loins  in  irritation  of 
the  kidneys  or  bladder,  and  to  the  throat  in  spasmodic 
cough.  Belladonna  and  atropine  diminish  congestion, 
irritability,  and  pain  in  wounds,  glandular  swellings,  and 
injuries  of  the  oesophagus,  in  rheumatism,  and  in  those 
hyper-sensitive  conditions  of  the  skin  and  muscles  which 
sometimes  occur  in  horses  and  hounds  from  severe  exer- 
tion. To  secure  these  results  active  preparations  should 
be  applied  or  deeply  injected,  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
painful  spot.  In  cases  of  emergency  atropine  sulphate, 
administered  hypodermically,  is  preferable  to  any  bella- 
donna preparation. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  dried  leaves  horses  and  cattle  take 
3iv.  to  §j.  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x.  The  plant  is  seldom, 
however,  used  in  the  crude  form. 

An  active  green  extract  is  made  by  the  B.P.  process,  by 
which  100  Ibs.  fresh  leaves  and  young  branches  yield  6  to 
7  Ibs.  of  extract.  The  dose  for  horses  is  3J-  to  3ij-  ;  fc>r 
cattle,  3ij-  to  ^iv.  ;  for  sheep,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  for  dogs, 
gr.  i.  to  grs.  v.  In  catarrhal  and  influenza  cases  the  extract 
is  frequently  prescribed  with  alcohol,  ether  or  camphor. 
A  convenient  electuary  is  made  with  liquor  ammonii  acetatis, 
camphor,  and  treacle. 

The  liquid  extract,  made  with  belladonna  root  and 
rectified  spirit,  contains  f  grain  of  alkaloids  in  110  minims. 
The  tincture  is  made  with  2  ounces  of  liquid  extract  and 
sufficient  alcohol  (60  per  cent.)  to  form  30  ounces.  The 
B.P.  tincture  is  now  standardised  to  contain  0*05  per  cent, 
of  alkaloids.  The  succus  is  obtained  by  bruising  the  fresh 
leaves  and  young  branches  of  belladonna,  pressing  out  the 
juice,  and  adding  to  every  three  volumes  of  juice  one  of 


496         BELLADONNA  AND  ATROPINE 

alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  An  ounce  is  the  dose  for  the  larger 
animals,  TT[v.  to  TT[x.  for  the  smaller.  The  tincture  is  given 
in  similar  doses. 

The  linimentum  belladonna,  prepared  with  liquid 
extract  10,  rectified  spirit  7,  camphor  1,  and  water  2,  con- 
tains 0*37  per  cent,  of  alkaloids.  Veterinarians  frequently 
extemporise  an  ointment  by  melting  over  a  water  bath 
one  part  of  extract  and  four  of  vaseline,  and  adding,  as 
the  mixture  cools,  half  a  part  of  camphor. 

For  external  application,  equal  parts  of  belladonna  extract 
and  glycerin  may  be  used.  It  mixes  readily  with  water. 
The  plaster  is  made  by  evaporating  four  ounces  of  the  liquid 
extract  until  it  is  reduced  in  weight  to  one  ounce,  and 
adding  five  ounces  of  resin  plaster  previously  melted 
(B.P.). 

Atropine,  being  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  the  sulphate 
is  generally  used,  and  is  about  fifty  times  the  strength  of 
the  green  extract.  Subcutaneously  the  dose  of  atropine  sul- 
phate (one  in  twenty)  for  horses  and  cattle  is  gr.  J  to  gr.  1J; 
dogs,  gr.  ^L  to  gr.  J  (Trasbot).  The  B.P.  liquor  atropinae 
sulphatis  in  general  use,  consists  of  grs.  17J  of  atropine 
sulphate,  grs.  2  of  salicylic  acid,  and  §iv.  of  distilled  water, 
and  contains  one  grain  of  the  salt  in  110  minims.  For 
horses  and  cattle  the  dose  is  f3i-  to  f3ij-  J  f°r  dogs,  Tt|i.  to 
H\v.  When  used  hypodermically,  the  minimum  or  still 
smaller  doses  should  be  prescribed.  Injeetio  atropinse 
hypodermica  contains  grs.  jv.  of  atropine  sulphate  in  §j. 
of  water.  Specially  prompt  and  marked  antispasmodic  and 
anodyne  effects  are  secured,  as  stated,  by  conjoining  about 
equal  proportions  of  atropine  and  morphine  solutions. 
For  ophthalmic  and  other  purposes,  tissue  papers  containing 
-g-Jrp  and  lamellae  containing  -j^y  and  -^-^  grain  atropine 
sulphate  are  convenient.  The  ointment  is  composed  of 
atropine,  grs.  10,  oleic  acid,  grs.  40,  and  lard,  grs.  450. 

Homatropine  hydrobromide,  as  already  indicated,  is 
sometimes  substituted  for  atropine  sulphate  for  internal 
administration,  and  still  more  frequently  for  eye  cases. 
To  dilate  the  pupil,  a  solution,  containing  grs.  iv.  homa- 
tropine  hydrobromide,  to  the  ounce  of  water  or  castor  oil, 
may  be  employed. 


CAFFEINE  497 


CAFFEINE 

CAFFEINA.  An  alkaloid  usually  obtained  from  the  dried 
leaves  of  tea,  Camellia  thea,  or  the  dried  seeds  of  Coffea 
arabica.  C8H10N402,  H20.  (B.P.)  Nat.  Ord.— Tern- 
stromiaceae  or  Rubiaceae. 

Caffeine  and  theine  are  now  considered  identical,  and  the 
same  alkaloid  is  also  got  from  the  seeds  of  the  Guarana 
or  Paullinia  Sorbilis,  the  leaves  of  Ilex  paraguayensis,  as 
well  as  from  the  Kola  nut.  Caffeine  (Trimethyl-xanthine)  is 
homologous  with  theobromine  (Dimethyl-xanthine),  which 
is  obtained  from  the  nibs  of  the  Theobroma  cacao.  Caffeine 
occurs  in  colourless,  inodorous,  acicular  crystals,  soluble  in 
seventy  parts  cold  water,  in  one  of  boiling  water,  seven  of 
chloroform,  and  in  forty  of  alcohol.  Treated  with  a  crystal 
of  potassium  chlorate,  and  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  the  mixture  evaporated  to  dryness  in  a  porcelain  dish, 
a  reddish  residue  results,  which  becomes  purple  when 
moistened  with  ammonia. 

Caffeine  citrate,  obtained  by  adding  caffeine  to  a  hot 
solution  of  citric  acid,  is  a  white,  inodorous  powder,  with 
an  acid  taste  and  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  thirty-two 
parts  of  water,  and  in  twenty-two  of  alcohol. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Cadeine  stimulates  and  subsequently 
paralyses  the  nerve-centres  of  the  cerebrum,  cord,  and 
medulla.  In  dogs,  cats,  rabbits,  and  rats,  full  doses,  hypo- 
dermically  injected,  do  not,  as  in  man,  act  prominently  on 
the  brain,  but  chiefly  affect  the  spinal  cord,  exalt  reflex 
excitability,  and  cause  muscular  rigidity,  convulsions,  and 
tetanus  (Phillips).  Large  doses  swallowed  by  dogs,  more- 
over, sometimes  cause  vomiting,  and  gastro-intestinal 
irritation. 

Like  theobromine,  it  exerts  a  restorative  effect  on  both 
voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles,  by  direct  action  on  the 
muscle  fibres,  enabling  them  to  perform  increased  work. 
On  account  of  its  stimulating  the  medulla  and  cardiac 
centres,  moderate  doses  increase  respiration  and  pulse  rate, 
and  raise  blood-pressure  ;  and,  resembling  strychnine  and 
veratrine,  caffeine  antagonises  heart  and  lung  inability  and 

2l 


498  THEOBROMINE    AND    DIURETIN 

paresis.  It  hence  steadies  and  strengthens  the  quick 
action  of  the  weak  heart  in  exhausting  diseases,  thus  acting 
like  digitalis,  but  more  promptly  and  with  more  notable 
diuresis.  As  a  nerve  stimulant,  caffeine  has  been  given  in 
indigestion  in  horses,  milk-fever  in  cows,  and  to  dogs 
prostrated  with  distemper.  It  is  excreted  in  the  urine  and 
is  a  diuretic,  increasing  both  the  amount  of  the  urinary 
solids  and  fluids,  but  especially  the  latter.  It  is  prescribed 
in  cardiac,  hepatic,  and  renal  dropsies,  and  is  used  as  an 
antidote  for  the  cadaver  alkaloids  and  ptomaines,  for  the 
paralysis  of  curare,  and  for  the  narcoses  of  morphine, 
chloroform,  and  alcohol.  Coffee  is  not  identical  in  action 
with  caffeine,  for  besides  0*50  of  the  alkaloid,  it  contains 
aromatic  oils  and  tannic  acid.  Tea,  well  diluted  with  milk, 
is  sometimes  serviceable  for  horses,  and  still  more  so  for 
foals,  calves,  and  dogs  reduced  by  acute  disease. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses  and  cattle,  grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  cxx.  ; 
for  dogs,  according  to  size,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  ij.  When  swallowed, 
caffeine  is  liable  to  produce  gastro-intestinal  irritation,  and 
hence  should  be  given  hypodermically  in  the  minimum  doses 
mentioned.  Hypodermic  injection :  caffeine,  grs.  xxx.  ; 
sodium  benzoate,  grs.  xxx.  ;  distilled  water,  3JSS-  Caffeine 
citrate,  doses  for  horses  and  cattle,  39-  to  3JV-  ;  for  dogs, 
gr.  i.  to  grs.  vj.,  according  to  the  patient's  weight. 

Theobromine  (Dimethyl-xanthine)  is  the  active  principle 
of  cacao  seeds  (Theobroma  cacao),  which  also  contain  about 
45  per  cent,  of  the  concrete  oil,  cacao  butter.  Theobromine 
is  a  white  crystalline  powder,  with  a  bitter  taste,  nearly 
insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether.  It  is  very  slightly 
irritant  to  the  digestive  mucous  membrane,  has  little  if  any 
influence  on  blood-pressure,  and  is  a  prompt  and  powerful 
diuretic,  directly  stimulating  the  renal  epithelium.  In 
cardiac  oedema  and  ascites  of  the  dog,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  xxx., 
divided  into  four  or  six  doses,  in  pill,  syrup,  or  powder,  may 
be  given  daily  for  five  or  six  days  ;  and  after  an  interval  the 
medicine  may  be  repeated  if  required. 

Diuretin,  a  compound  of  sodium  theobromine  and  sali- 
cylate  of  soda,  is  frequently  preferred  to  theobromine  as  a 
diuretic.  It  is  freely  soluble  in  water,  and  may  be  prescribed 
in  the  same  doses  as  theobromine. 


CANNABIS    INDICA  499 

CANNABIS    INDICA 

INDIAN  HEMP.  The  dried,  flowering,  or  fruiting  tops  of  the 
female  plant  of  Cannabis  sativa,  grown  in  India,  from 
which  the  resin  has  not  been  removed  (B.P.).  Nat. 
Ord. — Cannabinese. 

The  Cannabis  sativa  cultivated  in  India,  and  also  in  the 
southern  states  of  America,  attains  a  height  of  four  to  ten 
feet.  The  stalks,  leaves,  female  tops,  fruit,  and  exuding 
resin  are  used  in  making  the  extract,  the  preparation  gener- 
ally prescribed.  The  most  active  extract  is  stated  to  be 
obtained  from  the  resinous  juice,  cannabin  or  ehurrus,  which, 
although  exuding  from  various  parts  of  the  plant,  appears 
to  be  more  potent  when  got  from  the  female  flowering  tops. 
Churrus,  mixed  with  tobacco  and  treacle,  is  smoked  in  the 
East  as  an  intoxicant,  producing  dreamy  narcosis.  The 
larger  leaves  and  fruit,  with  adhering  resin,  constitute 
bhang,  which  is  sometimes  given  to  horses  on  long  journeys. 
Gunjah  consists  of  the  leaf-stalks,  with  adhering  brown 
leaves,  dried,  flowering,  and  fruiting  tops  and  resinous 
exudate.  Hasehisch  is  an  Arabian  preparation  obtained 
from  the  tops  of  the  female  plants  after  flowering.  In  India, 
bhang  and  gun j  ah  are  given  to  vicious  horses  when  being 
shod,  or  when  undergoing  surgical  operations. 

Indian  hemp,  for  pharmaceutical  use,  occurs  in  compressed, 
rough,  dusky  green  masses,  consisting  of  the  branched 
upper  part  of  the  stem  bearing  the  leaves  and  pistillate 
flowers  or  fruits,  matted  together  by  a  resinous  secretion. 
The  upper  leaves  are  simple,  alternate,  1-3-partite,  the 
lower  are  opposite,  and  digitate.  The  fruit  is  one-seeded, 
and  supported  by  an  ovate-lanceolate  bract  (B.P.).  The 
composition  of  cannabis  indica  is  still  uncertain,  but  the 
following  constituents  have  been  obtained  : — 

Cannabin,  a  glucoside  ;  cannabinol,  an  oil  which  is  said  to 
be  the  active  principle  ;  cannabene,  a  volatile  oil ;  tetano- 
cannabine,  and  a  resinous  body  cannabinon,  insoluble  in 
water,  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  fats,  and 
volatile  oils. 

The  extract  is  directed  to  be  prepared  by  exhausting 
Indian  hemp  in  coarse  powder,  with  alcohol  (90  per  cent.), 


500  CANNABIS    INDICA 

by  percolation,  and  evaporating  the  percolate  to  the  con- 
sistence of  a  soft  extract  (B.P.). 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Indian  hemp  is  a  deliriant-nareotic, 
hypnotic,  anodyne,  and  antispasmodic.  Bhang  is  used  in 
India  by  all  classes  as  a  pick-me-up,  and  in  larger  amount  to 
induce  pleasing,  dreamy  narcosis.  Similar  effects  are  stated 
to  be  produced  in  horses  ;  the  flagging  appetite  is  improved, 
capacity  for  exertion  increased,  exhaustion  and  restlessness 
are  overcome.  Gunjah  is  a  more  active  anodyne  and 
narcotic.  It  has  long  been  used  in  India  to  dull  sensibility 
during  surgical  operations.  Christison  stated  that  for 
energy,  certainty,  and  convenience,  Indian  hemp  is  the 
next  anodyne  to  opium,  and  often  equals  it.  R.  Rutherford 
for  several  years  in  India  used  gunjah  largely  in  the  treat- 
ment of  equine  colic,  and  he  states  that  it  relieves 
spasm  and  pain  as  quickly  as  opium,  and  without  arresting 
the  action  of  the  bowels  or  producing  delirium.  American 
practitioners  sometimes  prescribe  it  in  diarrhoea,  occasionally 
conjoining  it  with  chloroform  and  aromatic  ammonia. 
F.  Smith  prescribed  the  extract,  in  the  treatment  of  colic, 
enteritis,  laminitis,  and  other  painful  affections,  with  ex- 
cellent results.  In  India  C.  Rutherford  administered  the 
extract  in  graduated  doses  of  one  drachm  to  an  ounce,  in 
bolus,  to  twenty-six  geldings  and  mares  of  various  stamps 
and  temperaments.  Eight  animals  received  one  drachm  ; 
in  from  one  to  two  hours,  usually  after  a  little  preliminary 
excitement,  they  became  sleepy,  but  were  readily  roused  ; 
there  was  no  uniform  effect  on  the  pulse  or  breathing.  The 
appetite  was  not  affected.  In  geldings  the  penis  was  drawn. 
A  prominent  feature  was  excitement  when  trotted,  most 
moving  as  if  drunk.  Usually  within  six  or  eight  hours  the 
effects  passed  off. 

Two  drachms  administered  caused  no  preliminary  excite- 
ment. The  temperature  usually  receded  about  one  degree, 
the  pulse  fell  in  one  subject  8  beats  per  minute,  respira- 
tions were  reduced  about  two  movements.  Food  was 
neglected,  trotting  was  very  unsteady.  Two  hours  later 
drowsiness  appeared,  the  eyes  were  heavy,  the  lower  lip 
pendulous,  the  penis  drawn  sometimes  as  much  as  four 
inches.  The  effects  continued  ten  or  twelve  hours. 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  501 

Several  animals  receiving  three  drachms  of  cannabis 
extract,  and  others  six  drachms,  manifested  very  similar 
symptoms.  The  dulness  and  sleepiness,  however,  came  on 
more  quickly,  and  were  more  marked,  than  when  smaller 
doses  had  been  given.  When  moved,  the  subjects  showed 
unsteadiness  on  the  fore-limbs,  staggering,  inability  to  trot 
straight,  the  penis  protruding.  The  faeces  were  discharged 
at  unduly  long  intervals,  and  in  reduced  amount.  The 
effects  continued  from  twenty  to  twenty-six  hours.  Eight 
drachms  in  bolus  with  linseed  meal  were  given  to  a  nervous, 
kicking  five-year-old.  For  two  hours  he  tossed  his  head 
incessantly,  subsequently  stood  very  quiet,  but  when  touched 
became  excited,  ate  grass  slowly,  but  left  portions  between 
the  lips.  By  the  seventh  hour  he  became  very  sleepy,  took 
no  notice  of  any  one,  he  was  unsteady  on  his  forelegs,  the 
body  swayed  backwards  and  forwards,  the  muscles  about  the 
elbow  and  flank  quivered,  the  penis  was  drawn  about  nine 
inches.  There  was  no  movement  of  the  bowels  for  sixteen 
hours.  By  the  twenty-fifth  hour  he  brightened  up  ;  and 
in  thirty  hours  was  again  normal.  A  second  horse  received 
eight  drachms  cannabis  extract  ;  in  three  and  a  half  hours 
he  became  sleepy,  with  penis  drawn  three  to  four  inches. 
An  hour  later  the  head  was  down,  the  eyelids  almost  closed, 
the  lower  lip  pendulous.  He  was  unsteady  on  his  legs, 
swayed  backwards  and  forwards,  took  no  notice  of  flies 
on  face  or  body,  when  trotted,  did  so  sideways  and  very 
unsteadily,  the  pulse  and  respiration  were  lowered.  For  six 
hours  he  remained  in  the  same  quiescent  sleepy  state,  notic- 
ing nothing,  and  did  not  lie  down  during  the  night.  By  the 
twenty-fourth  hour  he  got  brighter,  but  was  still  unsteady 
on  his  limbs.  No  dung  was  passed  for  thirty  hours,  when 
some  dry,  small  pellets  were  discharged.  Although  continu- 
ing quiet,  he  gradually  became  lively,  and  in  thirty-five 
hours  was  perfectly  recovered.  Hobday  states  that  doses  of 
ten  grains  to  two  drachms  of  extract,  administered  to  dogs, 
although  quickly  causing  stupor,  with  paralysis  of  the 
hind-limbs — which  might  continue  one  or  two  days — had 
never  proved  fatal,  these  effects  gradually  passed  off,  and 
their  removal  was  expedited  by  cocaine. 

Indian    hemp    has    proved    serviceable    in    abating    the 


502  NUX-VOMICA 

delirium  occurring  in  some  cases  of  parturient  apoplexy,  and 
in  tranquillising  the  involuntary  spasms  of  chorea  in  dogs. 
In  the  form  of  suppository  it  is  sometimes  substituted 
for  opium  in  the  treatment  of  irritable  or  painful  condi- 
tions of  the  rectum  and  urino-genital  organs.  F.  Smith 
and  other  veterinarians  bear  evidence  to  the  narcotic 
and  analgesic  effects  of  the  thick,  treacle-like,  semi-solid 
extract  obtainable  in  India.  An  ounce,  it  is  stated,  very 
shortly  renders  the  horse  so  sleepy  that  he  can  be  roused  with 
difficulty,  and  may  be  severely  pricked  with  a  needle  with- 
out wincing.  The  Indian  extract  is  devoid  of  the  excitant 
effects  which  opium  exerts  on  many  horses. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  extract,  horses  and  cattle  take  3J-  to 
3iv.  ;  dogs,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  iij.  in  bolus  or  pill.  Larger  doses 
may  be  given  without  danger.  F.  Smith  prescribed  one 
ounce,  sometimes,  two,  three,  or  more  ounces  of  the  extract, 
for  horses  affected  with  colic,  enteritis,  or  laminitis.  It  is 
often  advantageously  conjoined  with  chloral  hydrate.  The 
B.P.  tincture  is  made  with  one  ounce  of  the  extract  and  a 
pint  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  It  contains  one  grain  of 
extract  in  twenty-two  minims.  The  tincture  is  incon- 
venient to  use,  as  water  precipitates  the  resin.  It  may 
be  given  to  horses  in  doses  of  §j.  to  Jiv.,  or  more,  mixed 
with  mucilage,  a  drachm  to  the  ounce  of  tincture,  before 
adding  water  or  other  vehicle.  As  the  quantity  of  Canna- 
binol  contained  in  different  samples  of  Indian  hemp  varies 
considerably,  only  standardised  preparations  should  be 
used. 

NUX-VOMICA 

Nux-VoMiCA.      The   dried   ripe   seeds   of   Strychnos   nux- 

vomica.     Nat.  Ord. — Loganiaceae. 
STRYCHNINE.     Strychnina.     An  alkaloid  obtained  from  the 

dried  ripe  seeds  of  Strychnos  nux-vomica,  and  other 

species  of  Strychnos  (B.P.). 

The  Strychnos  nux-vomica  grows  on  the  southern  coasts 
of  India,  in  many  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Australia.  It  is  a  moderate-sized 
tree,  with  crooked  stem,  irregular  branches,  tough  white 


STRYCHNINE   AND    BRUCINE  503 

wood,  known  in  commerce  as  snake-wood  ;  grey  or  yellow 
bark — the  poisonous,  false  Angustura  bark  ;  a  globular 
berry,  about  the  size  of  a  small  apple,  containing,  amid  soft 
gelatinous  pulp  (which  birds  are  said  to  eat  with  impunity), 
five  round,  disc-shaped,  ash-grey  seeds,  about  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  seeds  have  a  central  scar  or  hilum  on  one 
surface,  are  covered  with  short  satiny  hairs,  have  an  intensely 
bitter  taste,  and  are  tough  and  horny.  Nux-vomica  con- 
tains two  poisonous  alkaloids — strychnine  and  brucine — • 
each  present  to  the  amount  of  about  one  per  cent.  ;  the 
soluble,  amorphous  strychnic  or  igasurie  acid,  which  is 
allied  to  mallic  acid  ;  sugar,  fat,  loganin,  and  igasurine. 

Strychnine  (C21H2202N2)  is  prepared  by  splitting  the  nux- 
vomica  seeds,  steaming  and  reducing  them  to  powder, 
which  is  digested  with  spirit  and  water.  The  spirit  is 
recovered  by  distillation.  To  the  watery  extract  lead 
acetate  is  added,  which  precipitates  acid  and  colouring 
matters.  The  filtered  solution  is  treated  with  ammonia, 
which  precipitates  the  alkaloids. 

Strychnine  occurs  in  trimetric  prisms,  is  colourless  and 
inodorous  ;  it  requires  for  solution  5760  parts  of  cold  water 
and  2500  parts  of  hot  water,  but  its  intensely  bitter  taste  is 
appreciable  even  when  diluted  with  30,000  parts  of  water. 
It  is  soluble  in  150  parts  of  spirit,  and  in  6  parts  of  chloro- 
form, and  nearly  insoluble  in  ether.  It  is  not  coloured 
by  nitric  acid,  and  leaves  no  ash  when  burned  with  free 
access  of  air.  It  forms  crystalline,  colourless,  intensely 
bitter  salts,  of  which  the  hydrochloride  is  official. 

It  is  readily  recognised.  On  a  white  plate  a  crystal  is 
dissolved  in  pure  sulphuric  acid  without  change  of  colour, 
but  when  the  dissolved  alkaloid  is  made  to  mingle  with  a 
drop  or  two  of  an  oxidising  solution,  such  as  that  of  potas- 
sium permanganate,  there  is  produced  a  characteristic  violet 
coloration.  Its  extreme  bitterness,  and  the  tetanic  spasms 
produced  in  frogs  and  other  small  animals  by  solutions  con- 
taining the  ^^^th  part  of  a  grain  are  valuable  corroborative 
tests. 

BRUCINE  or  BRUCIA  (C23H26N204.4H2O)  is  associated  with 
strychnine  in  the  seeds.  It  occurs  in  colourless  prismatic 
crystals  ;  is  almost  as  bitter  as  strychnine,  but  is  more 


504  NTJX-VOMICA   AND    STRYCHNINE 

soluble  in  water.  It  is  reddened  by  nitric  acid  and  chlorine. 
Strong  sulphuric  acid  containing  nitric  acid  colours  brucine 
a  rich  rose,  but  on  adding  potassium  permanganate,  the 
play  of  colours  observed  with  strychnine  is  not  produced. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Nux-vomica,  strychnine,  and  brucine 
are  stimulants  of  the  motor  centres  of  the  spinal  cord,  and 
of  other  motor  centres.  Full  doses  produce  tetanic  con- 
vulsions, which  cause  death  from  asphyxia,  or  from  subse- 
quent paralysis  and  exhaustion .  Medicinal  doses  are  gastric , 
vascular,  and  nerve-tonics,  and  anti-paralysants.  They 
destroy  enzymes  and  other  vegetable  and  animal  organisms. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — The  alkaloids  differ  from  each  other 
and  from  nux-vomica  mainly  in  the  degree  of  their  action. 
Strychnine  is  fully  fifty  times  as  active  as  the  powdered 
nux,  and  nearly  twenty  to  thirty  times  as  active  as  brucine. 
The  St.  Ignatius'  bean  yielded  by  the  Strychnos  Ignatia — 
a  tree  grown  in  the  Philippine  Islands — contains  strychnine 
and  brucine.  Akazga,  the  ordeal  plant  of  the  West  Coast 
of  Africa,  belongs  to  this  order,  and  yields  akazgine,  which  is 
analogous  to  strychnine.  Other  trees  of  the  same  order  also 
yield  tetanising  poisons.  Allied  to  this  group  are  thebaine 
and  some  other  opium  alkaloids  ;  gelsemine,  the  alkaloid 
obtained  from  the  rhizome  and  rootlets  of  yellow  jasmine  ; 
calabarine,  an  alkaloid  found  in  Calabar  bean ;  and  picro- 
toxin,  a  neutral  principle  prepared  from  the  seeds  of 
Anamirta  paniculata  (Cocculus  indicus).  The  methyl 
compounds  of  strychnine  and  brucine,  instead  of  stimu- 
lating spinal  and  motor  centres,  and  producing  convulsions, 
resemble  curare,  and  paralyse  the  ends  of  motor  nerves. 

Strychnine  lessens  oxidation  of  protoplasm  and  of  blood, 
and  checks  fermentation,  but  not  nearly  so  effectually  as 
quinine.  Low  organisms,  wetted  with  weak  watery  solutions, 
have  their  activity  increased  ;  wetted  with  strong  solutions, 
their  activity  is  diminished  and  they  are  destroyed. 
It  stimulates  the  whole  central  nervous  system,  but 
especially  the  spinal  cord,  exalting  its  reflex  excitability, 
and  it  also  stimulates  other  reflex  nerve  centres.  Small 
to  moderate  doses  promote  secretion  of  saliva,  improve 
appetite,  stimulate  the  intestinal  muscular  coat  and  increase 
peristalsis,  and  hence  assist  in  overcoming  constipation. 


STIMULANTS    OF   MOTOR    CENTRES  505 

They  stimulate  the  medulla  with  the  respiratory,  cardiac, 
and  vaso-motor  centres,  and  hence  increase  the  rapidity 
and  depth  of  the  respirations,  the  number  and  force  of  the 
pulsations  and  raise  blood-pressure,  although  the  heart  itself 
may  be  somewhat  slowed  by  vagal  inhibition.  Larger  doses 
cause  muscular  twitching,  hypersesthesia,  greater  acuteness 
of  the  special  senses,  and  clonic  convulsions.  The  extensor 
muscles  usually  overcome  the  flexor  muscles,  producing 
opisthotonos.  Death  results  from  asphyxia,  occurring 
during  a  spasm,  or  from  paralysis  and  collapse,  occurring 
during  a  period  of  relaxation.  Strychnine  is  absorbed 
rapidly  from  the  small  intestine  and  rectum,  and  still  more 
rapidly  from  the  bronchi  and  cellular  tissues.  It  has  been 
detected  in  the  spinal  cord,  brain,  liver,  spleen,  and  blood. 
It  is  tardily  excreted  unchanged,  or  as  strychnic  acid,  in  the 
urine,  in  which  it  has  been  found  an  hour  after  administra- 
tion, and  has  also  been  detected  forty-eight  hours  later. 
Owing  to  its  slow  elimination  strychnine  should  be  regarded 
as  a  cumulative  medicine. 

Toxic  ACTIONS.— Poisonous  doses  within  a  few  minutes 
produce  in  all  animals  trembling  and  twitching  of  voluntary 
and  also  of  involuntary  muscles,  and  violent  spasms,  usually 
lasting  one  to  two  minutes,  gradually  becoming  more  fre- 
quent and  severe  ;  the  glottis,  diaphragm  and  other  muscles 
of  respiration  being  involved,  death  is  caused  by  asphyxia. 
The  symptoms  (and  mode  of  death)  resemble  those  of 
tetanus,  but  are  suddenly  developed,  intermittent,  and  more 
rapidly  fatal.  The  temperature  is  raised  sometimes  two 
degrees. 

The  several  classes  of  animals  differ  in  their  susceptibility 
to  the  actions  of  strychnine.  Horses  and  cattle  are  not 
so  readily  affected  as  men  and  dogs.  Poultry  are  said  to 
be  less  easily  affected  than  other  birds  ;  while  guinea-pigs 
and  some  monkeys  seem  quite  insusceptible  to  its  action, 
at  least  so  long  as  it  is  given  by  the  mouth  (Wood). 

Horses  after  swallowing  six  grains  of  strychnine  had 
twitching  of  the  muscles,  and  were  poisoned  by  twelve 
grains  in  about  twelve  minutes  (Tabourin).  Five  grains 
in  bolus  produced,  after  six  hours,  abdominal  pain,  laboured 
breathing,  acceleration  of  the  pulse  from  42  to  60,  excite- 


506  NUX-VOMICA    AND    STRYCHNINE 

merit  when  touched,  and  tetanic  spasms.  Twelve  hours 
later  the  pulse  was  96,  and  subsequently  rose  to  120.  Blood- 
letting and  fomentations  gave  no  relief,  and  in  a  convulsive 
paroxysm  the  horse  died.  The  membranes  of  the  brain 
and  cord  were  injected,  the  lungs  engorged.  The  toxic 
dose  is  stated  by  Frohner  and  Kaufmann  to  be  three  to 
five  grains.  Half  a  grain,  given  hypodermically,  induced 
in  half  an  hour  general  muscular  rigidity.  Ten  drachms 
of  nux-vomica  in  powder  caused  muscular  tremors  but  in 
solution  proved  fatal  in  ten  hours  (Hertwig).  Coleman  gave 
a  mare  two  ounces  in  a  drench  ;  within  an  hour,  and  after 
the  animal  had  drunk  some  water,  she  had  violent  tetanic 
symptoms,  and  died  half  an  hour  later.  Ounce  doses, 
given  a  glandered  horse,  caused  tetanic  spasms,  but  were 
not  fatal.  Moiroud  states  that  the  fatal  dose  of  nux- 
vomica  for  a  horse  is  one  to  two  ounces. 

Cattle  withstand  larger  doses  than  do  horses  when  the 
poison  is  given  by  the  mouth,  whether  in  solution  or  bolus. 
Macgillivray  gave  an  old  cow  thirty  grains  strychnine, 
and,  shortly  after,  sixty  grains,  both  doses  in  solution,  with 
the  result  of  a  few  spasmodic  tremors,  which  continued  for 
about  twenty  minutes.  Dun  gave  a  small  red  cow,  affected 
with  pleuro-pneumonia,  grs.  xv.  strychnine,  suspended  in 
two  ounces  of  oil,  at  12  o'clock.  At  12.30  the  pulse  had 
risen  from  70  to  78,  regurgitation  was  observable  in  the 
jugular  veins,  quivering  and  twitching  affected  the  facial 
muscles,  particularly  during  inspiration.  At  12.45  the  pulse 
numbered  84,  and  the  symptoms  were  aggravated.  Grs.  ij. 
were  given,  dissolved  in  diluted  acetic  acid  ;  and  in  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  the  animal  was  very  uneasy,  and  attempted  to 
vomit ;  the  pulse  was  94,  full  and  strong  ;  the  pupils  much 
dilated.  At  1.30  the  nausea  and  efforts  to  vomit  were  much 
increased,  the  breathing  more  laboured  ;  the  animal  lay 
down,  and  the  pulse  shortly  fell  to  58.  At  2.15  the  nausea 
was  diminished,  and  the  pulse  92.  Grs.  xxx.  were  then  given 
in  acetic  acid  and  water.  At  2.20  the  pulse  was  100,  sharp 
and  distinct.  The  muscles  were  affected  by  frequent  spasms. 
At  2.25  the  pulse  was  140,  and  the  animal  very  sensitive 
to  light,  sound,  and  external  impressions.  It  reeled  and 
fell.  At  2.30  the  pulse  had  risen  to  160,  the  limbs  were  very 


TETANISING   POISONS  507 

rigid,  the  eyes  protruding,  involuntary  spasms  more  general, 
frequent,  and  severe.  Two  minutes  later  she  died  quietly. 
Much  smaller  doses  are  fatal  when  strychnine  is  quickly 
absorbed.  Kaufmann  states  that  the  toxic  dose  for  cattle 
is  3J  to  6J  grains,  but  even  a  grain,  given  hypodermically, 
may  prove  disquieting.  Tabourin  records  the  death  of  a 
cow  in  twenty  minutes  from  four  grains  placed  in  the 
areolar  tissues. 

Sheep  are  destroyed  by  half  an  ounce  nux-vomica  in 
about  thirty  minutes,  but  goats  appear  to  be  less  suscep- 
tible. Pigs  were  violently  convulsed  by  fifty  grains  of 
nux-vomica  (Tabourin),  and  poisoned  by  J  to  f  grain  of 
strychnine  (Kaufmann). 

Dogs  are  destroyed  in  two  minutes  by  gr.  J  strychnine, 
and  in  twelve  minutes  by  gr.  -J-  (Christison).  An  English 
terrier  was  poisoned  in  twenty-four  minutes  by  gr.  J  ;  a 
greyhound  in  one  hour  and  a  half  by  grs.  iij.  ;  another 
greyhound  in  thirty- three  minutes  by  gr.  ss.  Kaufmann 
fixes  the  toxic  dose  at  T^  to  J  gr.,  but  -^  gr.  may  prove 
fatal  in  small  animals.  Dogs  have  been  poisoned  with 
grs.  viij.  of  nux-vomica,  and  cats  with  grs.  v.  Dogs  moan 
and  whine,  are  uneasy,  nauseated,  sometimes  vomit,  tremble, 
have  muscular  twitchings  and  general  spasms,  during  which 
the  head  is  drawn  upwards  and  backwards,  and  the  rectal 
temperature  is  raised  2°  to  4°  Fahr.  The  tetanic  con- 
vulsions continue  one  to  two  minutes,  cease  for  several 
minutes,  but  recur  with  increased  force  until  death  results. 

Post-mortem  appearances  vary  with  the  severity  and  dura- 
tion of  the  case.  Asphyxia  renders  the  blood  dark-coloured 
and  unusually  fluid  ;  there  is  venous  engorgement ;  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs  and  of  the  cerebral  and  spinal  meninges  ; 
dilatation  of  the  vessels  of  the  medulla,  and  sanguineous 
extravasation  into  the  grey  matter.  When  the  patient  has 
survived  for  several  hours,  the  intestines  occasionally  pre- 
sent patches  of  redness  and  congestion.  Where  spasms 
have  been  severe  and  rapidly  fatal,  the  left  side  of  the 
heart  is  firmly  contracted,  and  contains  little,  if  any,  blood. 
The  tetanised  muscles  quickly  undergo  rigor  mortis,  which 
sometimes  continues  longer  than  usual.  In  dogs  destroyed 
with  l  grain  of  strychnine,  Dun  found  the  buccal  mucous 


508  NUX-VOMICA   AND    STRYCHNINE 

membrane  blanched  ;  the  left  auricle,  and  also  the  intes- 
tines, continued  to  contract  for  nearly  an  hour  after  death, 
while  the  cerebral  and  intestinal  vessels  were  congested  with 
dark  venous  blood. 

ANTIDOTES. — The  stomach  should  be  emptied  with  as  little 
delay  as  possible  ;  if  convulsions  have  begun,  the  patient 
should  be  anaesthetised,  the  stomach  well  washed  out,  and 
chloral  hydrate  given.  Hughes  Bennett  first  showed 
the  antidotal  power  of  chloral  hydrate.  He  found  that  the 
minimum  fatal  dose  of  strychnine  for  rabbits  was  -^is^h  Sr- 
per  pound  of  body-weight.  Twenty  rabbits  received  more 
than  this  poisonous  dose ;  fifteen  of  these,  to  whom 
chloral  was  given,  recovered.  But  a  few  days  later,  on 
receiving  the  dose  previously  given,  without  the  chloral, 
all  died.  French  authorities  advise  the  chloral  to  be  given 
intravenously.  Strychnine  tetanus  is  also  antagonised  by 
tobacco,  and,  less  effectually,  by  such  motor  paralysers  as 
curare,  conium,  opium,  Calabar  bean,  and  paraldehyde. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — As  bitter  tonics,  nux-vomica  and 
strychnine  are  prescribed  in  loss  of  appetite  and  atonic 
dyspepsia.  Their  good  effects  probably  depend  upon  their 
checking  irregular  fermentation,  diminishing  excessive 
secretion,  as  in  catarrhal  conditions,  and  perfecting  co- 
ordination between  the  several  functions  of  digestion  and 
assimilation  (Brunton).  It  is  probably  mainly  in  this  way 
that  they  relieve  many  cases  of  broken- wind. 

Small  doses,  especially  when  combined  with  acids,  are 
often  effectual  in  checking  chronic  relaxed  and  hyper- 
secreting  conditions  of  the  bowels,  where  these  are  not 
complicated  with  irritation.  Larger  doses,  increasing  peri- 
stalsis, overcome  chronic  constipation,  whether  connected 
with  acute  indigestion,  inflammation,  or  febrile  attacks,  and 
are  usually  prescribed  with  aloes  or  salines.  They  are  bene- 
ficial in  weak,  dilated  conditions  of  the  heart ;  during  their 
excretion  they  stimulate  the  urinary  organs,  while  aphro- 
disias  is  occasionally  produced.  In  convalescence  from 
acute  disease  they  improve  appetite  and  general  tone. 
Strychnine,  subcutaneously  injected,  is  sometimes  service- 
able in  maintaining  activity  of  the  respiratory  and  heart 
centres  in  collapse  and  narcotic  poisoning. 


GASTRIC,    VASCULAR,    AND    NERVE    TONICS      509 

Nux-vomica  and  strychnine  are  prescribed  in  many 
cases  of  paralysis.  Where  paralysis  depends  on  loss  or 
diminution  of  nerve  force,  due  to  debility  after  some  systemic 
disease,  or  to  prolonged  inaction  following  an  injury, 
strychnine  will  give  tone  to  both  muscles  and  nerves. 
Where,  however,  there  is  degeneration  or  destruction  of 
nervous  tissue  causing  paralysis  no  treatment  is  of  any 
avail.  Subcutaneously  injected  over  the  larynx  strychnine 
has  been  recommended  for  roaring  in  early  cases.  In 
epizootic  eerebro-spinal  meningitis  it  has  been  used 
in  one-grain  doses  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
but  the  mortality  in  this  disease  is  extremely  high 
and  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  strychnine  are 
very  doubtful. 

In  cattle  practice,  nux-vomica  and  its  alkaloids  are  used, 
in  indigestion  and  in  chronic  paralysis.  Two  bullocks 
suffered  from  chronic  paralysis,  one  had  to  be  carted  home 
from  the  grass  field.  He  was  dull ;  his  pulse  55,  and  rather 
weak  ;  his  hind  extremities  and  tail  had  lost  their  power 
of  movement,  their  sensation  was  impaired ;  the  sphincter 
ani  was  relaxed,  and  both  faeces  and  urine  were  passed 
involuntarily.  Purgative  medicine  was  given,  and  operated 
next  day,  without,  however,  any  abatement  of  the  paralysis. 
Two  drachms  nux-vomica  were  prescribed  night  and  morn- 
ing for  ten  days  ;  but  little  improvement  being  notable, 
the  dose  was  increased  to  three  drachms  thrice  a  day.  This 
treatment  being  continued  for  ten  days,  the  patient  was 
able  to  walk  round  the  house  in  which  he  was  confined,  and 
rapidly  recovered.  The  other  bullock  exhibited  similar 
symptoms,  was  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  like 
satisfactory  results. 

A  week  or  two  before  parturition,  cows,  especially  if  in 
low  condition,  occasionally  lose  the  power  of  their  hind  limbs, 
and  are  unable  to  stand.  Little  can  then  be  done  beyond 
propping  the  patient  in  a  suitable  position,  turning  her 
several  times  daily,  and  allowing  laxative,  nutritive  diet. 
Within  two  or  three  days  after  parturition,  most  of  these 
cases  gradually  regain  the  use  of  their  limbs  ;  but  when 
defective  nervous  power  continues,  nux-vomica  or  strych- 
nine is  used  with  success. 


510  NUX-VOMICA   AND    STRYCHNINE 

In  canine  practice,  strychnine  is  a  valuable  tonic  in  atonic 
indigestion,  in  some  cases  of  asthma  and  chronic  bronchitis, 
in  convalescence  from  exhausting  disease,  in  chorea,  and  in 
paralysis  resulting  from  distemper  or  other  causes,  but  it 
should  be  very  carefully  prescribed.  It  is  frequently 
conjoined  or  alternated  with  iron  salts,  or  prescribed  in  the 
form  of  Easton's  Syrup,  or  syrup  of  phosphate  of  iron,  with 
quinine  and  strychnine  :  one  drachm  of  which  contains 
1  gr.  ferrous  phosphate,  f  gr.  of  quinine  sulphate,  and  •£%  gr. 
of  strychnine. 

Strychnine  is  used  for  the  destruction  of  rats,  mice,  and 
other  vermin,  and  for  the  poisoning  of  wolves  and  other  wild 
animals.  It  constitutes  the  active  ingredient  of  various 
'  infallible  '  insect  and  vermin  destroyers,  which  are  usually 
made  up  with  starch,  sugar,  and  about  ten  per  cent,  of 
strychnine. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  powdered  nux-vomiea,  horses  take 
grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  cxx. ;  cattle,  grs.  Ix.  to  grs.  ccc. ;  sheep,  grs.  x. 
to  grs.  xl.  ;  pigs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  dogs,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  ij. 
The  powder  has  the  disadvantage  of  not  being  very  soluble. 
The  extract,  containing  5  per  cent,  of  strychnine,  is  six  to 
eight  times  as  active  as  the  powder.  The  B.P.  standardised 
tincture  is  sometimes  used.  It  contains  J  gr.  strychnine  in 
110  minims. 

Strychnine  is  greatly  more  uniform  and  more  readily 
absorbed  than  the  crude  drug,  and  is  fifty  times  more  power- 
ful. The  hydrochloride,  on  account  of  its  solubility,  in  35 
of  water  or  60  of  alcohol,  is  preferable  to  the  alkaloid.  The 
dose  for  the  horse,  except  in  special  cases — when  much 
more  may  be  given — is  gr.  T^  to  grs.  ij| ;  for  cattle, 
gr.  -fa  to  grs.  v.  ;  for  sheep,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  T^  ;  for  dogs, 
gr.  T^j  to  gr.  g1^.  The  B.P.  Liquor  Strychnin 3e  hydro- 
chloridi  contains  one  grain  of  strychnine  hydrochloride  in 
110  minims. 

Strychnine,  although  conveniently  given  by  the  mouth,  is 
more  prompt  and  active  when  administered  hypodermically, 
and  when  thus  used  the  minimum  doses,  dissolved  in  about 
100  parts  of  a  mixture  of  distilled  water  and  alcohol,  should 
first  be  tried.  Nux-vomica  and  strychnine  are  generally 
given  twice  a  day,  and  as  anti-paralysants  the  doses 


CALABAR   BEAN  511 

may  be  cautiously  and  gradually  increased,  until  slight 
muscular  twitchings  are  produced.  Tablets  and  lamellae 
containing  ^th  and  Ttyoth  gr.  of  strychnine  sulphate  are 
convenient  for  hypodermic  injections.  Strychnine  arsenite 
has  been  recommended  in  some  of  the  Continental 
veterinary  schools  for  the  treatment  of  persistent  nasal 
discharges. 


CALABAR   BEAN 

PHYSOSTIGMATIS  SEMINA. — The  ripe  seeds  of  Physostigma 
venenosum.  Nat.  Ord. — Leguminosae. 

PHYSOSTIGMIN^E  SULPHAS. — (C15H21N302)2,  H2S04,  zH2O. 
Eserine  Sulphate.  The  sulphate  of  an  alkaloid  obtained 
from  Calabar  bean.  Western  Africa  (B.P.). 

Calabar  bean  is  a  large  reddish-brown,  oblong,  reniform 
seed,  usually  about  an  inch  long,  three-quarter  inch  broad, 
and  half  an  inch  thick.  The  testa,  hard,  thick,  and  rough, 
encloses  two  cotyledons,  between  which  there  is  a  large 
cavity.  The  bean  has  no  characteristic  taste,  and  no 
odour  (B.P.).  Its  activity  depends  upon  the  presence  of 
two  alkaloids — (1)  Physostigmine  or  Eserine,  occurring  in 
colourless  crystals,  soluble  in  alcohol,  benzol,  chloroform, 
and  diluted  acids,  and  partially  in  water.  It  paralyses 
nerve  centres,  and  stimulates  muscular  fibre.  (2)  Cala- 
barine,  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  but  not  in  ether.  It 
causes  strychnine-like  convulsions. 

Eserine  Sulphate  occurs  in  yellowish- white  minute  crystals, 
becoming  red  by  exposure  to  air  and  light,  having  a  bitter 
taste,  highly  deliquescent,  very  soluble  in  water  and  in 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  The  aqueous  solution  is  neutral  to 
litmus,  and,  applied  to  the  eye,  causes  contraction  of  the 
pupil.  Eserine  sulphate  contains  about  70  per  cent,  of  the 
alkaloid.  Solutions  keep  better  when  mixed  with  a  grain 
or  two  of  salicylic  acid. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Calabar  bean  and  its  chief  alkaloid 
stimulate  motor  nerve-endings  supplying  voluntary  and 
involuntary  muscles,  but  depress  the  central  nervous  system. 
Eserine  exerts  no  topical  action  on  the  skin  or  mucous 


512  CALABAR   BEAN 

membranes.  It  relieves  obstruction  by  stimulating  the 
neuro-muscular  apparatus  of  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
Given  by  the  mouth,  or  applied  locally,  it  contracts  the 
pupil  and  slightly  diminishes  intraocular  pressure — effects 
due  to  stimulation  of  the  third  nerve,  or  of  the  circular 
muscular  fibres  of  the  iris,  or  of  both.  This  myosis  results 
in  horses  in  twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes  ;  and  in  less  than 
half  that  time  in  carnivora  ;  but  is  not  produced,  even  by 
conjunctival  injection,  in  birds,  frogs,  and  fishes. 

Excessive  doses  after  this  stimulation  paralyse  muscular 
fibre,  especially  the  unstriped  variety,  and  also  motor  nerves. 
Moderate  doses  have  little  effect  on  voluntary  muscles,  but 
full  doses  induce  local  twitching,  best  marked  at  the  elbow 
and  stifle,  followed  by  general  trembling  and  spasmodic 
contractions  ;  at  the  same  time  the  animal  sweats,  salivates, 
blows,  strains,  and  discharges  faeces  and  urine,  and  all  his 
organs  provided  with  unstriated  muscle  participate  more  or 
less  in  the  clonic  convulsions.  Its  stimulant  effects  on 
motor  nerve-endings  and  on  unstriped  muscle  in  part 
explain  its  action  on  the  circulation.  Small  to  moderate 
doses  contract  minute  blood-vessels,  and  reduce  the  force 
and  frequency  of  the  heart  movements.  Kaufmann  mentions 
that  a  single  full  dose  reduces  the  pulse  of  the  dog  from  100 
to  40  beats  per  minute.  Eraser  believes  that  its  action  on 
the  heart  is  threefold — (1)  it  stimulates  peripherally  the 
cardio-inhibitory  branches  of  the  vagus  ;  (2)  it  depresses 
the  cardiac  motor  ganglia  ;  and  (3),  in  large  doses,  it 
paralyses  the  cardiac  muscular  fibres.  Respiration  is 
temporarily  quickened,  apparently  from  stimulation  of 
the  vagi  in  the  lungs,  but  in  fuller  doses  is  slowed  from  paresis 
of  the  medullary  respiratory  centre.  Moderate  doses 
stimulate  the  liver,  the  involuntary  muscles  of  the  bronchial 
tubes,  so  lessening  their  calibre,  also  the  muscular  fibres  of 
the  uterus,  and  bladder,  and  increase  gastric  and  intestinal 
peristalsis,  quickly  causing  free  and  fluid  evacuations  from 
the  bowels,  and  besides,  inducing  in  man  and  carnivora 
retching  and  vomiting.  The  secretion  of  saliva,  sweat,  and 
mucus  is  increased. 

Poisonous  doses  disturb  voluntary  motility  and  paralyse 
the  spinal  cord.  Hence  results  the  characteristic  curare- 


STIMULATES   INTESTINAL   MUSCULAR   FIBRES      513 

like  paralysis  affecting  motor  and  reflex  functions,  which, 
involving  the  medulla,  kills  by  respiratory  arrest  (Brunton). 
According  to  Eraser,  death  sometimes  results  from  cardiac 
paralysis,  the  heart  stopping  in  diastole.  Convulsions 
occasionally  occurring  from  the  use  of  the  bean  and  com- 
mercial physostigmine  are  due  to  the  presence  of  calabarine. 
The  brain  in  most  animals  appears  to  be  irritated,  cats 
and  guinea-pigs  poisoned  exhibiting  cerebral  excitement, 
becoming  timid,  and  running  wildly  about.  It  is  rapidly 
absorbed  and  quickly  excreted  mainly  in  the  urine,  bile, 
and  saliva. 

Between  physostigmine  and  its  analogues  interesting 
points  of  contrast  are  noted.  It  resembles  pilocarpine  in 
its  action  on  the  heart,  eye,  and  glandular  secretions,  but  it 
does  not  cause  such  profuse  flow  from  either  the  salivary, 
bronchial,  skin,  or  intestinal  glands.  Again  physostigmine 
has  a  more  marked  effect  than  pilocarpine  on  striated 
muscle.  Physostigmine,  like  pilocarpine,  probably  induces 
secretion  by  stimulating  the  peripheral  endings  of  secretory 
nerves.  Atropine  is  its  physiological  antagonist,  para- 
lysing muscles,  stimulating  the  respiratory  and  cardiac 
medullary  centres,  and  dilating  the  pupil. 

Eserine,  in  virtue  of  its  promptly  and  effectually  stimulat- 
ing the  muscular  fibres  of  the  intestines,  is  of  great  value 
in  the  treatment  of  obstruction  and  obstinate  constipation. 
This  was  first  pointed  out  by  Dieckerhoff,  and  has  been 
demonstrated  by  F.  Smith  and  C.  Rutherford,  who  made  an 
important  series  of  observations  on  horses,  using  physostig- 
mine freed  from  the  convulsant  calabarine  : — *  The  earliest 
indications  of  the  action  of  the  drug  are  loud  intestinal 
murmurs,  passage  of  flatus,  with  slight  colicky  pain  ;  shortly 
this  is  followed  by  evacuation  of  the  contents  of  the  rectum, 
and  the  motions  then  pass  at  intervals  of  a  few  minutes, 
each  becoming  gradually  softer,  more  watery,  less  formed 
in  balls,  until  the  stage  when  the  evacuations  are  moist  and 
fluid,  exactly  representing  cows'  faeces.  All  this  time  the 
abdominal  disturbance  has  become  greater,  the  animal  lies 
down,  but  seldom  rolls,  the  intestinal  murmurs  are  louder, 
the  passage  of  flatus  almost  continuous,  straining  marked, 
fceces  are  voided  with  great  rapidity,  often  ejected  with  force, 

2K 


514       CALABAR  BEAN  SERVICEABLE  IN 

and  several  ounces  of  a  brown-coloured  fluid  will  at  this  time 
accompany  each  motion.  About  two  to  two  and  a  half 
hours  from  the  time  of  injection  the  effects  are  commencing 
to  pass  off,  and  during  this  short  time  an  almost  incredible 
amount  of  fseces  will  have  been  excreted. 

'A  horse  received  1J  grains  of  eserine,  subcutaneously ; 
it  acted  in  twenty-five  minutes,  and  produced  in  the  first  hour 
seven  evacuations,  in  the  second  hour  seven,  the  effect 
passing  off  in  two  hours  and  ten  minutes. 

'  A  horse  received  1 J  grains  of  eserine,  hypodermically, 
which  took  twelve  minutes  to  act,  producing  seven  evacua- 
tions in  the  first  hour,  and  then  terminating. 

'  Another  horse  received  1J  grains  of  salicylate  of  eserine, 
hypodermically,  producing  a  free  action  of  the  bowels  in 
one  hour.  This  case  terminated  fatally  from  ruptured 
stomach  ;  and  thus  it  was  demonstrated  that  eserine  could 
act  upon  the  large  intestine,  in  spite  of  the  shock  to 
the  abdominal  nervous  system  which  a  ruptured  stomach 
causes. 

'  A  pony  received  1  grain  of  eserine,  hypodermically  ; 
three  evacuations  were  produced  in  fifty  minutes,  and  in 
eighty  minutes  from  the  time  of  injection  eight  evacua- 
tions had  occurred.  The  case  was  a  fatal  one,  the  cause  of 
obstruction  being  due  to  a  small  diaphragmatic  hernia. 
Had  the  gut  not  been  nipped  so  tightly,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  the  increased  peristalsis  might  have  withdrawn  it. 

'  A  horse  received  1 J  grains  of  eserine  by  injection  into  the 
trachea  ;  it  took  seventeen  minutes  to  act,  and  produced  in 
the  first  hour  twelve  evacuations,  weighing  11  Ibs.  13  oz., 
and  a  considerable  quantity  of  flatus.  The  action  then 
passed  off. 

'  A  horse  received  1  grain  of  eserine,  hypodermically  ;  it 
took  forty- two  minutes  to  act,  and  produced  only  one 
evacuation  in  one  hour,  accompanied  by  a  considerable 
quantity  of  flatus. 

'  The  same  horse  received  1  grain  of  eserine  and  3  grains 
of  pilocarpine  by  injection  into  the  trachea  ;  it  took  twenty- 
one  minutes  to  act.  In  the  first  hour,  counting  from  time 
of  injection,  it  produced  fourteen  evacuations,  weighing 
30  Ibs.  6  oz.  ;  in  the  second  hour  four  evacuations,  weighing 


INTESTINAL   TORPIDITY   AND    IMPACTION        515 

7  Ibs.  6J  oz.  ;  and  in  the  third  hour  two  evacuations, 
weighing  2  Ibs.  13J  oz.  ;  in  three  hours  a  total  of  40  Ibs.  10  oz. 
of  ingesta. 

'  In  comparing  these  two  cases,  the  value  of  pilocarpine 
as  an  addition  to  eserine  is  clearly  demonstrated. 

'  A  horse  received  1  \  grains  of  eserine  by  the  trachea  ;  it 
acted  in  forty-one  minutes,  and  produced  in  the  hour  five 
evacuations ;  during  the  second  hour  four  evacuations.  The 
weight  was  unfortunately  not  obtained,  but  the  quantity 
of  ingesta  completely  filled  a  stable  bucket.  The  case  was 
one  of  most  obstinate  constipation,  and  had  previously 
received  6  drachms  of  aloes,  which  acted  at  the  expiration 
of  the  usual  time. 

'  Another  horse  received  by  the  trachea  1  grain  of  eserine 
with  3  grains  of  pilocarpine,  and  this  combination  acted  in 
one  and  a  half  hours,  producing,  in  two  and  a  half  hours 
from  time  of  injection,  eight  evacuations,  weighing  26  Ibs., 
exclusive  of  loss.  The  pilocarpine  produced  its  salivating 
effects  in  four  minutes  from  the  time  of  injection.'  ( Veterin- 
ary Journal,  1888.) 

R.  Rutherford  gave  a  horse,  weighing  about  950  Ibs., 
5  grains  commercial  eserine,  which  within  half  an  hour 
caused  profuse  perspiration,  convulsive  breathing,  with 
violent  action  of  the  diaphragm.  About  two  hours  later, 
when  the  symptoms  were  abating,  he  gave  3  grains  more, 
and  death  followed  in  half  an  hour. 

Kaufmann  records  that  on  opening  the  abdomen  of  a 
horse  which  had  received  a  full  dose  of  physostigmine, 
energetic  contractions  of  the  large  intestine  were  seen. 
Animals  poisoned  exhibit  pallor,  contraction,  and  hardness 
of  the  large  intestine  ;  the  urinary  bladder  is  empty  and 
contracted,  and  the  uterus  also  contracted. 

ANTIDOTES. — As  the  bean  is  not  very  soluble,  the  stomach 
should  be  evacuated  either  by  an  emetic  or  the  stomach- 
pump.  Ipecacuanha  has  been  recommended  as  an  antidote. 
Physostigmine  is  antagonised  by  moderate  doses  of  atropine. 
Fraser  found  that  rabbits,  receiving  one  and  a  half  the  lethal 
dose,  recovered,  if  atropine  was  given  simultaneously,  in 
doses  of  gr.  -fa  to  gr.  i.  While  small  doses  act  as  antidotes, 
larger  hasten  a  fatal  result.  The  atropine  specially  counter- 


516  CALABAR   BEAN 

acts  the  cardiac  paralysis.  To  a  less  extent  physostigmine 
antagonises  the  poisonous  action  of  atropine  ;  chloral  also 
somewhat  opposes  physostigmine. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Physostigmine  or  eserine  is  my  otic, 
expectorant,  and  a  gastro-intestinal  stimulant.  The  obser- 
vations of  F.  Smith  and  C.  Rutherford  testify  to  its  value 
in  combating  intestinal  torpidity  and  impaction.  They 
administered  physostigmine  hypodermically  and  intratrache- 
ally,  and  preferred  the  latter  method  on  account  of  its 
enabling  more  fluid  to  be  introduced,  occasioning  less  loss  of 
the  drug,  and  causing  less  inconvenience  to  the  patient. 
Cases  of  intestinal  obstruction  in  all  animals  may  be  safely 
treated  by  eserine,  conjoined  with  pilocarpine  and  anodynes, 
by  enemata,  and  abstention  from  solid  food.  French  and 
German  practitioners  have  arrived  at  similar  conclusions. 
Kaufmann  and  others  recommend  physostigmine  as  an 
'  intestinal  ansemiant '  in  congestion,  atony,  colic,  and  tor- 
pidity of  the  digestive  tract,  especially  of  the  large  intestine, 
and  also  for  the  expulsion  of  concretions  and  foreign  bodies. 
They  further  note  its  use  in  producing  contraction  of  the 
uterus.  In  doses  of  half  a  grain  to  a  grain  per  day  it  has 
been  used  with  success  in  the  treatment  of  intestinal  catarrh 
with  inappetence  in  horses.  For  retention  of  meconium 
in  foals  doses  of  gr.  T^  to  gr.  J  hypodermically  have  proved 
beneficial.  It  is  also  valuable  in  obstinate  constipation  in 
dogs,  for  which  the  sulphate  may  be  given  in  doses  of 
gr.  ^Q  to  gr.  T^  per  day.  Eserine  has  been  given,  sub- 
cutaneously  and  intravenously  to  cattle  affected  with 
indigestion  and  gastric  impaction,  but  although  causing 
considerable,  sometimes  painful,  disturbance  of  the  bowels, 
it  does  not  produce  copious  evacuations.  It  has  been  tried 
in  tetanus,  but  the  relief  afforded  is  merely  transient. 
Recoveries  attributed  to  the  use  of  eserine  should  only  be 
accepted  with  reserve. 

The  extract  and  eserine  sulphate  or  salicylate  have  been 
prescribed  in  epilepsy,  chorea,  and  other  spasmodic  nervous 
affections,  and,  as  an  antidote,  in  poisoning  by  strychnine 
and  atropine.  They  should  not,  however,  be  given  to 
pregnant  animals,  in  which  untimely  stimulation  of  the 
uterus  may  lead  to  premature  expulsion  of  its  contents. 


MEDICINAL    USES  517 

In  solution  eserine  is  applied  as  a  myotic  to  relieve  conges- 
tion and  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva  and  cornea,  and, 
alternated  with  atropine,  to  prevent  or  break  down  adhesion 
(synechia)  caused  by  iritis.  In  chronic  dropsical  conditions 
of  the  joints  and  bursae  of  tendons  in  the  horse,  after  evacua- 
tion of  the  fluid  by  an  aspirator,  or  a  trocar  and  canula, 
Stottmeister,  instead  of  the  iodine  solutions  frequently  used, 
recommends  injection  of  a  grain  to  a  grain  and  a  half  eserine 
dissolved  in  H|80  to  TT[160  of  distilled  water,  applying, 
subsequently,  for  two  or  three  days,  ice  or  refrigerant  lotions 
to  abate  inflammation. 

DOSES,  etc. — The  powdered  bean  is  given  to  horses  and 
cattle  in  doses  of  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  to  dogs,  gr.  J  to  gr.  |-. 
As  already  indicated,  the  diverse  character  of  the  two 
alkaloids  present  in  the  extract,  as  well  as  in  the  bean, 
renders  it  desirable  to  use  eserine,  which  is  conveniently 
employed  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  of  which  the  dose  per 
os  for  horses  is  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  iii.,  and  for  dogs,  gr.  -^  to 
gr.  -j-ij.  Intratracheally,  (horses)  gr.  ss.,  in  K\l.  to  Tl\lx.  of 
water ;  and  subcutaneously,  gr.  j.  to  gr.  jss.,  in  H\lx.  to 
H\lxxx.  of  water.  In  intestinal  obstruction  more  prompt 
and  certain  effects  are  obtained  by  addition  of  2  to  3  grains 
of  pilocarpine.  The  hydrobromide  and  salicylate  of  eserine 
are  sometimes  used.  An  anaesthetic  collyrium  may  be 
made  with  cocaine  hydrochloride  grs.  iv.,  eserine  sulphate 
grs.  ii.,  and  distilled  water  §j. 

Eseridine  (C15H23N303),  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  Calabar 
bean,  has  similar  properties  to  physostigmine,  but  only  one- 
sixth  its  activity. 

HEMLOCK 

HEMLOCK  LEAVES.  Conii  Folia.  The  fresh  leaves  and 
young  branches  of  Conium  maculatum,  collected  when 
the  fruit  begins  to  form  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — Umbelli- 
ferse. 

HEMLOCK  FRUIT.  Conii  Fructus.  The  dried,  full-grown 
unripe  fruits  of  Conium  maculatum  (B.P.). 

Hemlock  grows  wild  in  hedges  and  waste  places  in  most 
parts  of  Europe.  The  flowering  stem  is  two  to  five  feet  high, 


518  HEMLOCK— CONINE 

round,  hollow,  jointed,  smooth,  branching  towards  the  top, 
and  covered  with  purple  spots.  The  large  bi-  or  tri-pinnate 
leaves  are  glabrous  and  dark-green,  have  clasping  petioles 
of  varying  length,  a  nauseous,  bitter  taste,  and  a  strong, 
peculiar  odour,  which  is  characteristic  of  ah1  parts  of  the 
plant,  and  aptly  compared  to  that  of  mice  or  of  cats'  urine. 
The  fruit  resembles  that  of  anise,  is  of  a  brown  colour,  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  broadly  ovate,  the  two 
mericarps,  generally  separated,  each  marked  with  five  ribs. 
Nine  pounds  of  fruit  produce  an  ounce  of  the  alkaloid 
conine,  which,  with  a  bitter  oleo-resin  and  a  non-poisonous 
volatile  oil,  is  found  stored  chiefly  in  cubical  cells  in  the 
endocarp. 

The  leaves  gathered  in  June,  when  the  fruit  begins  to 
form,  are  rapidly  dried  in  stoves  at  about  120°  Fahr.,  and 
preserved  in  tins,  bottles,  or  jars,  excluded  from  light. 
By  drying,  they  lose  three-fourths  of  their  weight,  and 
one-half  of  their  volatile  principle,  of  which  scarcely  a 
trace  remains  after  they  are  kept  twelve  months  (Royle). 
Long  keeping  of  the  fruit  and  leaves,  and  their  exposure 
to  temperatures  exceeding  120°  Fahr.,  account  for  the 
inertness  of  many  hemlock  preparations. 

In  addition  to  the  active  principle,  conine,  hemlock 
contains  varying  proportions  of  methyl-conine,  which  acts 
on  the  spinal  cord,  paralysing  reflex  action  ;  conhydrine, 
which  is  said  to  be  much  less  active  than  conine  ;  and 
coniic  acid. 

Pure  conine  (C8H16HN)  may  be  obtained  from  the  fruit  or 
leaves  by  distillation  with  caustic  potash.  It  is  a  yellowish, 
oily  liquid,  with  an  intense  odour  of  mice,  and  a  peculiar 
acrid  taste.  Specific  gravity  '885.  Soluble  in  100  parts 
of  water ;  and  readily  dissolved  by  alcohol  or  ether. 
Nitric  acid  dropped  on  conine  produces  a  blood-red  colour, 
sulphuric  acid  a  purple-red,  passing  to  olive-green.  Its 
chief  salt  is  the  hydrobromide,  which  contains  about  60  per 
cent,  of  the  alkaloid.  It  is  soluble  in  two  parts  of  water 
and  in  three  of  rectified  spirit  (Squire). 

The  leaves  and  fruit  of  hemlock  are  distinguished  by  their 
appearance,  and,  if  triturated  with  diluted  caustic  potash 
solution,  evolve  the  characteristic  odour  of  mice.  Fool's 


HEMLOCK— CONINE  519 

parsley  (^Ethusa  cynapium),  water  hemlock  or  cowbane 
(Cicuta  virosa),  the  fine-leaved  water  hemlock  (Phellandrium 
aquaticum),  the  water  parsnip  (QEnanthe  crocata),  are 
Umbelliferae  with  physiological  actions  similar  to  those  of 
conium  maculatum,  and  when  freely  eaten  have  poisoned 
many  of  the  domestic  animals.  Of  wholesome  dietetic 
Umbelliferse,  parsley,  parsnip,  and  celery  are  illustra- 
tions. The  natural  family  is  rich  in  aromatic  carminative 
seeds. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Hemlock  and  its  alkaloids  have  many 
points  of  resemblance  to  curare  and  nicotine.  The  chief 
action  of  conine  is  to  paralyse  motor  nerve-endings,  so 
giving  rise  to  more  or  less  complete  paralysis,  with 
weak,  staggering  gait  and  then  a  gradual  failure  of  re- 
spiration. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Hemlock  was  the  state  poison  of  the 
Athenians,  the  death-potion  of  Socrates.  The  alkaloid 
conine  especially  paralyses  motor  nerve-endings  and  so 
produces  weak,  staggering  ataxic  gait,  and  then  complete 
paralysis.  At  the  same  time  certain  nerve  cells  are  para- 
lysed as  with  nicotine,  so  that  vomiting  and  diarrhoea  may 
occur  from  paralysis  of  the  inhibitory  sympathetic  ganglion 
cells  in  the  abdomen.  Similarly  the  heart  beats  quicker 
from  depression  of  vagal  ganglion  cells  and  blood-pressure 
falls  from  vaso-dilation.  On  the  central  nervous  system 
it  exerts  a  primary,  brief,  stimulant  action,  followed  by 
depression.  Thus  there  is  twitching,  tremor,  quickened 
respiration,  then  slower,  shallow  breathing  (diaphragm 
paralysed  or  centre  ?),  asphyxial  convulsions,  and  death. 
Death  results  from  paralysis  of  respiration.  It  is  excreted 
by  the  kidneys.  It  acts  more  powerfully  on  man  and 
carnivora  than  on  herbivora.  Goats  with  impunity  eat 
considerable  quantities  of  the  fresh  leaves  (Kaufmann). 
Its  physiological  antagonists  are  nux-vomica,  strychnine, 
and  other  tetanisers. 

Toxic  ACTIONS. — Harley  and  Mavor  gave  a  two-year-old 
thoroughbred  colt  six,  eight,  and  twelve  ounces  of  succus 
conii  without  appreciable  effect.  Sixteen  ounces  produced 
in  twenty-five  minutes  dulness  and  stupidity,  drooping 
and  swollen  eyelids,  but  no  change  in  the  pulse  or  pupils. 


520  HEMLOCK— CONINE 

A  few  minutes  later  the  colt  went  down  upon  his  knees, 
appeared  to  require  special  efforts  to  keep  himself  on  his 
legs,  stumbled,  and  walked  slowly  when  led  ;  but  in  two 
hours  the  symptoms  had  entirely  disappeared.  Moiroud 
poisoned  a  horse  with  half  a  pound  of  the  dried  leaves  given 
as  a  decoction,  and  observed  nausea,  spasmodic  twitching 
of  the  muscles  of  the  extremities,  cold  sweats,  dilatation  of 
the  pupils,  and  dulness.  In  Italy  asses  eating  hemlock 
have  sometimes  been  so  thoroughly  paralysed  that,  suppos- 
ing them  to  be  dead,  the  peasants  have  begun  to  remove 
the  skin  (Matthiolus). 

Cattle  poisoned  lie  as  if  lifeless,  with  slow,  feeble  pulse, 
cold  extremities,  and  dilated  pupils.  Sheep  become  giddy, 
listless,  and  sometimes  die.  When  other  food  is  scarce 
lambs  will  crop  hemlock  with  fatal  results.  Fifteen  grains 
of  the  succus  injected  into  the  blood-vessels  of  a  full-grown 
mouse  produced,  in  half  an  hour,  paralysis,  continuing  for 
five  hours.  Christison  found  that  an  ounce  of  the  extract 
swallowed  by  dogs  proved  fatal  in  forty-five  minutes  ; 
ninety  grains  applied  to  a  wound  had  the  same  effect  in  an 
hour  and  a  half  ;  while  twenty-eight  grains  caused  death 
in  two  minutes,  when  injected  into  the  veins. 

Gerrard  recorded  the  poisoning  of  pigs  which  strayed  into 
an  orchard  and  ate  growing  hemlock.  They  lay  prostrate 
and  unable  to  rise,  pulse  imperceptible,  the  body  cold,  the 
eyes  amaurotic,  and  when  left  alone  they  lapsed  into  a 
comatose  state.  There  were  no  convulsions,  and  no 
pain  was  apparent  when  they  were  pricked  with  a  pin. 
In  fifteen  hours  two  died,  and  two  a  few  hours  later. 
Examination  discovered  the  blood  throughout  the  body,  and 
especially  in  the  large  organs,  dark-coloured  and  fluid,  the 
result  of  the  fatal  asphyxia  ;  the  intestines  distended  with 
gas  ;  the  mucous  coat  of  the  stomach,  particularly  its  cardiac 
portion,  much  congested,  while  similar  spots  of  congestion 
were  observed  throughout  the  intestines. 

Conine  is  generally  used  in  the  form  of  hydrobromide. 
One  drop  applied  to  the  eye  of  a  rabbit  arrested  respiration 
in  nine  minutes  ;  three  drops  in  the  eye  of  a  cat  killed  it  in 
a  minute  and  a  half ;  five  drops  swallowed  by  small  dogs 
began  to  operate  in  thirty  seconds,  and  proved  fatal  in  one 


MEDICINAL   USES  521 

minute.  Still  smaller  quantities  injected  into  the  veins 
poisoned  with  even  greater  rapidity  (Christison). 

The  antidotes  are  tannic  acid,  the  cautious  administration 
of  coffee  and  other  stimulants,  ammonia  to  the  nostrils, 
stimulating  enemata,  enforced  exercise,  and  artificial 
respiration. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Hemlock  is  occasionally  given  to  relieve 
the  muscular  spasm  of  chorea.  It  is  of  no  avail  in  tetanus 
in  horses,  nor,  as  demonstrated  by  experiment,  in  strychnine 
poisoning.  Spasmodic  cough  connected  with  muscular  irrita- 
bility, such  as  occasionally  occurs  in  epizootic  sore-throat 
and  bronchitis  in  horses,  is  sometimes  relieved  by  inhala- 
tion of  steam  medicated  with  hemlock,  or  by  swallowing 
slowly  an  electuary  of  succus  conii,  glycerin,  and  ammonium 
acetate.  Injections  and  suppositories  are  applied  in  irrit- 
able, painful  conditions  of  the  urino  -  genital  organs. 
Conium  ointment,  made  with  two  ounces  of  succus  conii 
and  three-quarter  ounce  of  lanoline,  is  employed  as  an 
anodyne  in  acute  mammitis  of  the  cow. 

DOSES,  etc. — Neither  the  dried  leaves  nor  the  fully- 
ripened  dried  fruit  are  to  be  depended  upon.  The  fresh 
leaves  and  young  branches,  and  preparations  promptly 
obtained  from  them  without  heat,  are,  however,  reliable, 
of  which  the  best  is  the  succus.  Three  parts  of  juice  are 
mixed  with  one  of  rectified  spirit,  allowed  to  stand  for 
seven  days,  and  then  filtered  and  bottled.  This  succus 
has  a  dark  sherry  colour,  an  agreeable  odour,  and  acid 
reaction ;  one  fluid  ounce  yields  thirty  grains  of  soft 
extract.  Horses  and  cattle  take  f§ij.  to  f  §iv.  ;  sheep 
and  pigs,  f§ss.  to  f§j.  ;  dogs,  f3ss.  to  f3J-  Its  analgesic 
and  anti-spasmodic  effects  are  increased  by  using  it  with 
opium  or  chloral-hydrate.  Conine  employed  hypodermi- 
cally  by  Harley  and  Mavor,  frequently  produced  irrita- 
tion, which  hindered  its  absorption.  For  subcutaneous 
or  intratracheal  injection  the  hydrobromide,  which  con- 
tains 60  per  cent,  of  conine,  should  be  used.  Doses — 
horses,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  ii. ;  dogs,  gr.  -^j  to  gr.  y1^,  dissolved 
in  20  to  60  minims  of  water  containing  a  few  drops  of 
alcohol.  Much  larger  doses  have  been  given  to  dogs 
without  producing  ill  effects  (Wooldridge). 


522  HENBANE 

HYOSCYAMUS 

HYOSCYAMUS  OR  HENBANE  LEAVES.  The  fresh  leaves  and 
flowers,  with  the  branches  to  which  they  are  attached, 
of  Hyoscyamus  niger  ;  also  the  leaves  and  flowering 
tops,  separated  from  the  branches  and  carefully  dried. 
Collected  from  the  flowering  biennial  plants  (B.P.). 
Nat.  Ord. — Solanaceae. 

Henbane  grows  wild  in  most  parts  of  this  country,  and  is 
cultivated  at  Mitcham  and  Hitchin.  The  large,  sinuate, 
usually  decurrent  yellow-brown  leaves  are  rough,  hairy,  and 
clammy,  with  a  foetid,  narcotic  odour,  and  a  nauseous, 
bitter  taste.  There  are  two  varieties,  an  annual  and  a 
biennial ;  the  latter  alone  recognised  by  the  B.P.,  is  larger, 
stronger,  more  branched,  clammy,  and  active.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  the  fresh  plant  when  dried  weigh  14  Ibs.,  and  yield 
about  4  Ibs.  of  extract. 

The  active  principle,  hyoscyamine  (C17H23N03),  in  its 
impure  form  is  an  oily  liquid,  becoming  brown  on  ex- 
posure, but  it  can  be  slowly  crystallised  into  colourless, 
translucent  needles.  It  is  soluble  in  120  of  water,  and 
readily  dissolves  in  alcohol,  chloroform,  and  dilute  acids. 
It  resembles  daturine,  the  active  principle  of  Datura 
stramonium,  is  identical  with  duboisine,  the  active  alkaloid 
of  Duboisia  myoporoides,  and  is  isomeric  with  atropine. 
Its  relationship  to  atropine  is  very  close,  and,  in  fact,  it 
is  quite  easily  converted  into  atropine.  It  is  decomposed, 
and  its  physiological  action  neutralised  by  caustic  alkalies. 
Henbane  also  contains  hyoscine,  or  scopolamine,  which  is 
a  cerebral  and  spinal  sedative. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Hyoscyamus  closely  resembles  bella- 
donna and  stramonium.  Locally  applied,  it  paralyses  the 
endings  of  sensory  nerves.  It  dilates  the  pupil,  although 
not  so  certainly  and  fully  as  atropine.  Full  doses  of  the 
drug  or  its  alkaloid  stimulate  the  cerebral  centres  to  a  some- 
what less  extent  than  atropine,  and  paralyse  the  ends  of 
motor  nerves.  There  are  produced  dryness  of  the  mouth, 
restlessness,  general  convulsions,  paralysis,  and  stupor, 
alternated  with  a  peculiar  form  of  delirium,  in  which  a 
constant  desire  for  movement  is  accompanied  by  lassitude, 


HENBANE— COCAINE  523 

failure  of  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  of  breathing,  and 
death  from  asphyxia  (Brunton). 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Horses  receiving  an  infusion  made  with 
three  to  four  ounces  of  the  leaves  have  dilatation  of  the 
pupils,  spasmodic  movements  of  the  lips,  acceleration  and 
subsequently  depression  of  the  heart-beats,  but  no  symptoms 
of  acute  poisoning.  Dogs  are  acted  on  exactly  as  by  bella- 
donna. Cats  become  dull  and  drowsy,  the  mouth  and  nose 
dry,  the  pulse  accelerated,  the  pupils  dilated,  and  the  power 
of  walking  or  springing  impaired. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Hyoscyamus  is  prescribed  with  cath- 
artics to  prevent  their  griping.  It  is  mainly  excreted  by 
the  kidneys,  and  occasionally  is  used  as  an  anodyne  in 
irritable  conditions  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder.  It  is  pre- 
scribed in  human  practice  in  cases  of  mania  and  nervous 
or  muscular  excitement,  and  has  been  used  with  some 
success  in  epilepsy  and  chorea  in  dogs.  It  is  occasionally 
substituted  for  opium  as  a  topical  anodyne.  For  the  human 
subject,  hyoscine  or  scopolamine  is  a  useful  hypnotic, 
producing,  after  a  brief  stage  of  excitement,  a  condition 
like  natural  sleep.  In  horses  and  dogs,  according  to 
Frohner,  this  effect  is  not  easily  produced,  though  moderate 
doses  cause  marked  mydriasis. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  tincture,  horses  and  cattle  take  3ij- 
to  f§j.  ;  dogs,  Tl\x.  to  Tl\xl.  The  extract  is  six  times  the 
strength  of  the  tincture.  Hyoscyamine,  usually  prescribed 
as  the  sulphate,  which  is  freely  soluble  in  water,  is  about 
one  hundred  times  more  active  than  the  extract,  and  is 
sometimes  used  hypodermic  ally.  Doses,  horses,  gr.  i.  to 
grs.  ii. ;  dogs,  gr.  -g1^  to  gr.  -fa.  Of  Hyoscine  hydrobromide 
the  dose  for  the  horse  is  gr.  J  ;  for  the  dog,  gr.  -fa  to  gr.  -fa. 

COCAINE 

COCAINA.     An  alkaloid  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  Erythro- 

xylum  coca  and  its  varieties. 
COCAINJE    HYDROCHLORIDUM.      The   hydrochloride    of   an 

alkaloid  obtained  from  Coca  leaves.     C17H21N04.HC1. 

Nat.  Ord. — Linacese. 

The  alkaloid,  of  which  the  leaves  yield  26  per  cent.,  is 


524  COCAINE 

prepared  by  agitating  an  acidulated  alcoholic  extract  with 
ether.  It  occurs  in  colourless  prisms,  almost  insoluble  in 
water,  insoluble  in  glycerin,  soluble  in  ten  parts  rectified 
spirit,  and  in  twelve  of  olive  oil.  The  hydroehloride,  in 
colourless  acicular  crystals,  or  crystalline  powder,  is  readily 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  glycerin.  It  is  insoluble  in  olive 
oil,  and  nearly  insoluble  in  ether.  Its  watery  solution  has 
a  bitter  taste,  producing  on  the  tongue  a  sensation  of  ting- 
ling, followed  by  numbness,  and  when  applied  to  the  eye 
dilates  the  pupil.  It  gives  a  yellow  precipitate  with  gold 
chloride,  and  a  white  precipitate  with  ammonium  carbonate, 
soluble  in  excess  of  the  re-agent.  Cocaine  is  associated 
in  the  plant  with  coca-tannic  acid,  and  with  several  other 
alkaloids,  amongst  which  are  cocamine  and  cinnamyl-cocaine 
— and  a  volatile  constituent  which  gives  aromatic  fragrance 
to  the  fresh  leaves.  All  these  alkaloids  contain  a  pyridine 
derivative  known  as  ecgonine,  and  in  cocaine  this  is 
combined  with  benzoic  acid  and  methyl  alcohol.  Many 
artificial  cocaine  substitutes  have  been  produced,  all 
containing  the  ecgonine  molecule. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Cocaine  paralyses  the  sensory  nerves 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact,  and  is  thus  a  local  anaes- 
thetic. It  is  also  antiseptic.  Small  to  moderate  doses 
stimulate  the  central  nervous  system,  are  tonic,  and  diminish 
metabolism.  The  South  American  Indians,  on  long  marches, 
not  only  chew  coca  leaves,  but  give  them  to  their  horses, 
with  the  effect  of  diminishing  thirst,  hunger,  and  sense 
of  fatigue.  Although  topically  anaesthetic  and  anodyne, 
large  doses,  swallowed  or  injected  subcutaneously,  exert 
this  central  stimulant  effect,  causing  excitement,  restless- 
ness, increased  reflex  irritability,  and  then  tonic  or  clonic 
convulsions.  Subsequently  they  paralyse  the  nerve-centres, 
impair  co-ordination,  causing  aimless  gyrating  move- 
ments, muscular  spasms,  and  death  from  respiratory 
failure. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Solutions  of  4  to  10  per  cent.,  applied 
to  a  mucous  surface,  within  one  minute  cause  pallor  and 
vascular  contraction.  After  two  or  three  minutes  the 
endings  of  the  sensory  nerves  are  paralysed,  so  producing 
local  anaesthesia  lasting  ten  minutes.  A  few  drops  of  a 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  525 

5  per  cent,  solution,  placed  within  the  eyelids,  produce 
anaesthesia,  constrict  the  vessels,  lessen  the  power  of  accom- 
modation, and  dilate  the  pupil.  This  dilatation  is  more 
notable  in  men  and  dogs  than  in  horses  and  cattle  (Frohner). 
It  is  caused  by  stimulation  of  the  sympathetic  fibres  supply- 
ing the  dilator  muscle  of  the  iris.  When  swallowed,  cocaine 
diminishes  the  sensations  of  hunger  and  thirst.  Large  or 
repeated  doses  quicken  circulation,  increase  blood-pressure, 
breathing,  and  temperature,  and  heighten  reflex  irrita- 
bility by  their  effect  on  the  central  nervous  system,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  heart,  by  depression  of  the  vagal  endings. 
Still  larger  doses  cause  trembling  and  timidity,  impair  co- 
ordination and  equilibrium  ;  animals  cannot  walk  straight, 
have  muscular  trembling  and  rotatory  convulsions,  and  die 
from  paralysis  of  respiration.  It  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys  ; 
but  does  not  appear,  however,  to  alter  the  proportion  of 
the  urinary  constituents.  Applied  to  the  mammary  gland 
it  diminishes  secretion  of  milk. 

Horses  receiving  60  to  80  grains  injected  subcutaneously, 
or  about  *005  gramme  per  kilogramme  of  body-weight, 
according  to  Frohner,  are  restless,  paw  with  the  fore  feet, 
neigh,  and  exhibit  timidity  and  excitement,  the  pulse  rises 
to  90-96,  temperature  is  increased,  salivation  occurs,  the 
bowels  are  frequently  moved,  and  the  pupil  dilated.  After 
fifty  minutes  the  animal  is  in  a  state  of  frenzied  excitement, 
with  greatly  augmented  reflex  activity.  Two  hours  elapse 
before  these  effects  disappear.  In  COWS  like  effects  were 
produced  by  hypodermic  injection  of  similar  doses.  One 
drachm  is  stated  to  have  produced  excitement  bordering  on 
madness,  and  continuing  for  four  hours,  but  gradually  pass- 
ing off,  and  leaving  no  injurious  effects. 

In  dogs,  doses  consisting  of  "015  to  '02  gramme  per 
kilogramme  of  live-weight  produce  psychical  excitement, 
muscular  spasms,  rhythmical  contractions  of  the  skeletal 
muscles,  circus-movements,  wild  galloping,  tetanic  and 
clonic  spasms,  epileptiform  fits,  dyspnoea,  rolling,  and  loss  of 
co-ordination.  The  spasms  and  more  prominent  symptoms 
do  not,  however,  occur  when  potassium  bromide,  ether, 
or  amyl-nitrite  has  previously  been  given.  Large  doses 
subsequently  paralyse  the  central  nervous  system  in  the 


526  COCAINE 

same  order  as  they  have  previously  stimulated  the  parts, 
implicating  first  the  brain,  then  the  corpora  quadrigemina, 
the  spinal  cord,  and  lastly  the  medulla.  Injected  hypo- 
dermically,  twelve  to  fifteen  grains  kill  small  dogs  in  ten 
minutes  (Hobday). 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Cocaine  hydrochloride  is  a  convenient 
and  effectual  local  anaesthetic.  Its  effects  are  confined  to 
the  skin  or  mucous  surface  moistened  with  it,  are  more  easily 
regulated  than  those  of  ether  spray,  are  unaccompanied  by 
pain,  and  may  be  kept  up  for  considerable  periods  without 
injuriously  affecting  the  nutrition  of  the  parts.  Anaesthesia 
may  be  produced  within  five  minutes,  and,  when  insensibility 
is  secured,  it  usually  continues  for  twenty  to  thirty  minutes. 
For  application  to  the  sound  skin  cocaine  should  be  dissolved 
in  oil  of  cloves  which  ensures  deeper  penetration.  Twenty 
minims  of  a  4  or  5  per  cent,  solution  dropped  into  the  eye 
within  ten  minutes  diminish  sensibility,  so  that  a  thorough 
examination  can  be  made  of  the  organ  ;  the  irritability  and 
pain  of  conjunctivitis,  iritis,  and  ulceration  of  the  cornea  are 
abated  ;  chaff  or  other  foreign  bodies  imbedded  in  the 
cornea  can  be  removed  without  provoking  pain  or  reflex 
movements  ;  warts  can  be  excised,  torn  lids  stitched,  and 
injuries  of  the  eye  painlessly  treated.  Indeed,  after  several 
applications  of  the  cocaine  solution,  the  eyeball  of  the  horse 
has  been  removed,  without  symptoms  of  pain,  and  with- 
out the  necessity  of  casting  the  patient.  In  examinations 
and  operations  in  connection  with  the  larynx,  cocaine  is 
equally  serviceable,  and  for  such  cases  a  stronger  solution 
is  generally  used.  Applied  to  the  skin,  along  the  course 
of  the  plantar  nerves,  and  still  more  effectually  when 
injected  subcutaneously,  it  abolishes  sensibility  suffi- 
ciently for  the  painless  performance  of  neurectomy. 
R.  Rutherford,  after  closely  clipping  or  shaving  the  hair, 
finds  that  half  an  ounce  of  a  20  per  cent,  solution,  in 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  anaesthetises  the  limbs  even 
of  irritable  horses  sufficiently  for  the  performance  of 
firing  without  casting,  and  for  the  painless  insertion  of 
setons.  In  combination  with  a  small  proportion  (five  to 
ten  per  cent.)  of  solution  of  adrenalin,  it  is  very  serviceable 
in  operations  on  mucous  membranes,  the  uterus,  vagina, 


HOLOCAINE,  ACOINE,  TROPACOCAINE,  EUCAINE      527 

and  rectum,  for  the  removal  of  tumours,  and  the  opening  of 
abscesses.  Doses  of  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  v.  cocaine  hydrochloride, 
in  solution  (two  to  five  per  cent.),  subcutaneously  injected, 
are  used  to  allay  rheumatic  and  other  local  pains,  and  to 
assist  in  the  diagnosis  of  lameness  in  horses.  Cocaine  is 
also  employed  in  lumbar  anaesthesia.  For  this  purpose 
a  two  per  cent,  solution  may  be  injected  in  doses  of  H\xv.  to 
ll\lx.  for  the  horse  and  ox,  and  TI\v.  to  H\xxx.  for  the  dog. 

In  order  to  preserve  cocaine  hydrochloride  solutions, 
which,  when  long  kept,  are  liable  to  spoil,  l-200th  part 
of  boric  acid  should  be  added  to  them  when  freshly  made. 
The  B.P.  injectio  cocainae  hypodermiea,  is  made  with 
33  grains  cocaine  hydrochloride,  J  grain  salicylic  acid,  and 
6  drachms  distilled  water.  One  hundred  and  ten  minims 
contain  about  ten  grains  of  cocaine.  The  ointment  consists 
of  20  grains  cocaine,  80  grains  oleic  acid,  and  400  grains  of 
lard.  Tablets  containing  ^  and  J  grain  are  now  obtainable. 

Holocaine,  a  cocaine  substitute,  obtained  by  combination 
of  phenacetin  and  paraphenetidin,  is  employed  as  the  hydro- 
chloride,  which  is  soluble  in  one  hundred  parts  of  water. 
In  ophthalmic  practice  a  few  drops  of  a  1  per  cent,  solution 
produce  anaesthesia  in  fifty  seconds,  the  effects  lasting  for 
five  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  solution  is  antiseptic  but  does 
not  dilate  the  pupil. 

Acoine,  derived  from  guanin,  is  less  poisonous  and  acts 
longer  than  cocaine.  It  is  antiseptic  as  well  as  anaesthetic. 
A  solution  for  hypodermic  injection  is  composed  of  one  part 
acoine,  eight  parts  of  sodium  chloride,  and  a  thousand  parts 
of  distilled  water. 

Tropacoeaine  (benzoyl-pseudo-tropine),  employed  as  the 
hydrochloride,  occurs  with  cocaine  and  other  bases  in  Java 
coca  leaves.  Prepared  synthetically,  it  is  a  white  crystalline 
powder,  readily  soluble  in  water.  Used  in  solution  (2  to  3 
per  cent.)  it  is  a  powerful  local  anaesthetic,  more  rapid  in 
action  and  less  toxic  than  cocaine.  It  has  been  employed 
in  lumbar  anaesthesia,  by  Becher,  in  doses  of  one  grain 
for  the  dog,  and  four  to  eight  grains  for  the  horse. 

Eucaine  (beta-eucaine)  hydrochloride  is  a  good  substitute 
for  cocaine.  It  is  more  active  and  much  less  toxic  than 
cocaine.  Readily  soluble  in  water,  it  is  free  of  irritant  action. 


528  STOVAINE— NOVOCAINE— ORTHOFORM 

Solutions  can  be  sterilised  by  boiling  without  undergoing 
decomposition.  Solutions  of  2,  5,  and  10  per  cent.,  with  or 
without  addition  of  solution  of  adrenalin,  are  employed 
as  local  anaesthetics  for  minor  operations.  A  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  eucaine  and  cocaine  has  been  recommended 
as  the  best  and  safest  local  anaesthetic. 

Stovaine  (ethyl  -  dimethyl  -  aminopropinol  -  hydrochloride) , 
occurring  in  white  lustrous  scales,  soluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
and  acetic  ether,  is  said  to  be  two  or  three  times  less  toxic 
and  more  easily  eliminated  than  cocaine.  Solutions  of  1  to 
2  per  cent,  are  used  hypodermically  to  produce  local  anaes- 
thesia. Half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of  a  6  per  cent,  solution, 
injected  at  four  or  five  points  of  the  conjunctiva,  ensures 
painless  excision  of  the  eyeball  in  horses  and  dogs.  Instilla- 
tion of  a  few  drops  of  a  4  per  cent,  solution  greatly  facilitates 
the  removal  of  foreign  bodies  from  the  eye.  For  intraspinal 
anaesthesia  a  5  per  cent,  solution  is  injected  in  doses  of  3iJss- 
in  horses,  JT^xxx.  in  dogs,  and  TT[x.  to  H\xx.  in  cats.  Solu- 
tions of  stovaine  can  be  sterilised  by  boiling. 

Novocaine  (para-aminobenzoyl-diethylamino-ethanol  hy- 
drochloride) is  a  non-irritant  local  anaesthetic,  in  colourless 
spicular  crystals,  soluble  in  an  equal  quantity  of  water  and 
in  thirty  parts  of  alcohol.  Solutions  of  1  and  2  per  cent, 
produce  satisfactory  local  anaesthesia  for  minor  operations 
on  horses  and  dogs.  Instillations  of  a  5  to  10  per  cent, 
solution  are  employed  for  operations  on  the  eye.  Anaes- 
thesia is  complete  in  from  seven  to  ten  minutes.  Novocaine 
(3  per  cent.)  is  serviceable  in  the  diagnosis  of  lameness,  and 
combined  with  solution  of  adrenalin,  it  forms  an  excellent 
haemostatic  anaesthetic  for  injecting  round  the  base  of 
tumours  prior  to  extirpation.  Solutions  keep  well  even  when 
exposed  to  light,  and  they  may  be  boiled  several  times 
without  losing  anaesthetic  value. 

Orthoform  (methylic  ether  of  paramido-meta-oxybenzoic 
acid),  another  cocaine  substitute,  occurs  as  a  white,  odourless, 
and  tasteless  powder,  slightly  soluble  in  water.  According 
to  Guinard  and  Souliere,  Orthoform  is  more  analgesic  than 
anaesthetic.  Applied  to  wounds  and  ulcers  only  a  small 
part  is  dissolved  by  the  discharge.  Absorption  is  exceed- 
ingly slow,  so  that  local  applications  may  be  regarded  as 


JABORANDI— PILOCARPINE  529 

non-toxic,  and,  moreover,  the  local  anaesthesia  is  maintained 
for  several  hours.  This  renders  orthoform  of  great  service 
in  canine  practice  for  preventing  irritation  and  pain,  and  so 
allowing  the  patient  to  rest.  When  swallowed,  or  injected 
subcutaneously,  it  is  quickly  absorbed  and  acts  as  a  powerful 
nerve  depressant,  blood  pressure  being  lowered  and  heart 
action  and  respiration  much  increased.  Large  doses  given 
to  dogs,  hypodermically  or  by  the  mouth,  cause  nausea  and 
vomiting.  Orthoform  is  employed  as  a  local  anaesthetic  ; 
and  as  an  antiseptic  dressing,  for  recent  cracked  heels, 
broken  knees,  and  superficial  wounds,  in  powder,  or  in  oint- 
ment (10  to  20  per  cent.)  made  with  lanoline.  Mixed  with 
collodion  it  is  used  as  an  anodyne,  antiseptic,  adhesive 
protective  for  small  operation  wounds. 


JABORANDI 

JABORANDI  FOLIA.     The  dried  leaflets  of  Pilocarpus  jabor- 

andi.     (B.P.)    Nat.  Ord.— Rutaceae. 
PILOCARPINE   NITRATE.      Pilocarpinae  Nitras   (CnH16N202 

HNO3).     The  nitrate   of  an   alkaloid  obtained  from 

Jaborandi  leaves  (B.P.). 

The  shrubs  yielding  Jaborandi  are  natives  of  Brazil.  The 
leaflets  have  a  slightly  aromatic  odour  and  a  bitter,  pungent 
taste,  and  when  chewed  they  increase  secretion  of  saliva. 
The  leaflets  are  about  four  inches  long,  and  contain  an  acrid 
resin,  an  essential  oil  consisting  in  part  of  a  dextrogyrate 
terpene  (C10H16),  and  an  amorphous,  liquid,  colourless 
alkaloid,  piloearpine  (CnH16N202),  which  is  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  ammonia,  and  dilute  acids,  and 
forms  crystallisable  salts,  the  nitrate  being  chiefly  used. 
Another  alkaloid,  jaborine,  has  been  described  as  occurring 
in  much  smaller  proportion,  and  was  stated  to  be  a  basic 
decomposition  product  of  piloearpine,  and  antagonistic  to 
it  in  its  actions,  although  more  recent  work  has  cast  doubt 
upon  this.  Piloearpine  nitrate  is  a  white,  crystalline 
powder,  soluble  in  nine  parts  of  water,  and  in  fifty  parts  of 
cold  alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Piloearpine  and  Jaborandi  leaflets 

2L 


530  JABORANDI— PILOCARPISTE 

have  no  notable  in-contact  effect  on  the  skin  or  mucous 
membranes,  but  when  absorbed  they  stimulate  glandular 
secretion  more  promptly,  energetically,  and  generally  than 
any  other  known  drugs.  The  salivary,  lachrymal,  bronchial, 
gastric,  pancreatic,  and  intestinal  secretions  are  increased, 
the  milk,  bile,  and  urine,  to  only  a  slight  extent.  The 
cutaneous  perspiratory  glands  are  not  so  actively  stimulated 
in  the  lower  animals  as  in  man.  They  stimulate  the 
efferent  nerve-endings  of  involuntary  muscles,  while  large 
toxic  doses  impair  the  irritability  of  voluntary  muscles 
and  motor  nerves  by  their  central  action.  They  are 
prescribed  as  eliminatives  in  catarrhal,  pneumonic,  and 
rheumatic  cases,  and  in  torpidity  and  obstruction  of  the 
bowels — in  the  latter  being  conjoined  with  physostigmine. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Pilocarpine  stimulates  the  peripheral 
terminations  of  efferent  nerves  going  to  glands  and  to 
involuntary  muscles.  In  the  lower  animals  secretion  of 
saliva  is  early  and  prominently  increased.  Horses  sub- 
cutaneously  injected  with  three  to  four  grains  in  two  or 
three  minutes  are  freely  salivated  ;  within  one  hour  three 
and  a  half  pints  of  saliva  have  been  collected  ;  during  the 
next  hour  about  half  that  quantity,  but  an  hour  later  the 
secretion  was  nearly  normal  (Kaufmann).  The  nasal  and 
lachrymal  secretions  are  augmented.  So  much  bronchial 
mucus  is  outpoured  that  a  distinct  rale  is  audible,  and  in 
poisonous  doses  the  accumulation  of  fluid  and  oedema  of  the 
membrane,  together  with  the  lessened  calibre  of  the  tubes 
due  to  contraction  of  the  bronchial  muscle,  cause  dyspnoea, 
which  is  sometimes  fatal.  The  intestinal  glands  are  stimu- 
lated, rendering  the  dejections  more  abundant,  soft,  and 
shortly  semi-fluid.  Small  and  moderate  doses  slightly 
increase  the  secretion  of  urine,  and  also  of  milk.  In  man 
pilocarpine  produces  profuse  sweating,  but  in  the  lower 
animals  even  full  doses  only  render  the  skin  moist.  By 
its  stimulation  of  the  skin  growth  of  hair  is  said  to  be 
encouraged  (Frohner). 

Pilocarpine  stimulates  the  peripheral  terminations  of  the 
motor  nerves  distributed  to  involuntary  muscles,  and 
secondarily,  and  especially  in  large  doses,  paralyses  them. 
Given  by  the  mouth,  or  injected  locally,  the  circular  fibres 


GLANDULAR   STIMULANTS  531 

of  the  iris  are  contracted  by  stimulation  of  the  third  nerve, 
but  frequently  the  pupil  is  subsequently  dilated.  The 
muscles  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  are  in  a  state  of 
active  peristalsis,  occasionally  accompanied  by  vomiting, 
colic,  and  diarrhoea.  The  bladder  contracts,  and  urine  is 
passed  at  short  intervals.  Contractions  of  the  uterus  and 
movements  of  the  spleen  are  also  produced.  After  slight 
and  temporary  quickening  from  stimulation  of  the  sympa- 
thetic fibres,  heart  action  is  slowed  and  blood-pressure 
lowered,  by  reason  of  vagus  stimulation  becoming  dominant. 
The  temperature,  which  at  first  rises,  subsequently  falls 
several  tenths  of  a  degree.  Frohner  states  that  a  single  dose 
in  from  two  to  four  hours  will  reduce  the  weight  of  a  horse 
by  forty  to  sixty  pounds. 

Horses  receiving  two  to  four  drachms  of  the  leaves  infused 
in  hot  water,  in  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  exhibited  profuse 
salivation,  continuing  for  three  hours,  but  without  notable 
diaphoresis,  altered  circulation,  or  increased  temperature. 
Carriage  horses  to  which  Dun  gave  two  to  four  drachms,  in 
fifteen  minutes  salivated  abundantly,  and  the  discharge 
continued  for  two  or  three  hours  ;  very  slight  diaphoresis 
occurred  for  twenty  minutes  ;  no  change  was  noticeable 
in  the  pulse,  temperature,  or  quantity  of  urine  excreted. 
Dollar  injected  hypodermically  1J  grains  pilocarpine  in 
ten  parts  water  into  the  shoulder  of  an  aged  horse  15J 
hands  ;  in  six  minutes  marked  salivation  set  in,  the  saliva 
pouring  out  of  the  mouth  ;  the  secretion  from  the  buccal 
glands  also  appeared  to  be  augmented.  These  effects  con- 
tinued for  fully  an  hour  and  a  half  ;  the  pulse  was  lowered 
in  force,  and  was  slowed  two  to  three  beats  ;  the  skin, 
previously  dry,  became  moist,  but  there  was  no  distinct 
sweating.  P.  Smith  reports  that  in  horses,  in  about  ten 
minutes  after  a  subcutaneous  injection  of  three  grains, 
there  is  constant  '  champing  of  the  jaws,  whilst  saliva  flows 
from  the  mouth,  sometimes  in  quite  a  stream.  There  is  no 
attempt  at  sweating  ;  the  sweat  glands  of  the  horse  are 
perfectly  insensible  to  the  action  of  pilocarpine.  The 
involuntary  muscles  of  the  intestinal  canal  are  stimulated, 
and  the  rectum  is  repeatedly  emptied.' 

Horses  are  poisoned  by  the  subcutaneous  injection  of  five 


532          JABORANDI— PILOCARPINE 

grains  (Kaufmann).  Cattle,  however,  tolerate  much  larger 
quantities.  Feser  subcutaneously  injected  a  cow  and  a  bull 
with  doses  ranging  from  three  to  eighteen  grains.  The 
larger  doses  produced  abundant  secretion  of  viscid  saliva, 
frequent,  short,  laboured  respiration,  tympanites,  intestinal 
irritation,  colic,  and  profuse  diarrhoea,  but  only  slight  and 
temporary  diaphoresis.  Still  larger  doses  increased  the 
oedema  of  the  lung  and  paralytic  tympany  of  the  rumen, 
and  also  weakened  heart  action.  But  much  larger  doses, 
reaching  to  forty-five  grains,  were  tolerated  when  given 
by  the  mouth.  Compared  with  physostigmine,  pilocarpine, 
although  stimulating  more  powerfully  intestinal  glandular 
secretion,  had  much  less  effect  on  intestinal  muscular  fibre, 
and  two  to  four  times  the  dose  is  stated  to  be  required  to 
produce  purgation  in  cattle. 

Dogs  and  cats  are  more  sensitive  to  the  drug  than  horses 
or  cattle.  A  dog  of  25  Ibs.  weight  was  prostrated  for  two 
days  by  three-quarters  of  a  grain,  and  Frohner  records  that 
this  dose  killed  by  pulmonary  oedema  a  dog  weighing  132  Ibs. 
Half  a  grain  caused  profuse  salivation,  continuing  for  six 
hours,  and  increased  action  of  the  bowels  and  kidneys. 
Half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of  the  leaves,  infused  in  water, 
produced  in  English  terriers,  of  20  to  25  Ibs.  weight,  abundant 
salivation,  but  no  notable  diaphoresis.  The  physiological 
antagonist  of  pilocarpine  is  atropine,  which  arrests  glandular 
secretion  and  paralyses  the  nerve-endings  of  involuntary 
muscles.  It  is  hence  the  appropriate  antidote  in  poisoning 
by  pilocarpine. 

MEDICINAL  USES.— The  prompt  and  general  eliminative 
action  of  pilocarpine  has  suggested  its  use  for  the  absorption 
of  pleuritic  and  other  effusions,  and  the  removal  of  products 
of  tissue  waste.  It  has  been  prescribed  for  rheumatism, 
especially  when  affecting  muscles,  and  in  chronic  eczema. 
Kaufmann  testifies  to  its  value  as  an  expectorant  in  catarrh, 
pneumonia,  and  complaints  resulting  from  exposure  to 
cold.  In  such  cases  it  may  be  usefully  combined  with 
other  expectorants.  Friedberger  and  Frohner  advise  its 
subcutaneous  injection  in  acute  brain  inflammation,  hydro- 
cephalus,  and  laminitis.  In  nephritis  it  beneficially  removes 
by  other  channels  the  albuminoid  waste  usually  got  rid  of 


CURARE  533 

by  the  kidneys.  In  virtue  of  its  increasing  both  intestinal 
secretion  and  peristalsis,  it  is  serviceable  in  torpidity  and 
obstruction  of  the  bowels,  and  may  even  relieve  volvulus 
and  invagination.  In  these  gastro-intestinal  cases  it  is 
conjoined  with  physostigmine,  which  stimulates  muscular 
contractions  more  powerfully  than  pilocarpine. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  fresh  leaves,  horses  or  cattle  take  39  • 
to  3iv-  ;  sheep,  pigs,  or  large  dogs,  3SS-  to  3^>  giyen  as  an 
infusion.  But  pilocarpine  nitrate  or  hydrochloride  is  more 
certain  and  effective,  and  is  prescribed,  hypodermically  or 
intratracheally,  to  horses  and  cattle  in  doses  of  grs.  ij.  to 
grs.  vi. ;  to  dogs,  gr.  T^  to  gr.  J ;  to  cats,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  ^L, 
dissolved  in  water,  1  grain  of  the  salt  to  20  minims  of  water 
containing  a  drop  or  two  of  alcohol.  As  a  myotic  a  few 
drops  of  a  two  per  cent,  solution  may  be  used. 


CURARE 

CURARA.  Wourara.  Wourali.  Urari.  The  South  Ameri- 
can arrow  poison.  An  extract  from  one  or  more  species 
of  Strychnos,  mixed  with  some  mucilaginous  juice,  and 
owing  its  activity  to  an  alkaloid,  curarine  (C10H15N3). 
(Not  official.) 

Curare  is  a  black-brown  substance,  with  a  very  bitter  taste, 
and  imperfectly  soluble  in  water.  It  appears  to  vary  some- 
what in  composition,  and  two  varieties  have  been  described. 

The  drug,  and  its  twenty-times  more  active  alkaloid 
curarine,  by  whatever  channel  they  enter  the  body,  paralyse 
the  peripheral  endings  of  motor  nerves.  The  nerves  of  the 
voluntary  muscles  of  the  limbs  are  first  affected,  then  those 
of  the  trunk  and  head,  until  the  only  movement  is  that  of 
respiration.  Later  and  with  larger  doses  this  becomes 
enfeebled  and  finally  fails.  Intelligence  and  consciousness 
remain  unimpaired.  Horses  are  poisoned  by  32  to  48  grains, 
dogs  by  gr.  ^  to  gr.  3J  of  curare  given  subcutaneously. 
Experimental  investigations  demonstrate  that  the  poison 
affects  simply  the  nerve  terminals  in  the  muscles,  the  effect 
being  similar  to  fatigue  ;  that  paralysis  is  removed  when  the 
drug  is  washed  out  of  the  muscle  ;  that  it  acts  less  powerfully 


534  DIGITALIS 

on  the  vaso-motor  system  of  rabbits  and  cats  than  of  dogs  ; 
applied  to  the  conjunctiva  it  dilates  the  pupil  of  birds 
(the  iris  having  striated  muscle),  but  not  of  mammals 
(iris  unstriated) ;  while  the  reverse  obtains  in  the  case  of 
atropine.  Although  the  blood  becomes  charged  with  car- 
bonic acid,  the  motor  nerves  are  so  paralysed  that  asphyxial 
convulsions  do  not  occur.  The  heart  continues  to  beat  after 
the  breathing  ceases,  but  the  poison  is  quickly  eliminated  by 
the  kidneys,  and  artificial  respiration  persisted  with  accord- 
ingly prevents  death,  even  when  lethal  doses  have  been 
given.  The  rapid  excretion  of  the  poison,  unchanged  by 
the  kidneys,  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  the  urine 
of  a  frog,  poisoned  by  curare,  injected  subcutaneousjy  into 
a  second  frog,  paralyses  it,  and  its  urine  will  even  paralyse  a 
third  (Brunton). 

It  is  allied  to  hemlock  and  conine,  and  to  methyl- 
strychnine,  methyl-brucine,  and  methyl- thebaine.  Some 
of  its  effects  are  antagonised  by  strychnine.  It  has  been 
given  in  chorea  and  epilepsy  ;  but  in  neither  of  these  has  its 
efficacy  been  established.  In  tetanus,  Wiedmann,  employ- 
ing acid  solution  of  curare,  which  had  previously  been  tested 
on  rabbits,  injected  a  quantity  equal  to  3iJss-  °f  the  drug 
into  the  facial  subcutaneous  tissue,  and  in  twelve  hours  the 
horse  was  able  to  eat.  Injections  into  the  neck  were  equally 
satisfactory. 

The  doses  for  horses  and  cattle  are  from  gr.  ss.  to  gr.  j. ; 
for  dogs,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  -*-.  It  acts  much  more  powerfully 
when  injected  intravenously,  hypodermically,  or  intratrache- 
ally,  than  when  swallowed.  Any  considerable  amount  of 
food  in  the  stomach  retards  and  minimises  its  effect  when 
given  by  the  mouth. 

DIGITALIS 

FOXGLOVE.  The  dried  leaves  of  Digitalis  purpurea.  Col- 
lected from  plants  commencing  to  flower  (B.P.).  Nat. 
Ord. — Scrophulariaceae. 

Digitalis  grows  wild  in  this  country,  and  in  many  parts  of 
the  Continent,  on  gravelly,  sandy  soils,  in  young  plantations, 
on  hedge  sides,  and  hill  pastures.  Other  species  have 


DIGITALIS    GLUCOSIDES  535 

probably  the  same  properties  as  the  D.  purpurea,  recognised 
by  the  B.P.  It  is  herbaceous,  biennial  or  perennial,  with 
numerous  drooping,  purple-spotted,  occasionally  white 
flowers,  an  erect  stem  one  to  five  feet  high,  and  large 
alternate  ovate-lanceolate,  crenate,  rugose  leaves,  downy, 
especially  on  their  paler  lower  surfaces,  and  tapering  into 
winged  foot-stalks.  Leaves  of  the  second  year's  growth 
are  preferred  as  they  are  richer  in  the  active  principles. 
The  leaves  are  dried  in  baskets,  in  darkness,  over  stoves, 
and  are  then  of  a  dull-green  colour,  with  little  smell,  but 
a  nauseous,  bitter,  slightly  astringent  taste.  They  should 
be  used  when  fresh ;  twelve  months'  keeping  greatly 
diminishes  their  activity.  Both  the  roots  and  seeds  are 
bitter,  and  probably  active,  but  less  so  than  the  leaves. 

The  chemistry  of  digitalis  is  still  somewhat  uncertain, 
but  the  following  active  principles  can  be  extracted  : — 

(1)  Digitalin,  or  digitalinum,  a  bitter  glucoside,  almost 
insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  alcohol.     Pure 
digitalin  and  the  commercial  varieties  are  topical  irritants 
and  muscle  poisons,   and  hence  notable  cardiac  poisons. 
The  three  undermentioned  non-nitrogenous  substances  have 
also  been  isolated. 

(2)  Digitoxin  is  a  crystalline  body,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  and  alcohol.     It  is  the  most 
active  of  the  several  glucosides  which  constitute  digitalin. 

(3)  Digitalein   is   bitter   and   amorphous,   and  insoluble 
in  water.     Soluble  in  alcohol,  chloroform,  and  in  acetic  acid. 
Digitoxin  and  digitalein  act  in  the  same  manner  as  digitalin. 

(4)  Digitonin  is  soluble  in  600  parts  of  water,  and  in- 
soluble in  alcohol,  benzine,  ether,  and  chloroform  (Kauf- 
mann)  ;   resembles  saponin,  the  active  principle  of  quillaia, 
the  Chili  soap  bark  ;  is  a  powerful  irritant,  local  anaesthetic, 
and  muscular  paralysant  ;    and  hence  is  in  some  degree 
antagonistic  to  digitalin,  digit oxin,  and  digitalein. 

These  non-nitrogenous  bodies,  in  very  variable  proportion, 
are  obtainable  from  the  plant  grown  in  different  climates 
and  circumstances,  and  also  from  different  parts  of  the  same 
plant.  The  tincture  contains  the  first  three  in  solution, 
while  the  infusion  holds  them  in  suspension  and  thus  is 
an  active  preparation.  They  readily  yield  products  of 


536  DIGITALIS 

decomposition,  especially  when  exposed  to  high  tempera- 
tures, and  several  of  these  products  are  convulsants  like 
picrotoxin. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Digitalis  is  a  topical  irritant  and 
contractor  of  muscle,  especially  of  the  unstriped  variety. 
Medicinal  doses  are  vascular  and  cardiac  stimulants  and 
tonics,  and  are  prescribed  to  increase  the  force  and  co- 
ordinating power  of  the  heart,  and  relieve  congestion  of 
veins  and  capillaries.  They  are  diuretic.  In  healthy 
animals  small  doses  of  digitalin  lower  rectal  temperature 
from  -^yths  to  ^ths  of  a  degree.  Large  doses  are  muscle 
poisons  :  they  contract  spasmodically  and  even  tetanically 
the  heart  and  other  muscles,  and  kill  usually  by  cardiac 
paralysis. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Digitalis,  in  contact  with  living 
tissues,  is  an  irritant.  Injected  under  the  skin  or  into  the 
trachea  it  irritates  and  inflames.  Placed  in  the  mouth, 
besides  a  sensation  of  bitterness,  it  causes  salivation  and 
redness.  Introduced  into  the  stomach  and  bowels,  it  in- 
duces irritation  and  nausea ;  in  carnivora,  vomiting,  colic, 
and  diarrhoea.  It  is  absorbed  slowly,  often  taking  several 
hours  to  produce  its  effects,  and  contracts  muscular  fibre, 
notably  of  the  heart  and  arterioles.  It  also  stimulates  the 
medulla  and  so  increases  the  inhibitory  action  of  the  vagus. 
Properly  regulated  doses  thus  strengthen  and  prolong  the 
cardiac  diastole,  both  auricles  and  ventricles  are  more  fully 
dilated,  systole  is  more  vigorous,  and  consequently  the  heart 
is  more  perfectly  emptied.  The  muscular  fibres  of  the 
arterioles  have  their  tonicity  increased.  Blood-pressure 
accordingly  is  raised.  Such  doses,  while  increasing  the 
volume  of  the  pulse,  diminish  the  pulse-rate  of  healthy 
horses  three  to  five  beats,  and  of  dogs  ten  to  fifteen  beats 
per  minute,  and  these  effects  last  from  six  to  twelve  hours. 
The  action  on  the  heart  is  more  notable  on  the  dog  and 
sheep  than  on  the  horse  and  ass. 

The  action  on  the  circulation  may  be  divided  into  the 
following  stages  : — 

1.  Medicinal  doses  cause  a  fuller  stream  of  blood  to  be 
thrown  into  the  circulation,  blood-pressure  rises,  the  pulse  is 
slowed,  but  increased  in  volume.  These  effects  depend  on 


TOXIC   ACTIONS  537 

the  two  factors,  (1)  contraction  of  muscular  fibre,  and 
(2)  stimulation  of  the  inhibitory  vagus  roots  in  the  medulla, 
and  of  the  nerve-endings  in  the  heart  itself.  This  represents 
the  therapeutic  stage. 

2.  Following   these   effects,    there   is   often   a   stage   of 
excessive    inhibition    with    very   marked    slowing    of   the 
pulse,  lessened  outflow  from  the  heart,  and  a  temporary 
fall  of  blood-pressure. 

3.  Larger  doses  now  bring  about  quickening  of  the  heart 
beat  and  a  second  rise  of  pressure,  these  effects  being  pro- 
duced by  paralysis  of  the  vagus  inhibition,  and  by  a  marked 
increase   in   the   irritability   of   the   cardiac   muscle.     The 
rhythm  becomes  quicker,  but  the  auricles  and  ventricles 
contract  independently  of  each  other,  and  the  heart  action 
becomes  very  irregular. 

4.  Still  larger  doses  produce  rapid  fall  of  blood-pressure, 
extreme  irregularity  of  the  heart  (delirium  cordis),  sudden 
stoppage  of  the  heart,  and  death.     The  heart  usually  stops 
before  the  respiration. 

Neither  digitalis  nor  digitalin  has  any  very  direct  action 
on  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  the  stimulation  being  confined 
to  the  medulla,  nor  any  marked  effect  on  sensory  or  motor 
nerves.  They  temporarily  quicken,  and  more  notably 
and  permanently  slow,  respiration.  By  increasing  general 
blood-pressure,  a  somewhat  fuller  stream  of  blood  passes 
through  the  kidneys,  and  thus  diuresis  is  tardily  produced. 
This  is  especially  well  marked  in  cases  of  valvular  disease 
of  the  heart.  The  venous  congestion  and  stagnation  of 
blood  in  the  kidney  is  relieved  and  fresh  arterial  blood  is 
pumped  through  it.  No  direct  irritation  of  the  kidneys 
occurs  ;  but  large  doses,  constricting  arterioles,  while  at 
the  same  time  lessening  the  heart's  force,  diminish  renal 
excretion,  and  the  drug  consequently  being  longer  retained, 
its  general  effects  are  intensified,  and  its  so-called  cumulative 
action  developed.  This  can  be  avoided  if  the  effects  on  the 
circulation  are  not  allowed  to  get  beyond  the  therapeutic 
stage. 

TOXIC  ACTIONS. — The  toxic  doses  of  the  powdered  leaves 
are  thus  stated  by  Kaufmann  : — For  horses,  400  to  480 
grains ;  for  dogs,  80  to  130  grains ;  for  cats,  30  grains. 


538  DIGITALIS 

The  toxic  dose  of  amorphous  digitalin  for  horses  is  2  J  grains  ; 
for  dogs,  J  grain  ;  and  for  cats,  J  grain. 

A  horse  was  poisoned  in  twelve  hours  by  two  ounces  of 
dried  powdered  leaves  (Moiroud).  One  ounce,  and  in  some 
cases  six  drachms,  given  to  horses  in  bolus,  caused,  in  three 
to  ten  hours,  loss  of  appetite,  frequent  urination,  fluid  faeces, 
sometimes  tinged  with  blood,  a  pulse  at  first  full  and 
increased,  but  afterwards  small,  slow,  and  irregular,  con- 
traction of  the  pupil,  difficulty  of  breathing,  languor,  and, 
after  twelve  or  sixteen  hours,  death  (Hertwig).  Bouley 
and  Reynal,  administering  large  doses  to  horses,  observed 
quickened  circulation,  diuresis,  abrupt  and  energetic  heart- 
beats with  a  vibratory  thrill,  and  subsequently  a  bellows 
murmur,  with  intermittence,  the  pulse,  as  death  approached 
numbering  120  to  140.  Smaller  doses,  after  slight  accelera- 
tion, lowered  pulsations  20  or  25  beats  per  minute,  and 
rendered  the  several  cardiac  sounds  particularly  distinct. 

The  following  cases,  in  which  Dun  gave  full  medicinal 
doses  of  digitalis  to  healthy  horses,  illustrate  its  effects  on 
the  heart,  its  nauseating  action,  and  its  irritation  of  the 
digestive  organs. 

In  February,  powdered  digitalis  was  given  to  three  horses  in  good  health, 
and  receiving  daily  12  Ibs.  hay,  5  Ibs.  oats,  and  5|  Ibs.  bran.  On  the  20th 
they  each  received  a  drachm  of  the  powder  at  12  noon,  and  another  drachm 
at  6  P.M.  ;  on  the  21st  and  22nd  one  drachm  at  6  A.M.,  at  12  noon,  and 
6  P.M.  ;  and  on  the  23rd  a  drachm  at  6  A.M. — in  all,  nine  doses  of  a  drachm 
each  in  three  days. 

No.  1.  Brown  Mare,  3  years  old  : — 

Feb.  20,  12  noon,  pulse  38,  respirations  8 
»     21,        »  „     34,  „  6 

3'         22,  •>•)  55         28,  ,,  / 

•»    23,         „  „     28,  „  7 

On  the  evening  of  the  22nd  she  became  dull  and  refused  her  food.  23rd, 
10  A.M.,  still  dull,  without  appetite,  pupil  contracted,  passing  flatus,  with 
small  quantities  of  fluid  faeces  ;  4.30  P.M.,  pulse  32,  more  distinct  than  at 
noon,  pupil  considerably  contracted,  rather  less  dulness.  On  the  25th,  two 
days  after  the  medicine  was  withdrawn,  the  mare  was  eating  and  perfectly 
well  again. 

No.  2.  Bay  Gelding,  3  years  old  :— 

Feb.  20,  12  noon,  pulse  36,  respirations  7 
11     21,         ,,  „     36,  ,,  8 

„     22,         „  „     30,  „  6 

,,     23,         ,,  ,,     32,  ,,  6 

23rd,  12  noon. — Pulse,  both  yesterday  and  to-day,  slightly  irregular  ;  no 
appetite,  very  dull  and  stupid,  with  the  pupil  somewhat  contracted. 


DIGITALIS    POISONING  539 

4.30  P.M.,  pulse  34,  tolerably  firm,  but  unequal ;  eating  a  little,  and  scarcely 
so  dull.     No  more  digitalis  being  given,  the  animal  recovered  its  appetite, 
and  by  the  26th  was  well  again. 
No.  3.  Brown  Mare,  3  years  old  : — 

Feb.  20,  12  noon,  pulse    38,  respirations    8 
„    21,        „  „       33,  „  7 

„     22,         „  „       34,  „  7i 

„     23,         „  „     120,  „          20 

,,     24,         „  „     120,  „  25 

Towards  the  evening  of  the  22nd  the  mare  became  dull  and  would  not 
feed.  23rd,  10  A.M.,  very  much  nauseated ;  nose,  mouth,  and  ears  cold  ; 
abdomen  tympanitic,  with  colicky  pains,  and  occasional  pawing;  pupil 
some  what,  contracted  ;  pulse  firm  at  axilla  and  heart,  but  not  very  per- 
ceptible at  jaw.  Had  four  drachms  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  and  clysters 
occasionally,  the  stimulant  being  repeated  at  two  o'clock  and  four.  At 
4.30  P.M.  she  was  down,  much  pained,  attempting  to  roll  ;  pulse  82,  but 
unequal.  24th,  12  noon,  pulse,  imperceptible  at  jaw,  about  120  ;  respira- 
tions 25,  and  very  much  laboured  ;  lips  retracted  and  saliva  dripping  from 
the  mouth ;  enormous  abdominal  tympanites  and  much  pain ;  rapid 
sinking  ;  died  on  25th  at  11  A.M. 

Post-mortem  examination  made  next  morning  at  9.30.  Voluntary 
muscles  unusually  pale  ;  spots  of  ecchymosis  in  the  areolar  textures, 
between  the  muscular  fibres  and  in  places  underneath  the  skin.  Lungs 
and  pleurae  healthy  ;  anterior  extremity  of  lungs  contained  more  blood  than 
posterior  ;  venae  cavae  contained  the  usual  amount  of  dark  non-coagulated 
blood ;  bronchial  tubes  inflamed  for  about  six  inches  along  their  anterior 
ends  ;  windpipe  inflamed  halfway  up  the  neck,  and  containing  flakes  of 
greenish  pus  mixed  with  mucus  ;  no  froth  here  or  in  bronchi.  Heart  pale, 
friable,  containing  a  small  clot  of  blood  in  its  left  ventricle.  A  rent  of 
eight  inches  long  was  found  in  the  inferior  curvature  of  the  stomach, 
through  which  food  had  passed  into  the  omentum  ;  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomach  was  quite  healthy  ;  the  organ  itself  very  large,  but  collapsed, 
in  consequence  of  the  rupture  ;  the  intestines  were  pale  and  flaccid,  and 
contained  enormous  quantities  of  food  and  gas,  but  their  mucous  membrane 
was  quite  healthy.  The  kidneys  and  generative  organs,  with  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord,  were  perfectly  healthy. 

According  to  Salvisberg,  ruminants  can  support  large  doses 
by  the  mouth  of  digitalis  leaves  without  showing  any 
reaction.  If,  however,  the  drug  be  administered  intra- 
venously the  typical  actions  of  digitalis  are  produced.  In 
treating  pericarditis,  Dottl  found  that  doses  of  150  grains 
of  powdered  digitalis  given  by  the  mouth  induced  uterine 
pains  in  pregnant  animals  and  premature  labour. 

Dogs  receiving  one  or  two  drachms  were  nauseated,  and, 
when  vomiting  was  prevented,  moaned,  and  exhibited 
abdominal  pain,  green-coloured  fluid  dejections  were  passed, 
the  pulse  was  feeble  and  indistinct,  breathing  irregular  and 
distressed,  spasmodic  efforts  were  made  to  empty  the 
bladder,  muscular  debility  preceded  death  (Tabourin). 


540  DIGITALIS 

Pigs  poisoned  by  decoction  of  the  leaves  are  reported  to  be 
languid,  attempt  to  vomit,  strain,  and  pass  small  quantities 
of  faeces  ;  whilst  after  death  the  mucous  coat  of  the  stomach 
and  small  intestine  is  inflamed,  the  kidneys  slightly  con- 
gested, the  bladder  empty. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Digitalis  exerts  its  curative  effects  in 
one  or  more  of  the  following  ways — first,  by  strengthening 
the  action  of  the  heart ;  second,  by  lessening  the  frequency 
of  the  heart-beats  ;  third,  by  correcting  irregular  action  of 
the  heart. 

When  the  heart  is  enfeebled  or  acting  irregularly,  as  in 
horses  suffering  from  influenza  or  other  exhausting  disease, 
in  cattle  convalescing  from  pleuro-pneumonia  or  peri- 
carditis, in  dogs  debilitated  by  distemper,  digitalis  improves 
cardiac  co-ordination  and  expulsive  power,  and  gives 
tone  to  relaxed  capillaries,  rendering  the  quick,  weak 
irregular  pulse-beat  slower,  stronger,  and  steadier.  Diffi- 
culty of  breathing  and  dropsical  effusion  resulting  from 
imperfect  action  of  the  heart,  especially  if  due  to  valvular 
disease,  are  usually  relieved,  and  general  as  well  as  cardiac 
nutrition  is  improved.  In  such  cases  digitalis  is  usefully 
conjoined  with  potassium  chlorate  or  nitrate,  or  with  alcohol, 
or  ether.  Palpitation  in  horses  resulting  from  over-exertion, 
or  from  fast  work  performed  shortly  after  a  full  meal,  oc- 
casionally persists  for  several  days  ;  the  violent,  irritable 
impulse  of  the  heart,  accompanied  by  lifting  of  the  flanks, 
comes  in  paroxysms  ;  repeated  doses  usually  control  such 
inordinate,  tumultuous,  functional  disturbance.  In  the 
more  violent  of  these  cases  digitalis  may  be  conjoined  with 
small  doses  of  aconite,  and  in  other  cases  with  belladonna. 
In  dilatation  of  the  heart,  with  mitral  insufficiency,  carefully 
regulated  doses  of  digitalis  abate  the  dyspnoea,  cold  ex- 
tremities, venous  pulse,  and  oedema.  In  dilatation  or 
hypertrophy  of  the  left  ventricle — common  in  hard-worked, 
aged  horses — even  when  accompanied  by  slight  valvular 
disease,  the  full,  intermittent  pulse  is  usually  moderated, 
and  the  breathing  relieved  by  digitalis. 

In  pericarditis,  after  the  more  acute  symptoms  have  been 
subdued  by  salines,  digitalis  frequently  lessens  the  embar- 
rassed breathing  and  reduces  the  excessive  pulse  rate.  In 


DOSES   AND    PREPARATIONS  541 

endocarditis,  occurring  occasionally  in  cattle,  it  renders  the 
heart-beat  more  regular,  and  gives  fulness  to  the  small 
thready  pulse.  Digitalis,  though  often  given,  should  not 
be  advised  in  cases  of  internal  haemorrhage,  for  the  increased 
flow  of  blood  from  the  heart  and  the  rise  of  blood-pressure 
tend  to  increase  the  bleeding. 

In  equine  pneumonia,  especially  in  the  second  stages, 
digitalis  frequently  relieves  engorgement,  probably  by  pro- 
pelling blood  in  fuller  stream  into  the  abdominal  and  other 
vessels.  Promoting  circulation,  it  moreover  aids  oxygena- 
tion  of  blood,  and  hence  is  also  useful  in  congestion  and  pur- 
pura.  It  is  a  frequent  constituent  of  cough  mixtures. 

Digitalis  relieves  many  cases  of  dropsy  by  regulating 
faulty  heart-action,  stimulating  dilated  arterioles,  as  well 
as  by  inducing  diuresis.  In  pleuritic  effusion,  Robertson 
gave  horses  digitalis,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  potassium 
nitrate,  3^J-  5  powdered  cantharides,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  x., 
made  into  bolus,  and  repeated  twice  daily  for  a  week. 
Diuresis  is  determined  by  prescribing  digitalis  with  salines 
— a  combination  often  useful  in  cardiac  dropsy. 

The  chief  indications  for  the  use  of  digitalis  are  an 
enfeebled,  irritable,  jerking,  or  irregular  heart,  deficient 
arterial  pressure,  venous  engorgement,  and  scanty  secretion 
of  urine.  Under  its  influence  the  pulse  gains  force  and 
amplitude,  respiration  becomes  less  difficult,  and  urination 
is  increased.  It  is  more  suitable  for  chronic  than  acute 
cases.  As  with  other  tonics,  it  is  best  tolerated  in  those 
weak  and  irritable  states  of  the  heart  in  which  it  is  most 
serviceable.  It  is  of  little  use  in  difficulty  of  breathing 
or  dropsical  conditions  chiefly  dependent  on  lung  disease. 
It  does  harm  in  aortic  disease  or  in  hypertrophy,  where  the 
pulse  continues  strong,  firm,  and  regular ;  or  in  enfeebled 
circulation  dependent  on  advanced  fatty  degeneration. 
Nausea  or  irritability  of  the  digestive  organs,  coldness  of 
the  extremities,  unwonted  force  of  the  pulse-beats,  indicate 
that  the  medicine  should  be  stopped,  or  given  in  reduced 
amount.  The  effects  of  overdoses  are  combated  by  alcohol 
or  other  stimulants,  injections  of  ether  or  strychnine ; 
emetics  and  purgatives  ;  and  by  keeping  the  patient  per- 
fectly quiet. 


542  STROPHANTHUS 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  powdered  leaves,  horses  take  grs.  x. 
to  grs.  xxx.  ;  cattle,  3SS-  ^°  3J-  >  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  x.  ;  dogs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  iv.,  in  bolus  or  pill.  These  doses 
may  be  administered  daily  for  a  week,  and  are  advantage- 
ously conjoined  with  potassium  iodide,  caffeine,  or  arsenic. 
Digitalis  and  digitalin  are  cumulative,  and  care  should  be 
exercised  in  their  administration.  It  is  preferable  to  begin 
with  full  doses  and  gradually  diminish  the  quantity.  The 
infusion  is  made  by  digesting  for  fifteen  minutes  60  grains 
of  dried  leaves  with  20  ounces  of  distilled  water.  The 
tincture  is  made  by  maceration  and  subsequent  percola- 
tion of  2J  ounces  dried  leaves  with  one  pint  alcohol  (60  per 
cent.),  B.P.  It  contains  54J  grains  to  the  fluid  ounce,  is 
about  sixteen  times  the  strength  of  the  infusion,  and  when 
standardised  is  the  most  suitable  preparation  for  cardiac 
cases.  Horses  and  cattle  take  f3ii  to  f3iv-  5  sheep,  f 3ss. 
to  f3j.  ;  dogs,  TT\ij.  to  H\xxx. 

In  commerce  four  varieties  of  digitalin  are  met  with — 
(1)  Homolle's,  or  French  ;  (2)  the  German  ;  (3)  Nativelle's  ; 
and  (4)  digitalin  (Kiliani).  One-twelfth  grain  digitalin  is 
equal  to  15 J  grains  of  the  powdered  leaf,  and  the  dose  for 
the  horse  is  gr.  T^  to  gr.  J  ;  for  the  dog,  gr.  -^  to  gr.  3^. 
The  several  preparations  are  administered  by  the  mouth. 
Even  when  diluted  they  are  apt  to  irritate  if  given 
hypodermically  or  intratracheally.  They  are  not  always 
of  uniform  strength.  For  hypodermic  or  intratracheal 
injection  the  physiologically  standardised  Digitalone  should 
be  used. 


STROPHANTHUS 

The  dried  ripe  seeds  of  Strophanthus  kombe,  freed  from  the 
awns  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Apocynaceae. 

The  ripened  follicles  contain  upwards  of  a  hundred  oval 
acuminate  seeds,  about  three-fifths  of  an  inch  long  and 
one-sixth  of  an  inch  broad,  covered  with  silky  hairs  ;  odour 
characteristic,  taste  very  bitter.  They  contain  8  to  10  per 
cent,  of  an  active,  bitter,  crystalline  glucoside,  strophan- 
thin,  which  is  soluble  in  water  and  rectified  spirit,  insoluble 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  543 

in  chloroform  or  ether.  Similar  seeds  are  got  from  the 
S.  hispidus.  A  paste  prepared  from  strophanthus  seeds  is 
used  in  Africa  as  an  arrow  poison. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  seeds  and  their  active  principle 
are  muscle  poisons.  They  augment  the  contractile  power, 
especially  of  striated  muscles.  They  resemble  digitalis 
and  the  bodies  of  that  group.  They  are  prescribed  as 
cardiac  tonics  and  diuretics. 

Fraser  has  carefully  investigated  the  actions  of  stroph- 
anthus and  digitalis.  The  former,  he  reports,  is  more 
soluble,  and  hence  more  rapid  in  its  actions  ;  but  it  is  also 
more  quickly  eliminated,  and  its  effects  are  hence  less 
durable,  and  the  cumulative  results  credited  to  digitalis  are 
not  observed.  Its  efficacy  does  not,  however,  seem  to  be 
impaired  by  repetition.  Full  doses  produce  less  gastro- 
intestinal disorder  and  less  marked  vascular  contraction. 
Strophanthus  acts  more  notably  on  striated  muscle,  digitalis 
on  unstriated  ;  strophanthus  has  less  diuretic  action,  and 
may  with  safety  be  given  more  frequently  and  in  larger 
doses  than  digitalis.  Both  increase  the  length  and  power 
of  the  heart  systole,  and  hence  strengthen  and  co-ordinate 
enfeebled  or  irregular  action.  Frohner  has  experimented 
on  various  animals,  and  concludes  that  the  lethal  dose  of 
strophanthus  tincture  is  about  half  a  gramme  (7J  minims) 
per  kilogramme  of  body- weight.  Horses  tolerate  100 
grammes,  dogs  10  to  20  minims  of  the  tincture.  Full 
doses,  he  states,  are  irritant,  narcotic,  producing  hsemorr- 
hagic  gastro-enteritis,  colic,  diarrhoea,  cramp,  with  some 
stupor.  The  cardiac  action  manifests  two  stages — 

(1)  diminution  of    pulse-rate,  with  rise  of  temperature  ; 

(2)  increase  of  pulse-rate,  with  diminution  of  temperature. 
MEDICINAL  USES.— Strophanthus  is  prescribed   to   slow, 

strengthen,  and  steady  feeble  or  faulty  heart  action.  Com- 
bining cardiac  tonic  and  diuretic  effects,  it  is  commended  by 
Frohner  in  valvular  disease,  hydrothorax,  hydropericarditis, 
ascites,  and  chronic  nephritis. 

DOSES. — Of  the  tincture,  made  with  one  part  of  seed  to 
forty  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.),  horses  and  cattle  take  f^iv. 
to  f  3vi.,  and  dogs  fl|ii.  to  H\xxv. 


544  SQUILL— BROOM 

SQUILL 

SCILLA.  The  bulb  of  Urginea  scilla,  divested  of  its  dry, 
membranous,  outer  scales,  cut  into  slices,  and  dried 
(B.P.).  Nat.  Ord.—  Liliacese. 

The  large  bulbs  of  this  Mediterranean  plant,  when  sliced 
and  dried,  have  a  faint  odour  and  disagreeable,  mucilaginous, 
bitter,  acrid  taste.  The  slices  are  easily  reduced  to  powder. 
The  active  principle  is  a  glucoside — scillain  or  scillitoxin— 
which  is  soluble  in  water,  acetic  acid,  and  alcohol. 

ACTIONS,  USES,  AND  DOSES.— Squill  and  its  active  prin- 
ciple, in  full  doses,  are  irritants,  causing  vomiting  and 
purging  ;  absorbed  into  the  blood,  they  lower  the  pulse- 
rate  and  raise  blood-pressure  ;  they  are  expectorant  and 
diuretic.  They  resemble  digitalis,  acting  as  heart  tonics, 
and  producing  diuresis.  Large  doses,  or  small  doses  too 
long  continued,  induce  urinary  irritation  and  hsematuria. 
Squill  is  prescribed  chiefly  in  those  catarrhal  and  bronchial 
cases  in  which  secretion  is  defective.  Robertson  gave 
horses  the  syrup  in  f  3iv.  doses  ;  dogs  take  TT[x.  to  IT^xv., 
conjoined,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  case  require,  with 
ammonium  acetate  solution,  or  camphor  electuary.  The 
vinegar  and  tincture  are  used  in  about  half  the  dose  of  the 
syrup.  Powdered  squill  is  sometimes  added  to  electuaries. 
Horses  may  be  given  3ij-  to  ^iv.  ;  cattle,  ^ui.  to  3^-  5 
dogs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  viii. ;  cats,  gr.  J  to  gr.  i.,  in  bolus,  pill, 
or  drench. 

BROOM 

SCOPARII  CACUMINA.  The  fresh  and  dried  tops  of  Cytisus 
scoparius  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — Leguminosse. 

The  tops  and  other  parts  of  the  shrub  contain  a  natural 
glucoside,  scoparin  (C21H22010),  which  has  diuretic  pro- 
perties and  a  volatile,  oily,  poisonous  alkaloid,  sparteine 
(C15H26N2),  which  much  resembles  conine  in  some  of  its 
actions.  It  slows  the  rhythm  and  lessens  the  force  of  the 
heart,  but  by  contracting  arterioles,  it  causes  a  slight  rise 
of  blood-pressure,  and  acts  as  a  diuretic.  The  sulphate  of 


BUCHU  545 

sparteine  is  occasionally  prescribed  in  dropsy  associated 
with  heart  disease,  in  doses  of  grs.  viii.  to  grs.  xlv.  for 
horses,  and  gr.  f  to  grs.  1J  for  dogs.  It  is  given  in  solution, 
in  pill,  or  electuary.  For  hypodermic  injection  a  solution 
of  the  sulphate  (one  part  in  fifty  of  distilled  water)  may  be 
used  in  appropriate  doses. 


BUCHJJ 

BUCHU   FOLIA.     The    dried   leaves    of    Barosma    betulina 
(B.P.).     Nat.  Ord.— Rutaceae. 

Buchu  is  a  shrub  two  to  four  feet  high,  and  a  native 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  leaves  are  smooth,  dull 
yellow-green,  with  a  strong,  penetrating  odour,  a  bitter 
aromatic  taste,  and  varying  in  different  species  from  half 
an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  Oil  glands 
are  distinctly  visible  in  the  leaves,  especially  near  the 
margin.  They  contain  a  volatile  oil,  a  bitter  substance, 
and  mucilage. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Buchu  is  a  mild,  stimulating  bitter, 
expectorant,  and  diuretic,  and  a  disinfectant  of  the  urino- 
genital  mucous  membrane.  The  oil  or  active  principle  is 
excreted  by  the  kidneys  and  bronchial  mucous  membrane. 
Robertson  gave  it  to  allay  irritability  in  cystitis,  using  it 
either  alone  or  with  borax  or  benzoic  acid.  The  tincture 
of  buchu — made  with  one  of  buchu  to  five  of  alcohol  (60 
per  cent.)  is  seldom  prescribed. 

The  dose  of  the  infusion  for  horses  or  cattle  is  §i.  to  §iv.  ; 
for  dogs,  3J-  to  39-  The  infusion  is  made  with  one  part 
leaves  and  twenty  parts  of  boiling  water.  Animals  readily 
take  this  infusion  when  it  is  mixed  with  linseed  tea  or 
barley  water.  It  is  sometimes  advantageously  conjoined 
with  belladonna,  opium,  hyoscyamus,  potassium  bromide, 
or  saline  diuretics. 

Bearberry  leaves — the  leaves  of  Arctostaphylos  Uva-ursi 
—contain  the  bitter  neutral  extractive  arbutin,  which 
within  the  body  is  in  part  converted  into  hydroquinone, 
and  is  employed  as  a  diuretic  astringent,  and  antiseptic,  in 
chronic  vesical  irritation. 

2M 


546  ACONITE 

Pareira — the  root  of  chondrodendron  tomentosum,  con- 
taining the  active  principle  buxine,  although  not  very 
reliable,  is  also  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  buchu  and 
uva-ursi. 

ACONITE 

ACONITE. — Monkshood.  Wolfsbane.  Blue  Rocket.  Aconi- 
tum.  The  root  of  Aconitum  napellus.  Collected  in 
the  autumn  from  plants  cultivated  in  Britain,  and 
dried.  Nat.  Ord. — Ranunculaceae. 

ACONITINE. — An  alkaloid  obtained  from  Aconite  root,  and 
having  the  formula  C33H45N012.  (B.P.) 

Botanists  have  numbered  twenty- two  species,  and  up- 
wards of  a  hundred  varieties  of  aconite,  which  are  common 
throughout  the  cooler  mountainous  countries  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. Some  species  are  eaten  as  vegetables,  some  are 
bitter  tonics  ;  but  others,  as  the  Aconitum  ferox,  sinense, 
and  napellus,  are  sedative  poisons.  The  last  of  these,  the 
common  officinal  species,  is  a  doubtful  native  of  Britain, 
but  often  grown  for  its  flowers  in  gardens  and  shrubberies. 
Its  several  varieties  are  herbaceous,  with  perennial,  tapering, 
carrot-shaped,  brown  roots,  with  lateral  rootlets,  from  which, 
after  the  first  year's  growth,  are  formed  one  or  more  oval 
tubers,  at  first  nourished  by  the  decaying  parent  root ; 
several  annual,  erect,  glabrous  stems  two  to  five  feet  high ; 
numerous  alternate  dark-green  leaves  ;  long-stalked,  helmet- 
shaped  blue  or  purple  flowers,  which  form  loose  terminal 
racemes,  and  appear  in  June  or  July  ;  and  dry,  black, 
angular  seeds,  which  ripen  about  the  end  of  August. 

Aconite  root,  from  which  the  tincture,  liniment,  and  alka- 
loid are  prepared,  varies  from  two  to  four  inches  long,  and 
from  half  an  inch  to  nearly  an  inch  thick  at  the  crown, 
which  is  knotty  ;  is  brown  externally,  but  pinky  white 
within ;  conical,  rapidly  tapering,  prominently  marked 
with  the  bases  of  the  rootlets,  and  of  an  earthy  odour — 
characters  which  distinguish  it  from  the  larger,  longer, 
more  uniformly  cylindrical,  white,  pungent,  bitter  root  of 
horse-radish,  for  which  aconite  root  has  sometimes  been 
fatally  mistaken.  According  to  Schroff,  Vienna,  the  root 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  547 

is  six  times  as  active  as  the  other  parts,  and  should  be 
taken  up  after  the  plant  has  flowered  in  autumn,  when 
it  is  in  perfection,  or  before  the  new  stem  rises  in  spring, 
cut  into  small  pieces,  and  dried  at  a  low  temperature.  The 
leaves  are  less  active  than  the  root,  but  more  so  than  the 
flowers,  fruit,  or  stem.  Any  part  of  an  active  aconite, 
when  slowly  chewed,  produces  a  peculiar  sensation  of 
tingling,  and  numbness  of  the  lips  and  tongue. 

The  chief  active  principle— aconitine  (C33H45N012)— is 
obtained  by  a  tedious  process  from  the  powdered  root.  It 
occurs  in  colourless,  hexagonal  rhombic  prisms,  nearly 
insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  chloro- 
form, and  ether.  Its  salts  are  crystalline.  Aqueous 
solutions  of  aconitine  when  heated  are  hydrolised  with  the 
formation  of  acetic  acid  and  benzaconine.  This  latter 
substance  may  be  further  split  into  benzoic  acid  and  aconine. 
Both  the  plant  and  the  ordinary  pharmaceutical  prepara- 
tions of  aconite  may  contain  these  decomposition  products, 
and  even  samples  of  '  aconitine  '  as  sold  may  vary  consider- 
ably in  pharmacological  action  because  of  a  varying  content 
of  benzaconine  and  aconine-.  Benzaconine  is  very  much 
less  toxic  than  aconitine  ;  it  slows  the  heart,  but  has  no 
paralysing  action  on  sensory  nerve-endings.  Aconine  is 
still  less  active  and  is  practically  non-toxic.  In  the  plants 
the  alkaloids  are  united  with  aconitic  acid  (C6H606). 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — A  local  anodyne,  acting  specially 
on  the  peripheral  endings  of  sensory  nerves,  on  the  heart, 
and  on  respiration  ;  aconite  kills  by  respiratory  arrest. 
Its  physiological  actions  as  a  cardiac  and  respiratory 
depressant,  together  with  a  certain  central  action,  render  it 
a  febrifuge  ;  it  is  also  diaphoretic.  It  is  prescribed  in 
acute  febrile  conditions  and  in  the  earlier  stages  of  acute 
local  inflammation.  It  is  used  topically  to  relieve  pain. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Locally  applied,  in  virtue  of  its  action 
on  sensory  nerve-endings,  aconite  produces  first  irritation, 
tingling  and  twitching,  and  subsequently  numbness  and 
anaesthesia.  It  is  not  absorbed  through  unbroken  skin, 
unless  made  up  with  some  substance,  like  alcohol  or  oil, 
which  is  volatile  and  penetrating.  Aconite  tincture  is 
rapidly  absorbed  and  quickly  passes  into  the  tissues,  as  is 


548  ACONITE 

shown  by  the  blood  of  a  poisoned  dog,  five  minutes  after  the 
drug  has  been  administered,  being  transferable  into  the 
veins  of  another  dog  without  producing  the  physiological 
action  of  the  poison. 

Full  medicinal  doses  administered  by  the  mouth  induce 
salivation,  champing  of  the  jaws,  movements  of  swallowing, 
and  nausea,  and  cause  in  dogs  and  cats  vomiting,  and  in 
horses,  ruminants,  and  rabbits  retching  and  eructation  of 
frothy  mucus.  The  topical  irritant  action  is  exerted  not 
only  on  the  stomach,  but  sometimes  on  the  bowels,  which 
are  affected  by  spasms  and  diarrhoea,  while  the  secretions  of 
the  skin  and  kidneys  are  also  increased.  Within  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes  the  strength  and  frequency  of  the  heart- 
beats are  reduced,  and  blood-pressure  is  lowered.  These 
effects  on  the  circulation  appear  to  depend  upon  the  in- 
hibitory action  of  the  vagus  due  to  stimulation  of  the  vagus 
centre  in  the  medulla.  This  can  be  proved  experimentally 
by  cutting  the  vagi  when  the  heart  resumes  its  normal  rate 
and  strength.  The  vaso-motor  centre  is  also  probably 
stimulated  at  the  same  time,  but  the  cardiac  depression  is 
such  that  the  blood-pressure  falls.  From  the  impaired 
circulation  temperature  is  lowered,  and  general  muscular 
weakness  ensues.  There  is  some  evidence  to  show  that 
aconitine  acts  to  some  extent  on  the  heat-regulating  centres 
in  the  brain.  Kaufmann  records  that  subcutaneous  injec- 
tion of  aconitine,  in  moderate  doses  in  dogs,  lowered 
the  temperature  from  38*  5°  Cent,  to  36*7°  Cent.  ;  while 
intravenous  injection  in  horses  reduced  the  temperature  from 
37-4°  Cent,  to  37' 1°  Cent.  Partly  from  the  reduced  circula- 
tory force,  and  partly  from  the  drug  directly  depressing  the 
respiratory  centre,  breathing  is  slow  and  deepened,  and 
exhibits  a  distinct  expiratory  effort.  When  large  or  re- 
peated doses  have  been  given,  aconite  exerts  a  direct  action 
on  the  heart  muscle,  lessening  its  power  of  conducting 
impulses  from  auricle  to  ventricle.  Thus  the  contractions 
of  the  auricles  and  ventricles  are  independent  and  arhythmic, 
cardiac  action  becomes  irregular,  and  often  much  quickened, 
but  tension  remains  low  (delirium  cordis)  ;  the  breathing 
becomes  still  slower,  shallower,  and  more  laboured  ;  after 
every  two  or  three  respirations  there  is  a  distinct  pause  in 


EXPERIMENTS  549 

expiration.  Convulsions,  mainly  due  to  asphyxia,  some- 
times precede  death,  which  generally  results  from  failure 
of  respiration.  The  brain  and  special  senses  are  unaffected. 
The  pupil,  which  in  the  earlier  stages  of  poisoning  is  some- 
times dilated  and  sometimes  contracted,  during  the  later 
stages  remains  dilated.  Aconite  is  removed  from  the  body 
chiefly  in  the  urine,  augmenting  both  its  solid  and  fluid 
parts. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Aconite  exerts  tolerably  uniform  effects 
upon  all  animals,  especially  when  injected  hypodermically. 
Horses  have  been  poisoned  within  two  or  three  hours  by  120 
to  150  minims  of  Fleming's  tincture,  given  by  the  mouth. 
Cattle,  hoAvever,  sometimes  receive  large  doses  without  fatal 
effects.  Dogs  weighing  40  Ibs.  are  killed  usually  within  half 
an  hour  by  50  to  60  minims  of  Fleming's  tincture  ;  cats  by 
10  minims.  But  half  these  doses  are  liable  to  produce 
alarming  symptoms.  Full  medicinal  doses  sometimes 
leave  untoward  effects  ;  pulse,  blood-pressure,  and  breath- 
ing may  continue  reduced  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  while 
nausea  and  impaired  appetite  may  remain  for  several 
days. 

The  following  experiments  on  animals  were  made  at  the 
Edinburgh  Veterinary  College  by  Barlow  and  Dun  :— 

A  black  mare,  15|  hands  high,  previously  used  for  slow  work,  and  in 
good  health,  got,  at  12.40  P.M.,  one  fluid  drachm  of  Fleming's  tincture  of 
aconite.  At  1  she  was  nauseated,  had  eructations  of  frothy  mucus,  with 
attempts  to  vomit,  which  increased  till  1.30,  when  she  went  down.  The 
pulse,  which  was  35  before  administration  of  the  poison,  was  now  60,  and 
very  weak ;  she  continued  down  till  7  P.M.,  when  she  was  destroyed,  in 
consequence  of  being  unable  to  stand. 

An  aged  chestnut  cab  horse,  16  hands  high,  and  useless  from  quittor,  was 
tied  up  for  ten  minutes,  to  ensure  perfect  quietude.  The  pulse  was  then 
found  to  be  56,  and  the  respirations  12.  The  animal  had  a  good  appetite 
and  regular  evacuations.  At  10  o'clock  he  got  ninety  minims  of  Fleming's 
tincture  of  aconite  in  a  linseed  meal  ball,  the  head  being  still  kept  tied  up 
for  fifteen  minutes.  In  half  an  hour  he  fed  greedily  on  potatoes  and  beans, 
but  no  change  was  observable.  At  1  P.M.  he  got  fifty  minims  of  the  same 
tincture  in  four  ounces  of  water.  At  1.15  he  appeared  to  be  making 
continual  efforts  to  swallow  something  ;  his  mouth  was  closed  ;  and,  after 
such  attempts  at  swallowing,  air  and  fluid  were  regurgitated  up  the  gullet, 
causing  a  rattling  noise,  as  of  air-bubbles  mixed  with  water.  At  1.20  the 
pulse  was  50 ;  symptoms  of  actual  nausea  appeared  ;  the  muscles  on  the 
side  of  the  neck  and  throat  were  contracted,  the  muzzle  brought  near  to  the 
breast,  the  lips  retracted,  and  the  mouth  slightly  opened.  Fits  of  retching 
came  on  every  two  minutes,  and  increased  in  violence  during  the  next  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes.  1.30. — During  each  paroxysm  of  retching  the  mouth 


550  ACONITE   POISONING 

was  opened,  the  lips  retracted,  and  four  or  five  ounces  of  frothy  mucus 
discharged  on  the  ground.  The  pulse  had  fallen  to  40,  and  become 
weak.  On  account  of  the  retching,  the  respirations  could  not  be  counted. 
Sweating  broke  out  over  the  body  ;  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth, 
nose,  and  eyes  were  pallid,  and  there  were  fibrillary  twitchings  of  the 
muscles,  especially  about  the  head  and  neck.  2  P.M. — Pulse  38,  and  weak  ; 
the  respirations  not  easily  counted,  but  probably  about  9  ;  in  other  respects 
no  change.  The  animal  passed  faeces  and  urine  freely  ;  and,  shortly  after 
taking  a  pint  of  cold  water,  lay  down  somewhat  relieved,  with  the  retching 
scarcely  so  frequent.  At  2.30  the  pulse  was  somewhat  weaker  ;  the  breath- 
ing irregular,  interrupted,  and  sighing  ;  and  the  animal  unable  to  rise.  The 
labial  and  nasal  muscles  were  contracted,  causing  retraction  of  the  lips,  and 
disclosing  the  gums  blanched,  and  the  teeth  covered  with  frothy  mucus. 
Two  bottles  of  strong  ale  were  given,  with  half  an  ounce  of  spirit  of 
ammonia.  At  3  P.M.  the  pulse  was  35,  and  still  weaker  than  before  ; 
respiration  was  somewhat  accelerated,  probably  owing  to  the  animal  being 
down  ;  profuse  sweating  continued  and  the  retching,  though  somewhat 
subsided,  still  came  on  about  every  ten  minutes.  The  animal  remained 
down  without  much  change  until  about  6,  when  the  nausea  was  somewhat 
diminished,  but  the  pulse  so  weak  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible.  He  was 
raised  with  difficulty,  and  stood,  blowing  much,  for  fifteen  minutes.  At  7 
there  was  little  change  ;  the  pulse  remained  imperceptible,  the  respirations 
about  20,  and  there  was  no  appetite  for  food  or  drink.  He  was  left  with 
the  expectation  of  finding  him  dead  next  morning,  but  at  7  A.M.  he  was  up 
and  eating.  His  pulse  was  65,  his  respirations  10,  and  his  appearance  very 
haggard  and  reduced.  He  continued  in  much  the  same  state  for  a  week, 
never  regained  his  former  look  or  appetite,  for  two  days  was  unable  to  rise 
or  stand,  and  became  much  wasted.  He  was  destroyed  by  six  drachms 
of  prussic  acid  ;  but,  on  post-mortem  examination,  every  part  except  the 
lungs  seemed  healthy.  These  organs,  more  especially  the  right  lung,  were 
extensively  studded  with  patches  of  extravasated  blood  about  the  size  of 
walnuts,  which,  in  those  parts  connected  with  the  pulmonary  tissue,  were 
more  or  less  softened,  and  emitted  an  odour  characteristic  of  heated, 
decomposed  blood.  The  rusty  fluid  produced  from  the  softening  had  in 
various  places  passed  into  the  bronchi,  imparting  to  their  frothy  mucus  a 
brown  colour. 

A  cat  of  average  size  got  seven  minims  of  Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite. 
In  two  minutes  severe  retching  came  on,  with  a  copious  supply  of  saliva, 
probably  arising  from  paralysis  of  the  fauces  ;  and  in  five  minutes  painful 
vomiting  and  involuntary  muscular  contractions  of  a  most  active  kind,  with 
perverted  action  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  causing  the  animal  to  leap  up 
the  wall  and  turn  somersaults  backwards.  In  this,  as  in  most  other  cases, 
the  pupil,  at  first  somewhat  contracted,  ultimately  became  dilated.  The 
pulse  was  reduced  in  volume  and  strength,  shortly  becoming  very  weak  ; 
the  breathing  was  gasping.  The  vomiting  and  inordinate  muscular  action 
continued  until  within  two  or  three  minutes  of  death,  which  took  place 
twenty  minutes  after  the  administration  of  the  poison.  No  morbid  or 
peculiar  post-mortem  appearances  were  observable. 

A  medium-sized  Scotch  terrier  got  thirty  minims  of  Fleming's  tincture. 
In  five  minutes  painful  and  active  vomiting  came  on,  which  must  have 
effectually  emptied  the  stomach.  The  retching  and  vomiting  continued, 
however,  for  half  an  hour,  when  the  animal  was  so  exhausted  and  paralysed 
in  its  hind  extremities  as  to  be  unable  to  walk,  except  by  supporting  itself 
on  its  fore-limbs  and  dragging  the  hind-quarters.  It  gradually  recovered, 
however,  in  about  two  hours.  In  some  cases  a  drachm  of  Fleming's 
tincture  has  destroyed  dogs  with  as  much  rapidity  as  an  equal  quantity  of 
prussic  acid. 


MEDICINAL   USES  551 

After  death  the  lungs  are  collapsed,  and  contain  little 
blood  ;  the  trachea  and  bronchi  contain  excess  of  frothy 
mucus,  accumulating  owing  to  paralysis  of  the  respiratory 
muscles  and  glottis  ;  the  cavities  of  the  right  heart  are 
greatly  distended  with  blood  ;  the  left  heart  is  nearly  empty  ; 
there  are  ecchymoses  of  the  lungs,  pleura,  and  endocardium  ; 
the  digestive  organs  are  normal. 

ANTIDOTES. — If  the  patient  is  seen  immediately  after 
swallowing  the  poison,  endeavour  should  be  made  to  empty 
the  stomach  by  an  emetic  or  the  stomach-pump.  Tannin 
and  potassium  iodide  to  precipitate  the  unabsorbed  aconitine 
and  alcoholic  and  ammoniacal  stimulants  are  given.  Ether, 
digitalis,  or  atropine  should  be  used  hypodermically  to 
antagonise  the  sedative  effects  of  aconite  on  the  heart  and 
breathing.  Warmth,  and  infraction  of  the  chest-walls 
with  stimulating  liniment  also  assist  in  maintaining  cardiac 
and  respiratory  action. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Aconite  is  more  used  by  British  than 
by  German  practitioners.  Frohner  states  that  there  are 
other  safer  febrifuges.  Cagny  indicates  its  more  general 
use  in  France,  and  characterises  it  as  the  grand  vaso-motor 
sedative,  slowing  the  circulation  in  acute  fever.  Kaufmann 
designates  it  a  very  precious  febrifuge  in  the  early  stages 
of  all  internal  inflammatory  maladies,  especially  of  the  air- 
passages.  Medicinal  doses,  as  already  stated,  within  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes  reduce  the  number  and  lessen  the  force 
and  tension  of  the  pulsations,  lower  abnormal  temperature, 
and  relieve  pain.  In  virtue  of  these  actions,  carefully 
regulated  doses  are  beneficial  in  fever  and  acute  inflammation 
in  robust  patients,  as  in  the  earlier  stages  of  pleurisy, 
enteritis,  peritonitis,  mammitis,  lymphangitis,  laminitis,  and 
acute  rheumatism.  Pharyngitis  in  horses,  accompanied 
by  high  fever,  is  sometimes  controlled  by  a  moderate  dose, 
followed  at  intervals  of  an  hour  by  half -doses,  repeated 
until  five  or  six  have  been  given.  In  the  more  common 
epizootic  sore-throat  of  influenza,  aconite  is  useless,  and 
indeed  injurious  on  account  of  its  depressant  effect  on  the 
heart.  Although  serviceable  in  pharyngitis,  laryngitis, 
and  pleurisy,  it  is  too  reducing  a  remedy  to  be  used  in  most 
cases  of  bronchitis  or  pneumonia. 


552  ACONITE 

Conjoined  with  a  purgative,  aconite  is  sometimes  pre- 
scribed in  spasmodic  colic.  In  enteritis  in  horses,  within 
five  minutes  after  aconite  tincture  is  swallowed  the  pulse 
falls  from  100  to  70  beats  per  minute,  and  this  effect  is 
usually  succeeded  by  gradual  abatement  of  fever  and  pain. 
Robertson  prescribed  in  enteritis  TT[v.  Fleming's  tincture, 
and  3SS-  each  of  camphor  and  powdered  opium  in  a  pint  of 
gruel .  R .  Rutherford  finds  aconite  specially  useful  in  laminitis . 
The  patient,  he  urges,  should  be  hobbled  and  thrown, 
especially  when  all  four  feet  are  affected.  A  full  dose, 
followed  by  four  or  five  half -doses,  given  at  intervals  of 
one  to  two  hours,  abates  violent  cardiac  action,  fever,  and 
pain.  In  acute  rheumatism  it  usually  relieves  both  febrile 
symptoms  and  local  pain.  In  small,  frequently  repeated 
doses,  either  alone  or  with  hemlock,  it  usually  controls 
and  steadies  tumultuous,  excessive,  or  irregular  action  of 
the  hypertrophied  heart,  especially  in  plethoric  patients. 
Although  administered  for  other  purposes,  it  frequently 
leads  to  the  expulsion  of  intestinal  worms. 

Paralysing  sensory  nerves,  aconite  is  used  externally  as  a 
local  anodyne  in  neuralgic  and  rheumatic  affections,  and  for 
swollen  and  painful  joints.  As  with  other  anodynes,  it  is 
more  effective  in  combating  irritative  than  inflammatory 
pain.  It  frequently  relieves  the  itching  of  dermatitis  and 
eczematous  eruptions  in  horses  and  dogs.  More  rapid 
absorption  and  greater  anodyne  effect  are  secured  by  adding 
a  little  chloroform  to  the  aconite  tincture  or  liniment.  The 
external  application  of  aconite,  it  must  be  remembered, 
demands,  however,  almost  as  much  care  as  its  internal  use. 

DOSES,  etc. — The  plant  is  not  used  in  the  crude  state. 
The  extract,  unless  very  carefully  made  from  an  alcoholic 
solution,  is  apt  to  be  of  defective  or  irregular  strength. 
The  B.P.  tincture  (1  in  20),  now  made  with  two-fifths  of  the 
proportion  of  root  ordered  in  the  B.P.  of  1885,  is  convenient 
alike  for  internal  and  external  use .  For  horses ,  the  dose  varies 
from  lT[xxv.  to  3J-  ;  for  cattle,  f3ss.  to  f3iss.  ;  for  sheep 
and  pigs,  TT\x.  to  H|xx.  ;  for  dogs,  TT\ij.  to  H\x.  Fleming's 
tincture  (1  in  1J),  still  used  in  veterinary  practice,  is  twelve 
times  stronger  than  the  B.P.  tincture,  and,  on  account  of 
its  concentration,  requires  to  be  used  carefully.  The  dose 


DOSES   AND    ADMINISTRATION  553 

for  horses  is  from  fl\v.  to  H\xx.  ;  for  cattle,  from  fl|x.  to 
Tl\xxx.  ;  for  sheep,  Tl\ij.  or  H|iij.  ;  and  for  dogs,  from 
H\ss.  to  TT(j.  Either  tincture  should  be  given  in  several 
ounces  of  cold  water.  The  effects  of  full  doses  sometimes 
continue  for  twelve  or  fifteen  hours.  Small  and  repeated 
doses  are  preferable  to  larger  doses  at  longer  intervals. 
The  first  may  be  a  full  dose,  and  may  be  followed  by  five  or 
six  half-doses,  repeated,  as  the  case  appears  to  require,  at 
intervals  of  from  half  an  hour  to  two  hours.  The  antipyretic 
effects  which  should  thus  be  produced  are  usually  kept  up 
by  salines  and  other  treatment.  Used  hypodermically,  less 
than  half  the  above  quantities  suffice.  Walley  taught  that 
the  activity  of  aconite  is  increased  by  giving  it  in  combina- 
tion with  alkaline  carbonates.  The  liniment  of  aconite 
(1  in  1|),  made  with  powdered  root,  camphor,  and  rectified 
spirit,  is  occasionally  used.  It  should  not  be  applied  to  a 
wound. 

Aconitine  is  one  of  the  most  potent  of  sedative  poisons. 
Headland  records  that  ^ troth  °f  a  grain  in  solution  in  water 
suffices  to  destroy  a  mouse ;  xio^h  °f  a  gram  kills  a  small  bird 
after  a  few  minutes,  and  5l0th  almost  instantaneously  ; 
^o-th  to  T\)th  kills  cats,  the  latter  quantity  in  twenty  minutes 
or  half  an  hour.  Half  a  grain,  given  to  a  shepherd's  dog 
weighing  30  Ibs.,  began  to  operate  in  three  or  four  minutes, 
and  proved  fatal  in  sixty-five  minutes.  The  toxic  dose  for 
an  adult  man  is  ^yth  grain  ;  for  the  horse  gr.  Jth,  and  for  the 
dog,  gr.  ^th.  Mavor  and  Burness  subcutaneously  injected 
over  the  scapula  of  a  horse  ^\yth  grain,  and  noted  in  a  few 
minutes  champing  of  the  teeth,  salivation,  fits  of  retching, 
and  reduced  number  and  force  of  the  pulsations. 

F.  Smith  and  C.  Rutherford  made  four  experiments  on 
healthy  horses  with  aconitine.  One  grain  of  the  alkaloid 
was  dissolved  in  one  ounce  of  water,  and  10  minims,  con- 
taining ^th  grain,  were  injected  hypodermically  into  the 
anterior  region  of  the  chest  of  two  geldings.  Within  ten 
minutes  there  were  produced  biting  and  licking  at  the  site  of 
puncture,  persistent  shaking  of  the  head,  yawning,  pawing  ; 
increase  of  pulse  in  one  subject  to  the  number  of  ten  beats, 
in  the  other  of  two  beats  ;  no  change  of  temperature 
occurred.  The  effects  disappeared  in  one  and  a  half  hours. 


554  IPECACUANHA 

Two  horses  had  injections  of  15  minims  of  the  above 
solution  with  15  minims  of  water,  the  dose  containing  ^nd 
grain  aconitine.  The  same  effects  resulted  ;  but  pawing 
and  movements  of  the  head  were  more  marked  ;  both 
subjects  coughed  and  sneezed ;  while  one  occasionally 
belched,  ground  its  teeth,  and  showed  indications  of  pain  ; 
the  pulse,  previously  38  and  soft,  rose  to  52  beats,  and  was 
firmer ;  there  was  no  change  of  temperature,  and  no 
increased  secretion  from  skin,  bowels,  or  kidneys,  and  in 
about  two  hours  the  symptoms  passed  off. 

These  and  other  experiments  indicate  that  for  hypodermic 
use  ^jth  to  ^th  grain  of  aconitine  nitrate  is  a  sufficient  dose 
for  the  horse.  As  with  other  preparations,  administered 
either  hypodermically  or  otherwise,  the  effects  may  be 
increased  and  maintained  by  repeating  half  the  dose  three 
or  four  times,  at  intervals  of  half  an  hour  or  an  hour. 


IPECACUANHA 

IPECACUANHA.     Ipecacuanhae    radix.     The    dried    root    of 
Psychotria  ipecacuanha  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Rubiacese. 

The  Psychotria  ipecacuanha  is  a  Brazilian  shrub  two  or 
three  feet  high.  The  root,  the  only  officinal  part,  occurs  in 
twisted,  knotted  pieces,  two  to  four  inches  in  length,  of  the 
thickness  of  a  quill.  The  tough,  white,  internal  woody 
matter  is  inert ;  the  brittle  brown  bark,  marked  with 
unequal  rings,  contains  the  active  principle.  The  powder  is 
grey-brown,  has  an  acrid  bitter  taste,  a  faint,  nauseous 
odour,  and  communicates  its  properties  to  hot  water,  alcohol, 
and  diluted  acids.  Besides  other  plant  constituents,  it  con- 
tains an  odorous  volatile  oil,  the  amorphous  red-brown 
tannin  called  ipecacuanhic  or  cephaelic  acid,  and  the  alka- 
loids emetine  (C30H4202N5)  and  cephaeline.  Emetine  is  a 
colourless  powder,  slightly  bitter,  soluble  in  ether,  alcohol, 
and  chloroform,  but  not  in  caustic  potash.  It  neutralises 
acids,  forming  crystalline  salts.  A  volatile  alkaloid  has 
also  been  isolated. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES, — Ipecacuanha  and  emetine  are  topical 
irritants  and  emetics.  The  drug  is  thus  got  rid  of,  and,  as 


MEDICINAL   USES  555 

a  rule,  no  further  effects  are  seen.  When,  however,  small 
doses  are  absorbed  they  dilate  blood-vessels,  reduce  blood- 
pressure,  increase  secretion,  notably  from  the  bronchi, 
intestines,  skin,  and  liver.  They  are  used  as  expectorants 
and  diaphoretics,  and  occasionally,  in  small  doses,  as 
stomachics. 

Ipecacuanha  powder,  and  emetine,  like  tartar  emetic, 
when  applied  locally,  irritate  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
branes'. When  swallowed  by  dogs  or  other  carnivora,  they 
produce  similar  in-contact  irritation,  stimulate  the  ends 
of  the  vagus,  causing  vomiting,  and  when  absorbed  into  the 
blood  likewise  produce  emesis,  again  probably  by  direct 
action  on  the  gastric  mucous  membrane.  Full  doses  induce 
gastro-enteritis,  with  congestion,  and  oedema  of  the  respira- 
tory mucous  membrane  and  lungs.  W.  Rutherford  found 
that  60  grains  of  ipecacuanha  powerfully  stimulated  the 
liver  of  dogs  ;  3  grains  given  to  a  dog  weighing  17  Ibs. 
produced  no  purgation,  but  increased  the  mucus  secreted 
from  the  small  intestine.  Gobert  states  that  100  grammes 
are  toxic  for  the  horse.  It  is  more  active  when  given  in 
solution  than  in  bolus.  It  is  eliminated  by  the  kidneys, 
intestinal  mucous  surface,  and  the  skin  (Binz). 

MEDICINAL  USES. — As  an  emetic  for  dogs,  cats,  or  pigs, 
it  acts  more  slowly  and  gently  than  zinc  or  copper 
sulphate,  its  effect  is  more  prolonged  than  that  of  apo- 
morphine,  and  it  is  less  nauseating  than  tartar  emetic. 
As  an  anti-emetic,  drop  doses  of  the  vinum,  conjoined  with 
morphine  or  chlorodyne,  are  sometimes  serviceable  in  dogs. 
Given  in  doses  insufficient  to  cause  emesis,  or  used  in  horses 
or  other  animals  which  do  not  vomit,  it  promotes  secretion 
of  bronchial  mucus,  and  hence  is  serviceable  in  the  dry 
stages  of  catarrh  and  bronchitis.  Dollar  frequently  gave 
a  drachm  of  powdered  ipecacuanha  with  an  ounce  of 
ammonia  acetate  solution,  in  ten  ounces  of  water,  repeating 
the  dose  several  times  daily.  Following  the  practice  of 
human  medicine,  American  practitioners  prescribe  it  as  a 
remedy  for  dysentery,  in  half -drachm  doses,  for  horses  and 
cattle,  and  R-obertson  also  recommended  it  in  these  cases, 
in  conjunction  with  opium. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  powder,  as  an  emetic,  dogs  take  grs.  x. 


556  VERATBINE 

to  grs.  xxv.  ;  cats,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  xii.  ;  pigs,  grs.  xv.  to  grs. 
xlv.,  given  in  tepid  water,  either  alone  or  with  half  a  grain 
to  a  grain  of  tartar  emetic.  Some  practitioners  use  Dover's 
powder,  or  its  pharmaceutical  imitation,  made  by  triturating 
together  one  part  each  ipecacuanha  and  opium,  and  eight 
parts  potassium  sulphate.  Of  this  expectorant  and  diaphor- 
etic, horses  and  cattle  take  3*-  ^°  3UJ-  >  sheep,  grs.  xxx. 
to  3*-  5  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xv.  ;  cats,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  v., 
repeated  several  times  daily,  the  patient  supplied  with 
plenty  of  diluents,  and  kept  comfortably  clothed,  and  in 
an  atmosphere  of  about  60°  Fahr.  The  wine  is  prepared 
with  an  ounce  of  the  liquid  extract  of  ipecacuanha  and  ten 
fluid  ounces  of  sherry.  Doses  for  the  dog,  H\xv.  to  3*- 

Emetine,  when  inhaled  even  in  minute  amount,  irritates 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  air-passages,  and  induces 
symptoms  analogous  to  hay-fever.  The  toxic  doses  of 
emetine  are  gr.  iss.  to  grs.  viii.  for  the  dog,  and  gr.  J  for  the 
cat.  Two  grains  swallowed  by  a  dog  caused  violent  vomit- 
ing, increased  secretion  of  mucus  from  the  respiratory  and 
alimentary  membranes,  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines,  stupor,  and  death  in  twenty-four  hours  (Magendie). 
It  is  eliminated  by  the  mucous  membranes  and  liver,  in- 
creasing secretion  of  bile.  Large  doses  lower  temperature, 
relax  voluntary  muscles,  and  kill  by  cardiac  paralysis. 
Emetine  hydrochloride  (or  hydro-bromide)  has  been  pre- 
scribed as  a  gastric  stimulant  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and  as 
an  emetic  for  dogs.  Doses — Cattle,  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  vi.  ; 
sheep,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  ij.  ;  dogs,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  i.  Administered 
subcutaneously,  the  emetine  salt  is  dissolved  in  equal  parts 
of  water  and  alcohol. 


VBRATRINB 

VERATRINA.  An  alkaloid,  or  mixture  of  alkaloids,  obtained 
from  Cevadilla,  the  dried  ripe  seeds  of  Schoenocaulon 
officinale  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — Liliaceae. 

It  is  prepared  from  Cevadilla  by  precipitation  with 
ammonia.  It  is  pale  grey,  amorphous,  odourless,  bitter, 
and  acrid,  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  spirit,  in  ether, 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  557 

and  in  diluted  acids.  In  nitric  acid  it  dissolves,  yielding  a 
yellow  solution,  and,  warmed  with  hydrochloric  acid,  pro- 
duces a  blood-red  colour.  Commercial  specimens  are  said 
to  consist  of  veratrine  and  two  other  alkaloids,  cevadine 
and  cevadilline,  resembling  jervine,  an  alkaloid  of  green 
hellebore. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Veratrine  is  a  topical  irritant  and 
subsequent  paralysant,  especially  of  the  heart  and  other 
muscles,  and  is  sometimes  used  to  relieve  rheumatic  and 
neuralgic  pains,  and  as  a  parasiticide  and  vermin-killer. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Rubbed  into  the  skin  or  placed  upon 
a  mucous  surface,  it  causes  irritation,  with  a  peculiar, 
prickling,  warm  sensation,  and  then  numbness,  similar  to 
that  produced  by  aconite,  and  depending  upon  irritation, 
followed  by  paralysis  of  sensory  nerve-endings.  When 
inhaled  it  induces  violent  sneezing  ;  when  swallowed  in 
considerable  doses  it  causes  gastro-enteritis,  shown  by 
nausea,  vomiting,  and  purging,  followed  by  collapse.  It 
is  a  nervo-muscular  poison,  first  exciting  afterwards 
depressing,  and  paralysing  the  peripheral  terminations  of 
motor  and  sensory  nerves.  It  acts  directly  on  voluntary 
muscle  fibres  and  produces  prolonged  muscular  contraction, 
followed  by  paralysis.  Minimum  doses  increase  muscular 
power.  Its  effect  on  the  heart  muscle  is  similar  to  that 
of  aconitine.  Under  the  influence  of  large  doses  the  heart's 
action  becomes  slower  and  weaker,  then  irregular  and 
intermittent,  and  finally  arrested. 

TOXIC  EFFECTS. — Magendie  found  that  one  grain  of  vera- 
trine acetate  killed  a  dog  in  a  few  seconds  when  injected 
into  the  jugular  vein,  and  in  nine  minutes  when  injected 
into  the  peritoneum.  One  or  two  grains  swallowed  by 
dogs  caused  great  uneasiness,  nausea,  vomiting,  violent 
purging,  slowness  of  respiration,  slowness  and  irregularity 
of  circulation,  extreme  prostration  of  strength,  spasmodic 
twitching,  and  subsequently  paralysis  of  the  voluntary 
muscles,  especially  those  of  the  extremities,  and  death 
from  respiratory  arrest,  usually  amid  convulsions.  Horses 
swallowing  15  to  45  grains,  or  when  given  grs.  vj.  hypo- 
dermically,  are  salivated,  sweat  profusely,  have  trembling 
of  external  muscles,  and  violent  contractions  of  the  gastro- 


558  CINCHONA   BARKS 

intestinal  muscles,  with  efforts  to  vomit.  Similar  doses 
in  cattle  produce  emesis  (Kaufmann).  The  appropriate 
antidotes  are  stimulants,  such  as  ammonia,  alcohol,  or 
atropine,  also  warm  coffee,  potassium  carbonate  solution, 
and  perfect  quiet ;  tannin,  acetate  of  ammonia,  and  demul- 
cents. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — For  its  febrifuge  and  analgesic  actions 
it  has  been  prescribed  in  such  febrile  diseases  as  acute 
pneumonia,  pleurisy,  peritonitis,  rheumatism,  and  lamin- 
itis  ;  but  it  must  be  used  with  extreme  caution,  and  in 
most  cases  safer  and  more  effectual  remedies  may  be  used. 
In  persistent  cases  of  shoulder  rheumatism  in  horses, 
Friedberger  recommends  J  to  1  \  grains,  dissolved  in  alcohol, 
to  be  deeply  injected  into  the  affected  muscles  daily,  begin- 
ning with  the  smaller  amount,  and  gradually  increasing 
it,  intermitting  the  treatment  every  fourth  or  fifth  day, 
and  walking  the  patient  after  each  injection  until  the 
general  excitement  produced  abates.  Kaufmann  prescribes 
it  in  muscular  atony  and  in  chronic  intestinal  catarrh. 
Muller  recommends  it  hypodermically  in  locomotor 
paralysis ;  and  Berre  considers  it  is  the  best  gastric 
stimulant  for  cattle  affected  with  plenalvia,  or  indiges- 
tion. It  is  given  by  the  mouth  in  doses  of  three  to  five 
grains  ;  or  hypodermically,  in  doses  of  gr.  ^,  every  two 
hours. 

Externally,  the  ointment,  made  with  1  of  veratrine,  4  of 
oleic  acid,  and  45  of  lard,  is  used  to  relieve  rheumatic  and 
neuralgic  pains,  and  as  an  insecticide. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  per  os  take  gr.  i.  to 
grs.  v.,  but  hypodermically  not  more  than  gr.  -g-  for  a  first 
dose,  in  60  to  100  minims  of  diluted  alcohol.  Veratrine 
should  not  be  given  to  the  dog. 


CINCHONA 

RED  CINCHONA  BARK.  Cinchonae  Rubrae  Cortex.  The 
dried  bark  of  the  stem  and  branches  of  cultivated 
plants  of  Cinchona  suceirubra.  Nat.  Ord. — Cin- 
chonaceae  (Rubiaceae). 


CINCHONA   BAEKS  559 

QUININE  SULPHATE.  Quininae  Sulphas.  The  sulphate  of 
an  alkaloid  obtained  from  the  bark  of  various  species 
of  Cinchona  and  Remijia  (B.P.). 

QUININE  HYDROCHLOBIDE.  Quininae  Hydrochloridum.  The 
hydrochloride  of  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  the  bark  of 
various  species  of  Cinchona  and  Remijia  (B.P.). 

The  evergreen  trees  or  tall  shrubs  which  yield  the 
medicinal  barks  were  originally  grown  on  the  slopes  and  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Andes,  but  are  now  cultivated  in  British 
India,  Ceylon,  Java,  and  Jamaica.  The  bark,  in  1639,  was 
brought  from  Peru  to  Madrid,  distributed  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  hence  received  the  names  of  Peruvian  and  Jesuits' 
bark.  Of  thirty-six  known  species,  there  are  many 
varieties,  yielding  barks  distinguished  as  pale,  yellow,  and 
red. 

The  pale  cinchonas,  some  of  which  are  got  from  the  stem 
and  branches  of  the  Cinchona  officinalis  and  C.  condaminea, 
are  usually  in  single  and  double  rolls,  and  yield  more 
cinchonine  than  quinine. 

The  yellow  barks  obtained  from  the  C.  calisaya  and  other 
species  are  commonly  met  with  in  flat  pieces,  eight  to  fifteen 
inches  long,  two  to  three  wide,  and  two  to  four  lines  thick. 
They  consist  mostly  of  liber,  are  furrowed  and  brownish- 
yellow  externally,  fibrous  and  yellow-orange  within.  The 
transverse  fracture  shows  numerous  short  fibres  ;  the  pow- 
der is  cinnamon-brown  ;  the  odour  aromatic  ;  the  taste 
bitter  without  astringency.  Good  specimens  yield  5  to 
6  per  cent,  of  quinine. 

The  official  or  red  bark  is  the  produce  of  the  C.  succirubra  ; 
imported  in  quilled  or  more  or  less  in-curved  pieces,  two 
to  twelve  inches  long,  one-tenth  to  one-fourth  inch  thick. 
The  pieces  are  red,  rough,  wrinkled,  and  coated  with 
epiderm  externally  ;  finely  fibrous,  with  a  granular  fracture, 
and  brick-red  or  deep  red-brown  internally  ;  no  marked 
odour  ;  taste  bitter  and  somewhat  astringent.  It  yields 
5  to  6  per  cent,  of  alkaloids. 

The  euprea  barks  from  the  Remijia — a  genus  nearly 
allied  to  cinchona  and  cascarilla — are  now  largely  im- 
ported ;  are  dense,  with  a  thin,  longitudinally  striated 


560  CINCHONA— QUININE 

epidermis,  and  a  smooth  pale  red  inner  surface  ;  and 
besides  quinine  and  quinidine,  contain  a  special  alkaloid, 
cinchonamine,  but  no  cinchonidine  (Phillips). 

PROPERTIES. — The  cinchona  barks  occur  in  quills,  stripped 
from  the  smaller  branches,  and  curled  into  single  or  double 
rolls,  and  in  flat  pieces  from  the  larger  branches  or  trunk. 
They  are  dried  in  the  sun,  or  on  hurdles  over  fires.  Their 
colour  varies  from  deep  yellow  to  red-brown,  and  is  deepened 
by  moisture.  They  have  a  faint  odour,  and  a  bitter,  usually 
astringent  taste.  They  are  soluble  in  cold  and  hot  water, 
and  in  alcohol ;  their  best  solvents  are  alcohol  (70  per  cent.), 
and  diluted  acids.  The  tests  of  quality  and  value  are  the 
general  appearance,  fracture,  colour,  odour,  taste,  and  per- 
centage of  the  alkaloids,  which  are  the  active  principles. 

COMPOSITION. — Besides  ordinary  plant  constituents— 
lignin,  starch,  gum,  resin,  mineral  matters,  with  traces  of 
a  volatile  oil — cinchona  bark  contains  (1)  a  series  of  active 
alkaloids  ranging  from  3  to  5  per  cent.  ;  (2)  chinic  and 
chinovic  acids,  with  which  the  alkaloids  are  naturally 
united,  but  which  have  no  very  marked  physiological 
actions  ;  (3)  tannins,  recognised  as  cincho-tannic  acid, 
constituting  1  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  bark,  and  conferring 
astringency  ;  (4)  a  glucoside,  chinovin  ;  (5)  a  colouring 
matter,  cinchona  red. 

QUININE  (C20H24N202)  is  present  in  all  the  cinchona  and 
Remijia  barks.  It  is  in  the  form  of  sulphate  that  quinine 
is  generally  prescribed  in  this  country.  From  a  watery 
solution  of  the  sulphate  the  alkaloid  may  be  precipitated 
by  ammonia.  It  occurs  in  delicate  acicular  crystals,  inodor- 
ous and  intensely  bitter.  It  requires  for  solution  900  parts 
of  cold  water,  but  is  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
chloroform,  ammonia,  and  diluted  acids.  It  forms  colour- 
less, bitter,  crystallisable  salts,  remarkable,  like  the  alka- 
loid, for  tonic  and  febrifuge  properties.  Quinine  and  its 
salts  turn  a  ray  of  polarised  light  to  the  left.  Aqueous 
solutions,  acidulated,  even  when  extremely  diluted,  exhibit 
blue  fluorescence.  Treated  with  chlorine  or  bromine 
solution,  and  then  with  a  drop  of  liquor  ammoniae,  a  green 
coloration  is  produced. 

QUINIDINE,  is   isomeric  with  quinine,  but  crystallises  in 


ALKALOIDS   AND    SALTS  561 

larger  prisms,  is  dextro-rotatory,  and  its  salts  are  more 
soluble  and  of  nearly  the  same  activity. 

ClNCHONlNE  (C20H24N2O)  is  present  in  the  bark  of  various 
species  of  Cinchona  and  Remijia.  It  is  obtained  from  the 
mother-liquors,  after  crystallisation  of  sulphate  of  quinine. 
Like  quinine,  it  is  used  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  which  occurs 
in  hard,  colourless  prisms,  having  a  feebly  bitter  taste.  It 
is  anhydrous,  dextro-rotatory  ;  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  in 
thirty  parts  of  water  ;  its  acidulated  watery  solution  ex- 
hibits no  fluorescence.  It  is  the  least  active  of  the  cinchona 
alkaloids,  requiring  to  be  given  in  double  the  dose  of  quinine. 

CINCHONIDINE,  an  alkaloid  isomeric  with  cinchonine,  is 
obtained  from  the  mother-liquors  of  the  crystallisation  of 
sulphate  of  quinine.  Like  the  other  alkaloids,  it  is  used  as 
a  sulphate,  and  is  considerably  more  active  than  cinchonine. 

Quinine  and  cinchonine,  when  heated  with  excess  of  a 
mineral  acid,  are  converted  into  amorphous  isomeric  alka- 
loids, termed  respectively  quinicine  and  cinchonicine. 

QUININE  SULPHATE  [(C20H24N202)2,H2SO4]2,  15H20,  con- 
tains 74J  per  cent,  of  the  alkaloid.  In  filiform  silky  white 
crystals  of  an  intensely  bitter  taste.  Soluble  in  about 
800  parts  water,  entirely  soluble  in  water  acidulated  with 
a  mineral  acid,  and  in  alcohol. 

QUININE  HYDROCHLORIDE  (C20H24N202,HC1,2H20)  contains 
83  per  cent,  of  the  alkaloid.  In  crystals  resembling  those  of 
the  sulphate  but  somewhat  larger.  Soluble  in  thirty-five 
parts  cold  water,  and  in  three  parts  cold  alcohol  (90  per 
cent.),  and  very  soluble  in  boiling  water. 

ACID  QUININE  HYDROCHLORIDE,  is  a  white  crystalline 
powder,  soluble  in  less  than  its  own  weight  of  water,  yielding 
a  somewhat  acid  liquid  (B.P.). 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Cinchona  bark  is  astringent  from 
the  presence  of  tannin,  and  antiseptic,  tonic,  and  antipyretic 
owing  to  its  alkaloids.  These  alkaloids  have  in  concentrated 
form  the  several  actions  of  the  crude  drug,  but  not  its 
astringency.  They  differ  only  in  the  degree  of  their  action. 
Quinine  is  the  most  powerful  and  most  generally  used. 
Small  doses  very  briefly  stimulate,  large  doses  at  once 
depress  the  functions  of  the  organs  with  which  they  are 
brought  into  contact. 

2N 


562  QUININE 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Quinine  and  its  salts  combine  with 
albumin,  and  have  antiseptic  properties  nearly  as  marked  as 
those  of  carbolic,  benzoic,  and  salicylic  acids,  camphor, 
eucalyptol,  or  chloral-hydrate.  One  part  to  830  hinders, 
one  part  to  625  prevents,  development  of  anthrax  bacilli 
(Koch).  It  diminishes  fermentation,  especially  when 
depending  upon  such  organised  ferments  as  the  alcoholic, 
lactic,  or  butyric.  It  checks  oxidation,  and  lessens  proto- 
plasmic and  amoeboid  movements.  Similar  effects  doubtless 
occur  when  quinine  is  administered,  and  afford  explanation 
of  most  of  its  curative  effects. 

Quinine  in  the  mouth,  from  its  bitterness,  reflexly  in- 
creases the  flow  of  saliva.  Small  or  moderate  doses  thus 
increase  appetite  and  stimulate  the  stomach ;  but  large 
doses  impair  appetite,  and  may  induce  nausea  and  vomiting. 
Its  effects  on  intestinal  secretion  and  movement  are  un- 
known ;  but  it  does  not  increase  secretion  of  bile.  It  is 
absorbed  from  mucous,  serous,  and  areolar  surfaces,  especi- 
ally when  in  perfect  solution,  and  its  systemic  effects  are 
notable  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  later.  Small  doses 
stimulate,  large  doses  depress.  Small  to  moderate  doses 
at  first  reduce  the  calibre  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  briefly 
increase  the  strength  of  the  circulation,  but  large  doses 
weaken  cardiac  action  and  diminish  blood-pressure.  Moder- 
ate doses  may,  at  first,  quicken  respiration,  but  it  is  after- 
wards weakened  ;  large  doses  slow  and  eventually  paralyse 
it.  Death  results  from  respiratory  failure.  The  brain 
functions  are  stimulated  at  first  by  small,  but  depressed  by 
large  doses.  Sensory  and  motor  nerves  are  affected  only 
when  the  drug  is  locally  applied. 

Tissue  change  is  diminished.  Experiments  on  dogs  have 
shown  that  less  oxygen  is  taken  up,  while  less  carbonic 
acid  and  albuminoid  waste  materials,  especially  urea  and 
uric  acid,  are  excreted.  Temperature,  notably  in  febrile 
cases,  is  lowered.  These  effects  seem  to  depend  upon  the 
characteristic  action  of  quinine  in  lessening  the  activity, 
after  transitory  stimulation,  of  all  forms  of  protoplasm, 
and  may  be  connected  with  its  property  of  diminishing  the 
capacity  of  the  red  cells,  to  give  up  oxygen,  and  on  its 
diminishing  the  number,  contractility,  and  movements  of 


MEDICINAL   USES  563 

the  white  blood-corpuscles.  It  diminishes  all  secretions 
except  the  urinary,  which  is  increased.  Repeated  full  doses 
contract  the  spleen  and  also  the  uterus,  sometimes  exciting 
abortion,  but  whether  this  is  due  to  idiosyncrasy  in  a  certain 
number  of  animals  is  not  definitely  known.  That  the  drug 
has  no  specific  ecbolic  action  appears  to  be  proved  by 
Wood's  experiments  on  healthy  pregnant  cats.  The  head- 
ache, impaired  sight  and  hearing,  and  other  symptoms  of 
cinchonism  produced  in  man  by  large  or  repeated  doses, 
have  not  been  distinctly  recognised  in  the  lower  animals. 

Cinchona  bark  as  a  bitter  tonic,  resembles  gentian  root, 
cascarilla  bark,  calumba  root,  and  hydrastis.  The  anti- 
septic and  febrifuge  properties  of  quinine  ally  it  to  various 
substances  of  the  aromatic  carbon  series,  while  the  anti- 
malarial  actions  resemble  those  of  arsenic. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — The  bark  and  its  alkaloids  are  prescribed 
for  all  classes  of  patients  as  bitter  stomachics  and  tonics. 
They  improve  appetite,  check  abnormal  gastro-intestinal 
fermentation,  and  counteract  relaxed  conditions  of  the 
intestine  and  accumulations  of  mucus,  which  prove  favour- 
able to  the  development  of  worms.  In  troublesome  cases 
of  atonic  indigestion  in  horses,  where  alkaline  treatment  had 
failed,  Robertson  frequently  gave  20  to  30  grains  of  quinine 
sulphate,  with  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of  nitric  or 
hydrochloric  acid.  Weakly  foals  and  calves  affected  by 
relaxed  bowels,  after  a  dose  of  oil,  are  often  much  benefited 
by  a  few  doses  of  cinchona  bark,  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
spirit.  Few  tonics  are  so  effectual  as  bark  or  quinine  in 
improving  appetite  and  muscular  strength,  and  hastening 
convalescence  from  debilitating  disease.  In  anaemia  they 
are  advantageously  joined  with  iron  salts.  They  are  often 
used  in  the  earlier  stages  of  tuberculosis,  in  septicaemia,  and 
pyaemia  in  all  animals  ;  in  influenza,  protracted  cases  of 
strangles,  purpura,  and  other  similar  diseases  in  horses,  in 
septic  metritis  in  cows  and  ewes,  and  in  lingering  cases  of 
distemper  in  dogs — their  beneficial  effects  in  these  and  other 
diseases  probably  depending  on  the  action  of  quinine  on 
micro-organisms  or  their  products.  Drachm  doses,  con- 
joined with  iron  salts,  repeated  night  and  morning,  are 
certainly  very  useful  in  the  treatment  of  purpura.  The 


564  CINCHONA— QUININE 

sulphate,  in  doses  of  240  to  350  grains,  repeated  if  requisite, 
is  strongly  recommended  as  a  remedy  for  red  water  in  cattle. 

Quinine  is  often  employed  in  mala.rial  diseases,  and  in  rheu- 
matism, being  given  either  by  the  mouth  or  hypodermically, 
frequently  conjoined  with  salicylic  acid  or  potassium  iodide. 
Dollar  has  successfully  treated  cases  of  rheumatism  and 
sciatica  in  horses,  which  have  resisted  other  remedies,  by 
hypodermic  injection  into  the  affected  muscles  of  half  a 
drachm  of  quinine  sulphate  in  solution,  and  has  not 
found  undue  irritation  or  abscess  follow  the  operation.  Like 
other  bitters,  when  administered  with  cathartics,  it  generally 
increases  their  activity.  Alternated  with  cod-liver  oil  and 
iron,  quinine  is  the  best  tonic  for  weakly  dogs  and  those 
suffering  from  chorea. 

The  alkaloids  are  seldom  used  as  antiseptics  for  wounds, 
but  occasionally  in  the  form  of  spray  or  gargle  are  applied 
to  relaxed  or  suppurating  throat. 

DOSES,  etc. — Cinchona  bark  is  prescribed  in  the  following 
doses  : — For  horses,  ^ii].  to  §i.  ;  cattle,  3VJ-  to  §ij-  5 
sheep  and  pigs,3i-  to  ^iv. ;  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  3i-  J  cats,  grs.  v. 
to  grs.  xx.,  repeated  twice  or  thrice  daily  for  several  days. 
If  nausea  or  vomiting  supervene,  as  occasionally  happens  in 
dogs,  the  dose  should  be  considerably  reduced  or  intermitted 
for  a  day  or  two.  It  is  administered  in  bolus,  pill,  or  solution, 
and  is  often  conjoined  with  camphor,  gentian,  ginger,  spirit, 
or  ether.  The  infusion  is  made  by  digesting  one  part  red 
bark  with  one-fourth  part  aromatic  sulphuric  acid  and  twenty 
parts  water,  and  straining.  The  tincture,  now  standardised, 
is  made  by  maceration  and  percolation  of  4  ounces  red  bark 
in  one  pint  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent).  It  contains  1  per  cent, 
of  alkaloids.  The  compound  tincture,  made  with  tincture 
of  cinchona,  orange  peel,  serpentary,  cochineal,  saffron, 
and  alcohol  (70  per  cent.),  is  standardised  to  contain  0'5 
per  cent,  of  alkaloids.  The  liquid  extract  of  cinchona 
contains  5  per  cent,  of  alkaloids.  The  salts  of  quinine 
are  prescribed  in  the  following  doses  : — Horses  and  cattle 
(tonic),  grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  xc. ;  (febrifuge)  grs.  clx.  to  grs.  ccxl.  ; 
sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  viii.  to  grs.  xxx.  ;  dogs  and  cats,  gr.  i. 
to  grs.  x.  Cinchonine  sulphate  is  given  in  double  these 
quantities.  These  doses,  in  bolus,  pill,  or  solution,  are 


DOSES    AND    ADMINISTRATION  565 

administered  two  or  three  times  daily.  Given  in  the  fluid 
form,  their  solubility  is  increased  and  their  bitterness 
diminished  by  prescribing  them  in  an  acidulated  solution. 
They  are  also  conveniently  exhibited  in  milk.  Any  tend- 
ency to  nausea  or  vomiting  is  abated  by  combination  with 
hydrobromic  acid.  Quinine  is  contra-indicated  in  pregnant 
females  and  in  patients  with  heart  disease. 

Intratracheal  injection,  horses,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  viij.  quinine 
hydrochloride,  in  two  drachms  distilled  water.  For  intra- 
tracheal  injection,  a  convenient  solution  of  the  sulphate 
(80  grains)  is  made  with  tartaric  acid  (40  grains)  in  4  drachms 
of  distilled  water.  Another  equally  useful  solution  is  made 
with  15  grains  quinine  hydrochloride  and  2J  drachms 
distilled  water,  containing  a  minim  of  diluted  hydrochloric 
acid.  Quinine  lactate,  which  is  soluble  in  ten  parts  of  water, 
is  sometimes  preferred  for  hypodermic  administration. 
The  cinchona  alkaloids  form  comparatively  insoluble  com- 
pounds with  bile,  and  hence  before  their  administration 
any  excess  of  bile  should  be  cleared  away  by  a  laxative. 
They  are  often  conjoined  with  other  bitter  tonics,  and  with 
capsicum,  camphor,  valerian,  or  salts  of  iron.  The  citrate 
of  iron  and  quinine  is  sometimes  used  in  canine  practice,  but 
it  is  better  to  prescribe  a  reliable  quinine  salt  with  a  salt  of 
iron.  The  tincture  of  quinine,  made  with  the  hydrochloride 
and  the  tincture  of  orange,  contains  one  grain  of  the  salt  in 
55  minims.  The  ammoniated  tincture  of  quinine,  made  with 
the  sulphate,  solution  of  ammonia,  and  alcohol  (60  per  cent.), 
contains  about  one  grain  in  55  minims.  Quini-chloral,  a 
thick  oily  mixture  of  quinine  and  chloral,  soluble  in  water 
and  in  alcohol,  is  stated  to  be  superior,  as  a  germicide,  to 
corrosive  sublimate. 

SALICYLIC  ACID-SODIUM  SALICYLATB 
ACIDUM  SALICYLICUM.    A  Crystalline  Acid,  C6H4.OH.COOH, 
obtained  by  the  interaction  of  sodium  carbolate,  and 
carbonic  anhydride  ;    or  from  natural  salicylates,  such 
as  the  oil  of  winter-green  (Gaultheria  procumbens)  and 
oil  of  sweet  birch  (Betula  lenta).     (B.P.) 
Salicylic    acid    was    originally    prepared    from    salicin, 
a  crystalline  glucoside  obtained  from  willow  and  poplar 


566  SALICYLIC   ACID 

barks.  It  can  also  be  extracted  from  the  stems,  leaves, 
and  rhizomes  of  violets.  In  these  plants,  and  in  the  volatile 
oils  of  the  winter-green  and  various  Spireas,  it  occurs  as  a 
methyl  salicylate.  But  the  commercial  source  is  sodium 
phenol,  through  which  carbonic  acid  gas  is  passed  for  several 
hours.  The  mixture  is  raised  to  482°  Fahr.,  the  residue 
is  dissolved  in  a  limited  quantity  of  water,  and  treated 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  when  salicylic  acid  is  precipitated, 
and  is  subsequently  crystallised.  Commercial  specimens 
frequently  contain  cresotic  acid. 

PROPERTIES. — Salicylic  acid  occurs  as  a  soft,  light,  colour- 
less or  faintly  pink  powder,  consisting  of  minute  acicular 
crystals  ;  but  it  may  be  crystallised  in  bold  four-sided 
prisms.  It  is  odourless,  but  when  inhaled  irritates  the 
nostrils.  It  has  a  taste  at  first  sweet,  but  subsequently 
bitter.  It  is  soluble  in  538  parts  of  water,  120  of  olive  oil, 
200  of  glycerin,  3 J  of  rectified  spirit,  2  of  ether,  and  8  of  lard  ; 
and  its  solubility  is  increased  by  admixture  with  sodium 
borate  or  phosphate.  It  fuses  at  311°  Fahr.,  volatilises 
without  decomposition  below  392°  Fahr.,  but  above  that 
is  decomposed  into  phenol  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  Sodium 
salicylate,  C7H503Na,  may  be  obtained  by  the  interaction 
of  salicylic  acid  and  sodium  carbonate.  It  occurs  in  small, 
colourless  scales,  or  in  tabular  crystals  ;  odourless,  taste 
sweetish  and  saline  ;  soluble  in  10  parts  water,  and  in  6 
parts  of  rectified  spirit. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Salicylic  acid  belongs  to  the  benzene 
or  aromatic  series  of  carbon  compounds,  and  in  chemical 
constitution  and  physiological  action  is  allied  to  benzoic 
and  carbolic  acids.  It  is  antiseptic,  antiperiodic,  antipyretic, 
irritant,  and  astringent,  and  is  specially  useful  in  the 
treatment  of  acute  rheumatism.  The  acid,  its  alkaline 
salts,  and  salicin  have  similar  actions,  but  salicin  is  now  little 
used. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Salicylic  acid,  as  an  antiseptic,  is  less 
penetrating,  but  rather  more  powerful  than  carbolic  acid  or 
creolin.  It  prevents  fermentation  and  putrefaction.  Watery 
solutions  are  more  active  germicides  than  the  alcoholic  or 
oily  ;  they  have  no  appreciable  action  on  the  intact  skin, 
unless  applied  for  some  time  ;  but  on  a  mucous  membrane, 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  567 

or  a  wound,  they  irritate,  and  coagulate  albumin.  Left  in 
contact  with  the  skin  the  horny  epidermis  is  softened  and 
easily  removed,  but  without  irritation.  Full  doses  of  the 
powder  or  concentrated  solution  are  in-contact  irritants, 
provoking,  when  inhaled,  sneezing  and  coughing,  and  when 
swallowed  vomiting  in  carnivora  and  diarrhoea  in  all  animals. 
Sodium  salicylate  is  devoid  of  irritant  action,  but  has  very 
similar  antiseptic  power  to  that  of  the  acid.  Although  not 
very  soluble,  the  acid  and  its  salts  are  tolerably  quickly 
absorbed,  and  the  acid  occurs  in  the  blood  as  an  alkaline 
salt.  The  general  effects  are  similar  to  those  produced  by 
carbolic  acid,  but  in  some  individuals  (men)  and  in  dogs, 
full  continued  doses  cause  nausea,  occasional  vomiting, 
and  giddiness — symptoms  which  resemble  those  of  cinchon- 
ism.  Further  administration  causes  slowness  and  weakness 
of  the  heart,  marked  dyspnoea  and  depression  of  the  central 
nervous  system,  with  convulsions  and  collapse.  In  healthy 
animals  the  temperature  is  not  affected,  but  in  rheumatic  and 
malarial  fevers  abnormal  temperature  is  reduced,  sometimes 
to  the  extent  of  several  degrees.  This  effect  is  probably  due 
to  the  dilatation  of  the  vessels  of  the  skin  and  the  conse- 
quent loss  of  heat.  W.  Rutherford  found  that  the  acid  and 
its  soda  salt,  like  benzoic  acid  and  benzoates,  are  hepatic 
but  not  intestinal  stimulants,  and  slightly  increase  the  flow 
of  bile.  They  are  eliminated  more  quickly  in  vegetable 
than  in  flesh  feeders  (Frohner).  They  are  excreted  in  the 
perspiration,  saliva,  and  urine,  in  which  they  appear  as 
salicylates,  and  in  combination  with  glycocoll  as  salicyluric 
acid.  They  communicate  to  the  urine  a  brown  or  green 
coloration,  and  retard  its  decomposition. 

Toxic  doses  are  borne  better  by  graminivora  than  grani- 
vora.  Frohner  records  that  a  healthy  horse,  weighing 
1000  Ibs.,  received  during  three  days  300  grammes  (about 
9|  ounces).  Slight  dyspepsia  resulted  from  irritation  of  the 
alimentary  mucous  membrane,  but  no  toxic  symptoms. 
A  healthy  sheep  of  70  Ibs.,  during  three  days  had  50  grammes 
(1J  ounces),  but  remained  perfectly  healthy.  The  like  nega- 
tive results  also  occurred  in  the  case  of  a  sheep  of  65  Ibs., 
which  received  in  three  days  65  grammes  (2  ounces)  of 
sodium  salicylate.  Dogs  are  not  so  tolerant ;  toxic  effects 


568  SALICYLIC    ACID 

were  produced  by  1  gramme  (15'04  grains)  for  each 
5  kilogrammes  of  body- weight.  A  dog  10  Ibs.  weight 
received  0*8  gramme  in  repeated  doses  during  six  hours  ; 
he  vomited,  had  muscular  trembling,  and  weakness  of  the 
hind  limbs.  A  dog  of  60  Ibs.  had  4  grammes,  in  divided 
doses,  which  caused  weakness  and  cramp  of  the  hind- 
quarters. A  dog  of  10  Ibs.  had  5  grammes  sodium  sali- 
cylate  subcutaneously,  and  exhibited  dyspnoea,  irregular 
pulse,  dilated  pupils,  dulness,  vomiting,  lameness  of  the 
hindquarters,  convulsions,  and  fatal  paresis.  A  dog  of 
18  Ibs.  was  fatally  asphyxiated  by  eight  grammes  injected 
into  the  rectum. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — The  acid  and  its  alkaline  salts  are 
serviceable  in  arresting  dyspeptic  fermentation  and  diarrhoea 
in  young  animals.  When  administered  in  cases  of  gastro- 
intestinal irritation,  the  sodium  salicylate,  not  being  irri- 
tant, is  preferable  to  the  acid. 

The  salicylate  treatment  is  almost  a  specific  for  acute 
rheumatism  in  human  patients.  It  frequently  relieves 
the  pain  before  the  temperature  or  fever  is  abated.  The 
beneficial  results  have  been  ascribed  to  the  breaking  up  of 
lactic  acid  products.  But  British  veterinarians  have  not 
found  the  treatment  so  effectual  either  in  horses  or  cattle. 
In  animals  such  attacks  are  chiefly  of  a  chronic  type,  on 
which  salicylic  acid  has  not  such  marked  effect  as  in  the 
acute  cases,  and  it  may  be  that  the  doses  prescribed  have 
not  been  large  enough,  or  given  with  sufficient  frequency, 
or  for  a  sufficient  period.  To  foals  suffering  from  lameness 
Hinterholzer  gave  two  teaspoonfuls  sodium  salicylate  twice 
a  day,  and  as  a  prophylactic  measure  in  pregnant  mares 
he  prescribed  sixty  to  seventy  grains  morning  and  evening 
for  a  few  days  before  the  date  of  foaling.  Frohner  uses 
both  the  acid  and  the  sodium  salt  in  muscular  and  arthritic 
rheumatism  in  all  animals,  and  states  that  chronic  cases  are 
benefited  by  continued  doses,  that  good  results  need  not  be 
despaired  of  until  the  drug  has  been  persisted  with  for  ten 
or  fifteen  days,  while  to  prevent  relapse  the  administration 
is  continued  for  some  days  after  the  symptoms  have  been 
relieved.  Dogs  are  benefited  especially  where  the  joints 
are  prominently  affected. 


IN   ANTISEPTIC    SURGERY  569 

In  horses,  as  in  human  patients,  a  few,  frequently  repeated 
doses  arrest  attacks  of  acute  nasal  catarrh  when  given  in 
the  earlier  stages,  and  appear  to  have  a  similar  power  in 
gastro-intestinal  and  urinary  catarrh.  Frohner  recommends 
it  in  cystitis.  Kobertson  used  it  in  equine  influenza  accom- 
panied with  gastro-intestinal  symptoms.  Other  practi- 
tioners testify  to  its  value  in  purpura  and  also  in  strangles. 
In  zymotic  and  malarial  fevers  it  is  not  so  effectual  as 
quinine.  Feser  has  shown  that  it  exerts  no  antipyretic 
effect  in  septic  or  pyaemic  fever.  Conjoined  with  tannic 
acid  it  is  prescribed  for  obstinate  diarrhoea  in  calves. 

In  antiseptic  surgery,  salicylic  acid  is  sometimes  substi- 
tuted for  or  alternated  with  carbolic  acid  or  creolin.  It  is 
serviceable  in  the  treatment  of  canker  and  open  joint,  for 
abating  the  itching  and  discharge  of  eczema,  for  dressing 
sores  on  the  teats  of  cows,  washing  out  the  uterus  in  metritis, 
and  with  alcohol  as  an  injection  in  otorrhcea.  Its  anti- 
septic effects  are  increased  by  admixture  of  boracic  acid. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  ^iv.  to  §i.  ;  sheep 
and  goats,  3J-  to  3n'j.  ;  swine,  grs.  xlv.  to  grs.  Ixx.  ;  dogs, 
grs.  v.  to  grs.  xxx.  of  sodium  salicylate,  administered  with 
mucilage  or  glycerin,  in  bolus,  electuary,  or  drench.  Sali- 
cylic acid  and  salicin  are  used  in  similar  amounts.  The 
larger  doses  are  given  in  fevers  ;  the  smaller,  repeated 
frequently,  in  rheumatism,  in  the  muscular  form  of  which 
a  solution  may  be  injected  deeply  into  the  affected  part. 

For  surgical  purposes  convenient  solutions  are  made  by 
dissolving  one  part  each  of  salicylic  acid  and  borax  in 
thirty  to  fifty  parts  of  water.  Ointments  and  liniments  are 
prepared  with  one  part  acid,  mixed  in  a  heated  mortar, 
with  twenty  to  twenty-five  of  vaseline  or  bland  oil.  Sali- 
cylic collodion,  for  protecting  small  wounds,  consists  of 
salicylic  acid  one  part  and  flexible  collodion  nine  parts. 
Salicylic  cream,  employed  as  a  pigment  for  surgical  wounds, 
is  composed  of  two  parts  salicylic  acid,  and  ten  parts  of 
glycerin.  The  B.P.  ointment  consists  of  one  part  acid, 
and  forty-nine  parts  of  white  paraffin  ointment.  Lint, 
cotton-wool,  or  jute,  soaked  in  4  to  10  per  cent,  hot,  watery 
solution,  made  with  borax  to  ensure  solubility,  absorbs  the 
acid,  and  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  covering  for  wounds  and 


570  GENTIAN 

burns  in  the  same  manner  as  carbolic  or  boric  lint.  Being 
unirritating,  salicylic  lint  is  applied  directly  to  abraded 
surfaces  without  the  intervention  of  any  protective.  Iron 
salicylate  is  antiseptic  and  astringent. 

Dithion,  or  di-thio-salicylate  of  sodium,  a  greyish-white 
powder,  freely  soluble  in  water,  is  antiseptic  and  anti- 
pyretic. In  foot-and-mouth  disease  it  has  been  given 
internally,  and  applied  externally  as  a  dusting-powder, 
and  as  a  lotion  (2J  to  5  per  cent.)  to  the  sores  of  the  mouth, 
feet,  and  udder. 

Methyl  salieylate  (CH3C7H503),  a  product  of  the  distilla- 
tion of  salicylic  acid  with  methyl  alcohol  and  sulphuric  acid, 
is  a  colourless  liquid  with  an  odour  of  honey  and  a  nauseous 
taste.  It  forms  nine-tenths  of  oil  of  wintergreen  or  Gaul- 
theriae  Oleum,  a  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  leaves  of 
Gaultheria  procumbens,  an  American  evergreen.  Methyl 
salicylate  is  employed  externally  as  a  local  anodyne  for 
muscular  and  articular  rheumatism  ;  for  which  it  may 
also  be  administered  in  doses  of  Jij.  to  3JY-  ^°  horses  and 
cattle  ;  and  u\iij.  to  17\xv.  to  dogs.  Oil  of  wintergreen  is 
also  applied  to  rheumatic  joints,  and,  diluted  with  alcohol, 
it  has  been  used  as  a  dressing  for  wounds. 

Aspirin  (acetyl-salicylic  acid),  formed  by  the  action  of 
acetic  anhydride  on  salicylic  acid,  is  a  crystalline  powder, 
soluble  in  100  parts  of  water,  in  dilute  alkalies,  and  in  alcohol 
and  ether.  It  passes  through  the  stomach  unchanged,  and 
in  the  bowel  is  split  up,  salicylic  acid  being  liberated.  It 
is  used  as  a  substitute  for  sodium  salicylate,  and  is  largely 
prescribed  in  the  treatment  of  muscular  and  articular  rheu- 
matism, neuralgia,  and  pleurisy.  Doses,  dogs  grs.  ii.  to 
grs.  x.  ;  horses,  3ij-  to  3JV-  *n  special  cases  larger  doses 
may  be  given. 

GENTIAN 

GENTIANS  RADIX.     The  dried  rhizome  and  roots  of  Gen- 
tiana  lutea  (B.P.)     Nat.  Ord. — Gentianacese. 

The  Gentiana  lutea,  or  yellow  gentian,  has  a  perennial, 
often  forked  root,  and  an  annual  herbaceous  stem,  which 
rises  three  or  four  feet,  and  bears  axillary  whorls  of  yellow 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  571 

flowers.  It  abounds  in  most  parts  of  temperate  Europe, 
thrives  best  between  3000  and  5000  feet  above  the  sea- 
level,  and  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  mountainous 
districts  of  the  Alps,  Vosges,  and  Pyrenees.  All  parts  of 
the  plant  are  bitter  and  tonic,  but  only  the  rhizome  is 
officinal.  It  occurs  in  cylindrical,  usually  more  or  less 
branched,  often  twisted,  pieces,  or  in  longitudinal  slices, 
marked  by  transverse  annular  wrinkles  and  longitudinal 
furrows,  and  varying  in  length  and  thickness.  It  has  a 
peculiar  aromatic  and  rather  disagreeable  odour,  and  a 
taste  at  first  sweet,  but  afterwards  bitter.  When  moist, 
it  is  tough  and  flexible  ;  when  dry,  brittle,  and  easily  pul- 
verised. The  powder  is  yellow,  with  a  shade  of  brown, 
and  readily  yields  its  bitterness  to  water,  alcohol,  and  ether. 

Gentian  root  contains  gentianose,  a  sugar,  which,  in 
Southern  Bavaria  and  Switzerland,  is  fermented  into  a 
drinking  spirit ;  a  large  amount  of  pectin,  a  little  volatile 
oil  and  fat,  the  yellow  crystalline  gentianin,  or  gentianic 
acid  (C14H1005),  which  is  inert ;  and  about  O'l  per  cent,  of 
an  intensely  bitter  glucoside,  gentiopicrin  (C2oH30012),  ob- 
tainable in  colourless  crystals,  which  are  soluble  in  water 
and  alcohol.  In  its  actions  gentiopicrin  is  nearly  allied 
to  quinine. 

Roots  of  other  Gentianaceae  are  frequently  mixed  with 
those  of  G.  lutea  ;  but  this  is  not  of  much  importance,  since 
all  are  possessed  of  similar  properties.  Admixture,  how- 
ever, sometimes  occurs  of  poisonous  roots,  such  as  monks- 
hood,  belladonna,  and  white  hellebore,  which  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  pure  bitter  taste  and  the 
bright  yellow  colour  so  characteristic  of  true  gentian. 
Gentian  powder,  especially  that  met  with  abroad,  is  stated 
to  be  occasionally  adulterated  with  yellow  ochre,  easily 
detected  by  heating  the  suspected  specimen  with  a  little 
sulphuric  acid,  filtering,  and  testing  for  iron. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Gentian  is  a  pure  bitter,  and  is  pre- 
scribed as  a  stomachic  and  tonic  for  all  veterinary  patients. 
It  resembles  calumba,  chiretta,  quassia,  and  lupulus  or 
hops.  It  is  virtually  devoid  of  astringency.  It  may  be 
taken  as  a  type  of  these  simple  bitters  all  of  which  pro- 
duce similar  effects  clinically,  although  their  exact  mode  of 


572  GENTIAN 

action  is  disputed.  Given  by  the  mouth,  the  bitter  taste 
causes  a  reflex  flow  of  saliva,  and  by  stimulating  the  nerves 
of  taste  there  is,  first  of  all,  improved  appetite,  and  then 
in  about  thirty  to  forty  minutes  an  increased  reflex  secre- 
tion of  gastric  juice.  But  increased  gastric  secretion  of 
acid  and  pepsin  means  more  efficient  gastric  digestion, 
and  more  than  that,  pari  passu  with  the  improvement 
in  the  stomach,  there  is  increased  outpouring  of  pancreatic 
juice  and  of  bile,  for  this  depends  on  the  amount  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  escaping  from  the  pylorus  into  the  duodenum. 
Thus  a  bitter  in  the  mouth,  by  stimulating  the  nerves  of 
taste,  starts  a  series  of  reflex  secretions  which  make  the 
whole  process  of  digestion  more  efficient.  Another  effect 
of  this  group  of  drugs  is  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
leucocytes  in  the  blood,  and  in  this  way  absorption  of 
the  products  of  digestion  may  be  helped  to  some  extent. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Gentian  improves  the  appetite  and 
general  tone.  In  atonic  indigestion  it  is  particularly  use- 
ful amongst  young  animals,  and  in  such  cases  is  often 
conjoined  with  ginger  and  sodium  bicarbonate.  In  relaxed 
and  irritable  states  of  the  bowels,  and  where  intestinal 
worms  are  suspected,  after  administration  of  a  laxative, 
gentian  and  hydrochloric  acid  are  often  serviceable.  For 
horses  suffering  from  simple  nasal  catarrh  few  combinations 
are  more  effectual  than  an  ounce  of  powdered  gentian,  two 
drachms  nitre,  with  two  ounces  Epsom  salt,  dissolved  in 
a  pint  of  water,  linseed  tea,  or  ale,  and  repeated  night  and 
morning.  In  inflammatory  complaints,  after  the  acute 
stage  is  passed,  such  a  prescription  also  proves  serviceable. 
Where  the  bowels  are  constipated  or  irregular,  or  febrile 
symptoms  are  insufficiently  subdued,  a  drachm  of  aloes 
is  sometimes  conjoined  with  the  gentian.  Where  more 
general  tonic  effects  are  sought,  iron  sulphate  is  alternated 
with  gentian  and  salines.  Two  to  four  drachms  of  gentian, 
with  an  ounce  of  ether  or  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  given  three 
or  four  times  daily  in  a  bottle  of  ale,  proves  an  excellent 
stomachic  and  stimulating  tonic  in  influenza  and  other 
epizootics,  helps  convalescence  from  exhausting  disorders, 
and  is  a  useful  restorative  for  horses,  jaded,  overworked, 
or  suffering  from  loss  of  appetite  or  slight  cold. 


CALUMBA  573 

For  cattle  the  above  prescriptions  are  as  serviceable  as  for 
horses,  but  require  to  be  given  in  somewhat  larger  doses. 
For  sheep  gentian  is  a  very  useful  stomachic,  and  when 
prescribed  with  salt  arrests  for  a  time  the  progress  of  liver- 
rot.  It  is  a  valuable  bitter  tonic  for  dogs  prostrated  by 
reducing  disorders. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  the  horse,  3ij-  to  §i.  ;  for  cattle,  §i. 
to  gij.  ;  for  sheep,  3i.  to  3iij.  ;  for  pigs,  3ss.  to  3i.  ;  for 
dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx.,  repeated  twice  or  thrice  daily. 
The  carefully-prepared  Pharmacopoeia  extract,  infusion, 
and  tincture,  flavoured  with  orange-peel  and  aromatics, 
are  frequently  used  in  veterinary  practice.  The  powder 
is  prescribed  in  bolus,  prepared  with  treacle,  glycerin,  and 
meal,  or  in  infusion,  made  by  digesting  the  powder  during 
several  hours  in  hot  water,  and  decanting  the  clear  fluid. 
A  small  addition  of  diluted  alcohol  ensures  more  thorough 
solution  and  better  keeping. 


CALUMBA 

CALUMBJE  RADIX. — The  dried  sliced  root  of  Jateorhiza 
columba ;  growing  in  Eastern  Africa  (B.P.).  Nat. 
Ord. — Menispermaceae. 

Calumba  root  occurs  in  irregular,  flattish,  circular  or  oval 
slices,  with  a  yellow  centre  and  a  brownish-yellow  cortex. 
The  fracture  is  short,  odour  feeble,  taste  bitter  (B.P.).  It 
contains  a  crystalline,  neutral,  bitter  principle,  calumbin  ; 
an  alkaloid,  berberine  ;  calumbic  acid  ;  and  33  per  cent,  of 
starch. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Calumba  is  a  bitter  and  gastric 
stimulant.  It  promotes  secretion  of  gastric  juice  and 
improves  the  appetite  in  a  manner  similar  to  gentian.  As 
it  contains  no  tannin  it  is  devoid  of  astringency  and  may  be 
prescribed  with  preparations  of  iron.  Like  quassia,  calumba 
infusion  may  be  used  to  destroy  worms  in  the  horse's  rectum. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  infusion  (one  of  calumba  to  20  of  cold 
water)  horses  and  cattle  take  §ij.  to  §iv.  ;  dogs  3ij-  to  §j., 
twice  or  thrice  daily.  The  tincture,  made  with  one  of 
calumba  root  to  10  of  alcohol  (60  per  cent.)  is  also  pre- 


574  CASCARILLA — OAK   BARK 

scribed.     The  doses  are  about  one- third  of  those  of  the 
infusion. 

Chiretta,  the  dried  Indian  plant,  Swertia  Chirata,  collected 
when  in  flower,  is  closely  allied  in  actions  and  uses  to 
calumba.  It  contains  an  active  bitter  principle,  chiratin, 
but  no  tannin.  The  infusion  and  tincture  of  chiretta  are 
prescribed  in  the  same  doses  as  calumba  or  gentian. 

CASCARILLA 

CASCABILL^E  CORTEX.  The  dried  bark  of  Croton  eluteria 
(B.P.).  Nat.  Ord.— Euphorbiaceae. 

Cascarilla  bark  is  principally  imported  from  the  Bahama 
Islands  in  quills  about  the  size  of  a  drawing  pencil,  and 
varying  from  two  to  four  inches  in  length.  Its  outer  surface 
is  fissured,  and  usually  covered  with  a  light-coloured  lichen  ; 
its  inner  surface  is  smooth  and  light-brown.  It  has  a 
strong,  pungent,  rather  nauseous  taste  ;  its  aromatic  odour 
is  increased  by  heat,  and  recommends  it  as  a  constituent  of 
fumigatory  pastilles.  It  contains  the  neutral  crystalline 
bitter  cascarillin  (C12H18O4),  15  per  cent,  of  two  resins, 
tannin,  and  1*5  of  a  pungent  volatile  oil,  one  portion  of 
which  is  isomeric  with  oil  of  turpentine. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Cascarilla  is  an  aromatic,  bitter 
stomachic,  and  carminative,  allied  to  cusparia  (Angustura 
bark)  and  resembling  cinchona,  but  less  active,  and  occasion- 
ally used  in  indigestion,  diarrhoea,  and  convalescence  from 
exhausting  diseases. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses,  3ij-  to  ^iv.  ;  for  cattle,  §i.  ;  for 
sheep  and  swine,  3i-  to  3ij-  ;  and  for  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xl., 
given  in  bolus,  infusion,  or  tincture,  which  is  made  with  one 
of  cascarilla  to  five  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.). 

OAK  BARK 

QUERCUS  CORTEX.  The  dried  bark  of  the  smaller  branches 
and  young  stems  of  Quercus  robur  (Q.  peduculata). 
Collected  in  early  spring  from  trees  growing  in  Britain. 
(Not  official.)  Nat.  Ord. — Cupuliferse. 

Bark  from  smaller  branches  of  young  trees  is  more 
astringent  than  thicker  pieces  of  older  growth  ;  the  interior 


QUASSIA   WOOD  575 

finer  fibrous  portions  than  the  external  rougher  cortical. 
Oak  bark  contains  a  bitter  crystalline  substance,  quercin, 
and  owes  its  astringency  to  10  or  15  per  cent,  of  querci- 
tannic  acid,  which  differs  somewhat  from  gallo-tannic  acid, 
and  does  not,  by  oxidation,  yield  gallic  acid.  The  infusion 
has  a  powerful  astringent  taste,  reddens  litmus,  gives  a 
blue-black  precipitate  with  ferric  salts  ;  and  with  gelatin 
solution  a  white  flocculent  precipitate,  which  resists  putre- 
faction better  than  that  of  gallo-tannic  acid.  Acorns — the 
fruit  of  the  oak — are  collected  in  many  parts  of  England  for 
feeding  sheep  and  pigs,  are  credited  with  a  nutritive  value 
approaching  that  of  beans,  but  on  account  of  their  astrin- 
gency require  to  be  used  sparingly. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Oak  bark  is  astringent,  resembling 
galls  and  catechu.  It  is  prescribed  to  check  chronic  otor- 
rhcea,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  other  excessive  mucous 
discharges.  For  weakly,  scouring  calves  the  infusion  is 
given  once  or  twice  daily  as  required,  with  warm  starch 
gruel,  to  which  may  be  added  aromatics,  gentian,  spirit, 
ether,  or  chloroform,  or  where  there  is  griping,  laudanum. 
It  lacks  the  tonic  properties  of  cinchona  and  gentian,  and 
constipates  when  given  too  frequently  or  freely.  Infusions 
are  applied  to  dry  and  constringe  hyper-secreting  and 
relaxed  surfaces,  and  to  relieve  piles  in  dogs. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  3ij-  to  ^iv. ;  cattle,  §ss.  to  gij. ; 
sheep  and  pigs,  3SS-  to  3iJ-  5  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx., 
administered  in  infusion  made  with  one  or  two  ounces  of 
bark  to  the  pint  of  water. 

QUASSIA   WOOD 

QUASSIA  LIGNUM.     The  wood  of  the  trunk  and  branches  of 
Picraena  excelsa  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Simarubaceae. 

The  dense,  tough,  white  quassia  wood,  the  produce  of  a 
handsome  tree,  is  imported  from  Jamaica  and  other  West 
Indian  islands  in  billets  of  varying  length,  and  is  met  with 
in  yellow- white  chips  or  raspings.  Quassia  has  no  odour, 
but  an  intensely  bitter  taste,  dependent  on  a  neutral 
crystalline  principle,  quassin  (C10H1203).  It  contains  no 
tannin. 


576  MUSTARD 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Quassia  is  a  bitter  stomachic  and 
tonic.  It  resembles  gentian  and  calumba.  It  is  prescribed 
for  the  several  domestic  animals  in  dyspepsia,  loss  of 
appetite,  and  convalescence  from  debilitating  disorders. 
Although  it  has  no  appreciable  vermicide  effect  when  given 
by  the  mouth,  when  used  as  an  enema  it  destroys  both 
ascarides  and  lumbrici.  Large  doses  are  irritant.  The 
infusion  is  a  narcotic  poison  for  flies  and  other  insects,  and 
is  used  as  a  parasiticide  in  skin  diseases. 

DOSES,  etc. — The  B.P.  infusion,  prepared  by  macerating 
one  part  of  chips  for  fifteen  minutes  with  one  hundred  parts 
cold  water,  is  administered  alone,  or  with  salines,  acids,  or 
iron  salts,  with  which,  unlike  most  vegetable  bitters,  it 
mixes  without  decomposition  or  discoloration.  Of  the 
infusion,  horses  and  cattle  take  f§ij.  to  f§iv.  ;  sheep  and 
pigs,  f3iv.  ;  dogs,  f3J.  The  tincture  is  not  used  by 
veterinarians. 

MUSTARD 

SIN  APIS.  The  dried  ripe  seeds  of  Brassica  nigra  and 
Brassica  alba,  powdered  and  mixed  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord.— 
Cruciferae. 

The  mustard  plants  are  annuals,  one  to  two  feet  high, 
with  yellow  cruciform  flowers,  and  pods  containing  several 
brown  seeds.  They  are  indigenous  in  most  parts  of  Europe 
and  extensively  cultivated  in  Durham,  Yorkshire,  and  Lin- 
colnshire. An  abundant  wild  variety,  familiarly  known  as 
charlock  and  kellocks,  is  sometimes  used  for  adulterating 
the  better  sorts.  The  black  mustard  seeds  are  red  or 
greyish-brown,  about  the  size  of  millet  ;  the  greenish-yellow 
powder  has  a  pungent  oily  taste,  and  when  triturated  with 
water  yields  a  pungent  odour.  The  white  mustard  seeds 
are  double  the  size  of  the  black,  and  lighter  in  colour. 
Inodorous  when  entire  or  powdered,  and  almost  inodorous 
when  triturated. 

Black  and  white  mustard  seeds  contain  about  25  per  cent, 
of  a  yellow,  tasteless,  non-drying  fixed  oil,  similar  to  that  of 
rape,  and  consisting  of  olein,  stearin,  and  glyceride  of  erucic 
or  brassic  acid  ;  20  per  cent,  of  mucilage,  chiefly  found  in 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  577 

the  epidermis  ;  4  of  inorganic  matters,  and  10  to  15  of 
myrosin,  a  ferment  similar  to  diastase  or  the  emulsin  of 
bitter  almonds,  usually  more  abundant  in  white  than  in 
black  mustard  seeds,  and  coagulated  and  rendered  inactive 
when  heated  above  140°  Fahr.  Black  mustard,  besides, 
contains  about  2|  per  cent,  of  the  crystalline  potassium 
myronate  or  sinigrin  ;  white  mustard  contains  an  allied 
principle,  sinalbin.  When  dissolved  in  water,  as  in  making 
mustard  flour  into  paste,  the  ferment  myrosin  decomposes 
the  crystalline  bodies,  and  there  are  produced  two  acrid, 
irritant  oils  —  the  pungent  volatile  oil  of  mustard,  allyl- 
isothiocyanate  (C3H5NCS)  from  the  black  mustard,  and 
the  fixed  oil — acrinyl-isothiocyanate — (C8H7NSO)  from  the 
white  mustard. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Unbruised  mustard-seeds,  being  only 
partially  and  gradually  digested,  have  little  effect  when 
swallowed.  When  the  ground  seeds  are  mixed  with  water 
the  pungent,  acrid  oils  are  evolved  ;  large  doses  of  the  flour 
are  accordingly  irritant ;  medicinal  doses  are  stomachic, 
carminative,  and  stimulant.  It  is,  however,  rarely  used 
internally,  excepting  as  a  locally  acting  emetic  for  the  dog, 
cat,  or  pig.  For  this  purpose  a  dessert-spoonful  of  mustard 
flour  is  given,  dissolved  in  several  ounces  of  water.  Small 
doses  are  slightly  laxative  and  diuretic  ;  whilst  large  doses 
may  cause  purging  and  collapse. 

As  an  external  irritant,  mustard  is  much  used  as  a  rube- 
facient  and  vesicant.  The  paste  made  with  cold  water,  and 
rubbed  into  the  skin  of  the  horse,  within  twenty  minutes 
causes  congestion,  heat,  and  tenderness,  with  subsequent 
swelling.  Reflexly,  the  activity  of  conterminous  and  sub- 
jacent parts  is  roused.  In  two  to  six  hours  vesication  occurs  ; 
twenty-four  hours  later  some  of  the  vesicles  will  have  run 
together,  others  being  ruptured.  From  repeated,  prolonged, 
or  injudicious  use  in  irritable  states  of  the  skin,  there 
occasionally  ensue  active  inflammation,  sloughing,  and 
destruction  of  the  hair-roots. 

Compared  with  cantharides,  mustard  acts  more  promptly, 
but  unless  used  freely  or  repeatedly  it  is  less  permanent. 
It  is  used  to  control  functional  disturbance  rather  than  to 
repair  structural  damage  ;  it  causes  more  swelling  of  sur- 

2o 


578  MUSTARD 

rounding  parts,  but  less  exudation  of  serum ;  applied 
repeatedly,  especially  to  the  extremities  of  the  horse,  it  is 
more  apt  to  affect  the  skin  deeply,  and  hence  produce 
sloughing  ;  unlike  cantharides,  it  has  no  tendency  to  act 
upon  the  kidneys.  It  is  almost  as  prompt,  and  is  more 
manageable  than  very  hot  water.  For  horses  it  is  less 
irritating  and  burning  than  oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  not  so 
severe  or  so  apt  to  cause  suppuration  as  euphorbium  or 
croton  oil.  For  cattle  it  is  an  excellent  blister,  often  acting 
promptly  when  other  agents  have  slight  or  tardy  effect,  and 
seldom  causing  injury  or  blemishing.  On  dogs  and  sheep  it 
acts  powerfully,  and  must  be  used  with  caution. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — In  all  veterinary  patients  suffering 
from  catarrh,  sore-throat,  laryngitis,  bronchitis,  pneumonia, 
or  pleurisy,  mustard,  applied  in  the  early  congestive  stage, 
lessens  pain  and  relieves  difficult  breathing.  It  is  more 
serviceable  in  chronic  than  acute  bronchitis.  In  pleurisy, 
mustard  liniments  alternated  with  fomentations  are  often 
applied  at  intervals  throughout  the  attack,  but  are  specially 
indicated  after  the  tenth  day,  when  such  counter-irritation 
seems  to  promote  absorption  of  exudate.  During  the  later 
stages  of  pneumonia  mustard  is  of  little  use  ;  but  occasional 
dressings  are  sometimes  serviceable  in  sustaining  the  action 
of  the  heart  and  promoting  absorption.  It  is  frequently 
rubbed  over  a  considerable  area  immediately  external  to 
the  congested,  painful,  or  inflamed  parts  ;  in  about  fifteen 
minutes  it  is  washed  off,  and  in  an  hour  or  two,  if  required, 
another  application  may  be  made. 

Mustard  dressings  are  serviceable  in  acute  indigestion, 
colic,  and  enteritis,  especially  of  horses.  Mustard  is  of 
service  in  chronic  rheumatism,  especially  amongst  cattle,  in 
the  second  stages  of  inflammation  of  joints  and  tendons,  in 
enlargement  of  glands,  and  occasionally  as  a  stimulant  in 
chronic  scurfy  skin  diseases.  Flying  blisters,  applied  over 
the  chest  or  abdomen,  or  below  the  knees  and  hocks,  especi- 
ally when  the  limbs  are  cold,  arouse  vitality,  and  overcome 
congestion  in  the  later  stages  of  pneumonia,  in  parturient 
apoplexy  of  cattle,  and  in  poisoning  by  narcotics.  With 
stimulants  administered  internally,  mustard  is  rubbed  over 
the  region  of  the  heart  to  counteract  syncope.  Applied  over 


MUSTARD    DRESSINGS  579 

the  kidneys,  it  promotes  diuresis.  It  is  occasionally  used 
for  maintaining  or  increasing  the  effects  of  cantharides,  but 
in  horses  considerable  caution  is  necessary  in  applying  the 
one  irritant  soon  after  the  other. 

Mustard  is  specially  indicated  where  extensive  counter- 
irritation  has  to  be  speedily  produced  and  stimulation  of  the 
kidneys  avoided.  Cantharides  or  mercuric  iodide  ointment 
is  preferable  in  chronic  disease  of  joints,  and  where  struc- 
tural changes  have  occurred  in  bone,  cartilage,  or  tendon. 
Neither  mustard,  nor  indeed  any  blister,  can  be  directly 
applied  to  parts  extensively  or  deeply  inflamed  without 
causing  much  irritation,  and  probably  sloughing. 

DOSES,  etc. — If  used  as  a  stomachic,  carminative,  or  mild 
stimulant,  horses  take  ^iv.  to  ^vi.  ;  cattle,  §ss.  to  §j.  ; 
sheep  and  pigs,  3J-  to  3^-  >  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.  To 
prevent  irritation  of  the  fauces,  it  is  given  in  the  form  of 
pill,  bolus,  or  electuary.  Larger  doses,  especially  in  solution, 
act  as  emetics  in  dogs,  cats,  and  pigs. 

Externally,  it  is  used  generally  as  a  paste  made  as  for  the 
table,  with  cold  water.  Hot  water  or  admixture  of  spirit, 
acid,  or  alkali  coagulates  the  ferment,  and  impairs  its  action. 
A  mustard  paste  made  with  water  produced,  in  six  minutes, 
effects  similar  to  those  produced  in  fifty  minutes  with 
mustard  mixed  with  vinegar.  Extra  activity  is  secured  by 
using  black  and  white  mustard  seeds,  in  about  equal  amount, 
ground  unmixed  with  bland  ingredients,  or  by  adding  to  the 
paste  made  from  the  mustard  of  the  shops  a  little  oil  of 
turpentine.  The  freshly-made  paste  is  usually  applied 
directly  to  the  skin,  with  friction  ;  after  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  it  may  be  washed  off  with  tepid  water,  and,  if 
required,  again  applied  two  or  three  times.  Such  repeated 
moderate  external  warming  is  usually  more  serviceable 
than  one  violent  dressing,  whether  for  diminution  of  con- 
gestion, relief  of  pain,  or  even  for  removal  of  exudate. 

For  veterinary  patients  little  use  is  made  of  plasters 
prepared  by  spreading  mustard  upon  calico  or  paper  ;  of 
leaves  consisting  of  powdered  mustard  seeds  and  gutta- 
percha  solution  spread  upon  cartridge  paper  and  dried  ;  or 
of  poultices  usually  made  with  equal  parts  of  mustard  and 
linseed  meal,  well  stirred  with  four  parts  of  hot  water. 


580  FIBROLYSIN— MYKRH 

The  B.P.  volatile  oil  of  mustard,  distilled  from  black 
mustard  seeds  after  maceration  with  water,  is  antiseptic  and 
antipyretic,  and  one  of  the  most  poisonous  of  the  volatile 
oils.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  in  fifty  parts  of  water. 
Rabbits  are  killed  in  two  hours  by  a  drachm,  in  fifteen 
minutes  by  half  an  ounce,  with  symptoms  of  gastro-enteritis, 
loss  of  sensation  and  muscular  power,  difficult  breathing, 
and  collapse.  Diluted  and  applied  externally,  it  is  a  prompt 
and  powerful  vesicant. 

PIBROLYSIN 

Fibrolysin  (Merck)  is  described  as  composed  of  Thiosina- 
mine  (obtained  from  mustard  oil)  and  salicylate  of  soda. 
It  occurs  as  a  clear,  colourless  liquid,  with  a  faint  odour 
and  a  slightly  acrid  taste.  Fibrolysin  has  the  reputation  of 
possessing  the  power  to  soften  pathological  fibrous  tissue 
and  to  prevent  its  contraction.  Its  use  is  indicated  in 
thickened  and  contracted  tendons,  indurations,  fibrous 
ankylosis,  adhesions,  corneal  opacities,  etc.  No  ill  effects 
have  been  noted  from  its  administration  ;  and  it  is  stated 
to  improve  the  appetite  and  general  health.  Rahne, 
Kratzer,  Train,  and  other  veterinary  surgeons,  report 
favourably  of  its  use  in  '  induration  of  the  thigh  '  in  a  mare  ; 
'tendinitis  fibrosa  '  of  both  forelimbs  with  thickening  and 
shortening  of  the  flexor  tendons  ;  fibroid  swelling  of  a 
horse's  hock,  and  enlarged  fetlock  joints.  Fibrolysin  may 
be  administered  hypodermically,  intravenously,  or  by  intra- 
muscular injection  into  the  substance  of  the  gluteal  muscles. 
The  injections  should  be  repeated  daily,  or  at  intervals  of 
two  or  three  days,  according  to  the  case.  Fibrolysin  is 
supplied  in  sterile  glass  ampullae,  each  containing  11*5  c.c., 
in  aqueous  solution,  or  sufficient  for  one  injection  for  the 
horse. 

MYRRH 

MYRRH  A.  A  gum  resin  obtained  from  the  stem  of  Bal- 
samodendron  myrrha  and  probably  other  species  (B.P.). 
Nat.  Ord. — Burseraceae. 

Myrrh  is  imported  from  the  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea.  With 
olibanum  or  frankincense  it  has  long  been  used  in  making 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  581 

incense,  perfumes,  holy  oils,  and  unguents  for  embalming. 
It  exudes  spontaneously,  as  a  yellow- white  oily  substance, 
from  perforations  or  cracks  in  the  cortical  layer  of  the 
trunk  or  branches  of  several  species  of  the  shrubby  thorn- 
like  balsamodendrons.  The  best  sorts  are  in  irregular- 
shaped,  semi-translucent,  red-brown  tears,  or  masses  of 
tears,  which  deepen  in  colour  when  breathed  on.  They 
are  brittle,  and  easily  powdered  ;  their  fracture  is  irregular, 
shining,  oily,  and  occasionally  dotted  with  opaque  white 
markings.  Myrrh  has  a  slightly  bitter,  acrid  taste,  and 
an  agreeable  aromatic  odour.  When  heated,  it  softens, 
froths  up,  and  burns,  leaving  a  dark  spongy  ash.  Powdered, 
with  water  it  forms  an  emulsion,  but  it  readily  dissolves 
in  rectified  spirit.  It  consists  of  50  to  65  per  cent,  of 
soluble  gum,  chiefly  arabin  ;  23  per  cent,  of  a  resin,  myrrhin, 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  acetic  acid,  and  2  per  cent, 
of  a  pale  yellow  volatile  oil,  myrrhol  (C10H140),  isomeric 
with  thymol  and  carrol,  and  some  bitter  substances. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Its  antiseptic  volatile  oil  and  slightly 
irritant  resin  render  myrrh  a  topical  stimulant.  When 
swallowed  it  increases  the  secretions  of  the  gastro-intestinal 
glands,  producing  stomachic,  carminative,  and  mild  laxative 
effects.  During  elimination  it  stimulates  the  mucous  lining 
of  the  respiratory  and  urinary  tracts,  and  is  hence  prescribed 
as  a  disinfectant,  expectorant,  and  diuretic.  It  is  sometimes 
used  as  an  antiseptic,  mildly  astringent  vulnerary,  and  a 
flavouring  agent.  It  resembles  the  fragrant  gum  resin 
olibanum,  produced  by  several  species  of  Boswellia,  and 
the  concrete  resin  of  the  Elemi  tree  imported  from  Manilla. 
It  is  less  stimulant  than  the  balsams  and  foetid  gum 
resins. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  3ij-  ;  sheep  and  pigs, 
3ss.  to  3i-  ;  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.,  repeated  several  times 
daily,  in  bolus,  decoction,  or  tincture,  with  vegetable 
tonics,  or  with  aloes.  The  tincture  of  myrrh  is  thus  pre- 
pared : — Macerate  4  ounces  of  myrrh  in  16  ounces  of  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.),  for  seven  days  in  a  closed  vessel ;  shake 
frequently,  filter,  and  add  sufficient  alcohol  to  make  one 
pint. 


582  PEPPERS 

PEPPERS 

The  black  and  white  peppers  in  daily  domestic  use  are 
obtained  from  the  brown  wrinkled  berries  of  an  East  Indian 
perennial  climbing  plant — the  Piper  nigrum,  of  the  natural 
order  Piperacese.  They  are  imported  from  the  Malabar 
coast,  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  the  West 
Indies.  The  pendulous  spike,  bearing  twenty  to  thirty 
berries,  is  gathered  as  it  begins  to  redden,  shortly  before 
ripening,  and  is  dried  in  the  sun.  The  berries  rubbed  off, 
and  ground  without  separating  their  outer  covering,  yield 
black  pepper.  To  prepare  the  milder  white  pepper,  the 
best  and  soundest  ripe  berries  are  steeped  in  water,  and 
stripped  of  their  pungent  outer  covering  before  they  are 
ground.  Long  pepper,  the  produce  of  Chavica  Roxburghi, 
is  brought  from  Singapore  and  Batavia,  and  consists  of 
small,  closely-attached  berries,  arranged  on  cylindrical  grey 
spadices  one  or  two  inches  long. 

The  peppers  when  ground  have  a  hot,  pungent,  spicy 
taste,  and  owe  their  properties  to  1*6  to  2- 2  per  cent,  of 
a  volatile  oil — isomeric  with  oil  of  turpentine  (C10H16),  a 
soft,  pungent  resin,  and  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  colourless, 
crystallisable,  neutral  piperine  (C17H19N03),  which  is  isomeric 
with  morphine,  and  when  boiled  with  caustic  potash  yield 
an  active  oily  alkaloid,  piperidine  (C5HnN). 

Cubebs,  or  Cubeba,  is  the  dried,  partially  ripened  fruit 
of  the  Piper  Cubeba,  cultivated  in  Java  and  other  islands 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  berries  are  stalked,  and 
lighter  coloured  than  those  of  common  pepper,  are  globular, 
rough,  and  wrinkled,  with  a  strong  odour,  and  pungent, 
aromatic,  bitter  taste.  They  contain  a  volatile  oil,  a  resin, 
and  the  neutral  crystalline  cubebin,  which  is  devoid  of  any 
marked  action. 

Piper  angustifolium,  a  shrub  found  in  moist  regions 
throughout  Brazil  and  Peru,  yields  matico  leaves,  much 
used  in  America  as  a  styptic  dressing,  and  also  occasionally 
administered  for  the  arrest  of  internal  haemorrhage. 

Pimenta,  pimento,  Jamaica  pepper,  or  allspice,  closely 
resembles  the  true  peppers ;  is  the  dried,  unripe  berry  of 
Pimenta  officinalis,  an  evergreen  West  Indian  tree  of  the 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  583 

natural  family  Myrtaceae.  The  berries  are  about  the  size 
of  those  of  the  Piper  nigrum,  have  the  same  penetrating 
aromatic  odour,  and  hot,  pungent  taste,  but  are  more 
truly  aromatic  and  less  acrid.  They  contain  an  acrid  fixed 
oil,  and  about  6  per  cent,  of  volatile  oil,  with  traces  of  an 
alkaloid,  having  the  odour  of  conine  (Fliickiger).  Oil  of 
pimento  contains  about  70  per  cent,  of  aphenol,  eugenol, 
and  is  sometimes  substituted  for  oil  of  cloves. 

Capsicum — the  dried  ripe  fruit  of  Capsicum  minimum — 
is  also  known  as  Chili  pepper,  chillies,  Guinea  or  pod  pepper. 
The  red  pods  are  filled  with  numerous  small  round  or 
ovoid  red-brown  seeds.  Both  pericarp  and  seeds  are 
pungent,  and  when  ground  constitute  the  familiar  Cayenne 
pepper,  which  owes  its  pungent  acridity  and  irritant  pro- 
perties to  an  acrid  non- volatile  substance,  capsaicin  (C9H1402), 
and  an  alkaloid,  capsicine,  resembling  conine  in  odour. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  peppers  are  irritants,  stimulating 
stomachics,  carminatives,  and  rubefacients.  Large  doses, 
especially  in  carnivora  and  omnivora,  are  irritant  poisons, 
inflaming  the  alimentary  tract  and  sometimes  also  the  urino- 
genital  mucous  membrane.  That  they  are  especially 
poisonous  to  pigs  is  a  popular  error.  Properly  regulated 
doses  promote  salivary  and  gastric  secretions,  are  stomachic 
and  carminative,  and  during  their  excretion  stimulate  the 
urino-genital  mucous  membrane.  Rubbed  into  the  skin 
they  cause  redness,  irritation,  and  swelling.  The  several 
peppers  differ  in  the  intensity  of  their  action.  The  black 
is  more  active  than  the  white  and  long  peppers,  which  are 
of  nearly  equal  strength.  Pimento  is  less  active,  while 
capsicum  is  more  irritant  than  black  pepper.  In  virtue 
of  its  stimulant  in-contact  effect,  and  its  rendering  the  urine 
antiseptic,  cubebs  checks  irritation  and  discharges  from  the 
urino-genital  mucous  membrane. 

Black  pepper  (the  variety  chiefly  used  in  veterinary 
practice)  is  administered  in  simple  indigestion,  and  for 
obviating  the  disagreeable  taste  and  nauseating  effects  of 
various  drugs.  It  is  not  now  given  as  a  sialogogue,  nor  for 
the  object  of  increasing  sexual  appetite,  which,  when 
defective,  may  usually  be  restored,  not  by  irritating  drugs, 
but  by  measures  which  improve  general  vigour.  It  ought 


584  GINGER 

not  to  be  used  for  blistering  ointments,  or  for  setons,  nor 
introduced  into  the  rectum  of  horses  exposed  for  sale — a 
barbarous  practice,  apt  to  induce  serious  intestinal  irri- 
tation. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  black  pepper,  as  a  stomachic,  horses  take 
about  3i- ;  cattle,  3ij- 1  sheep  and  swine,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx.  ; 
dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x.,  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
given  in  bolus,  suspended  in  water  or  spirit,  or  in  well- 
boiled  gruel.  The  tincture  of  capsicum  is  made  with 
one  of  capsicum  and  twenty  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.). 


GINGER 

ZINGIBER.     The   scraped   and   dried   rhizome   of   Zingiber 
officinale  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Zingiberacese. 

The  Zingiber  officinale,  grown  in  many  tropical  countries, 
has  a  biennial,  creeping,  fleshy,  and  nodulous  rhizome,  which 
gives  off  numerous  descending  short  radicles,  with  several 
ascending  annual  leafy  stems,  reaching  three  or  four  feet  in 
height,  invested  with  alternate  elliptical  leaves,  and  termi- 
nated by  spikes  and  racemes  of  purple  flowers.  For  making 
green  or  preserved  ginger,  the  rhizomes  are  gathered  while 
still  soft  and  juicy,  and  when  about  three  months  old.  For 
other  purposes  they  are  taken  up  when  about  a  year  old, 
when  the  aerial  stems  have  withered,  but  while  the  rhizome 
is  still  plump  and  soft.  They  are  scalded  to  check  vege- 
tation, usually  scraped  to  remove  the  brown  wrinkled 
epidermis,  and  dried  in  the  sun. 

PROPERTIES. — Several  sorts  are  recognised.  The  Jamaica, 
in  plump,  flat,  pale  pieces  or  races,  the  bark  stripped  of 
epidermis,  producing  a  light-coloured  powder  of  superior 
quality  ;  Malabar  or  Cochin  China,  a  little  darker,  but 
usually  good  ;  Bengal  and  African,  imported  both  coated 
and  uncoated,  and  generally  cheap  and  excellent ;  Barbados, 
in  short  thick  races,  retaining  its  brown  corrugated  epider- 
mis. The  unstripped  descriptions  are  sometimes  termed 
black  gingers.  The  several  varieties  are  in  flat,  irregular- 
lobed,  knotted,  zigzag  pieces,  two  to  four  inches  in  length, 
externally  pale  yellow,  striated,  and  fibrous,  breaking  with  a 


AN   AROMATIC    STIMULANT  585 

mealy,  short,  somewhat  fibrous  fracture,  having  a  strong 
agreeable,  aromatic  odour,  a  warm,  pungent  taste,  and  dis- 
solving in  water  and  alcohol. 

Ginger  owes  its  taste  to  a  pungent  resin,  its  aroma  to  a 
volatile  oil,  and  its  medicinal  and  flavouring  properties  to 
both  constituents,  which  are  chiefly  found  in  the  delicate 
felted  layer  of  skin  lying  between  the  starchy,  mealy 
parenchyma  and  the  brown,  horny,  external  covering. 
As  a  condiment  and  medicine  Great  Britain  annually  im- 
ports about  300  tons  of  ginger. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Ginger  is  an  aromatic  stimulant,  and 
is  used  as  a  stomachic  and  carminative  for  all  patients, 
notably  for  cattle  and  sheep. 

Blown  into  the  nostrils  it  increases  nasal  discharge  ; 
chewed,  it  reflexly  augments  the  flow  of  saliva  ;  administered 
internally,  it  promotes  gastric  secretion,  digestion,  and 
appetite.  It  is  prescribed  in  atonic  dyspepsia,  often  with 
antacids  and  laxatives.  Conjoined  with  purgatives,  it 
diminishes  their  tendency  to  nauseate  and  gripe,  and  also 
somewhat  hastens  their  effects. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  the  horse,  ^iv.  to  §i.  ;  for  cattle,  §i.  to 
§ij.  ;  for  sheep,  %i.  to  3ij-  ;  for  pigs,  3ss.  to  3i.  ;  for  dogs, 
grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx.  A  bolus  is  made  with  any  suitable 
excipient ;  an  infusion  is  used  sometimes  sweetened  with 
treacle  or  sugar  ;  the  B.P.  tincture  is  prepared  with  two 
ounces  powdered  ginger  to  a  pint  of  rectified  spirit  by 
maceration  and  subsequent  percolation.  A  syrup  of  ginger, 
made  with  a  strong  tincture  and  the  B.P.  simple  syrup,  is 
occasionally  prescribed.  An  oleo-resin,  obtained  from 
ginger,  and  known  as  gingerin  may  be  substituted  for  ginger 
in  dispensing  purgatives. 


CINNAMON 

CINNAMOMI  CORTEX.      Cinnamon  Bark.      The  dried  inner 
bark  of  shoots  from  the  truncated  stocks  of  Cinna- 
momum  zeylanicum.     Imported  from  Ceylon,  and  dis- 
tinguished in  commerce  as  Ceylon  cinnamon  (B.P.) 
Nat.  Ord. — Laurineae. 


586  CINNAMON— ASAFCETIDA 

OINNAMOMI  OLEUM.  The  oil  distilled  from  cinnamon  bark 
(B.P.). 

The  bark  occurs  in  rolled  quills,  is  thin  and  brittle,  yellow- 
brown  externally,  darker  brown  on  its  inner  surface,  with  a 
fragrant  odour,  and  a  warm,  sweet,  aromatic  taste.  Besides 
mannite,  resin,  and  other  vegetable  constituents,  the  bark 
contains  tannic  and  cinnamic  acids,  but  its  aroma  and 
medicinal  properties  depend  upon  the  presence  of  about 
one  per  cent,  of  a  volatile  oil,  cinnamic  aldehyde  (C9H80), 
which,  when  fresh,  is  bright  yellow,  but  becomes  cherry- 
red  when  kept.  Its  constituents  are  eugenol  (also  found 
in  cloves),  cinnamic  aldehyde,  and  a  terpene.  An  inferior 
oil  is  extracted  from  the  leaves. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Cinnamon  bark  is  aromatic,  carmina- 
tive, and  astringent,  and  is  used  for  flavouring. 

The  oil  resembles  that  of  anise,  caraway,  coriander, 
peppermint,  and  of  other  Umbelliferse  and  Labiatae.  It  is 
antiseptic,  carminative,  stimulant,  and  haemostatic,  and  is 
useful  in  all  animals  affected  with  indigestion,  flatulence, 
or  diarrhoea.  The  tincture  is  made  with  4  ounces  of  bark 
to  a  pint  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.). 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  bark,  horses  take  ^iv.  to  §i.  ;  dogs, 
3ss.  to  3i-  Of  the  oil,  horses  take  fl\xx.  to  f3i-  ;  dogs, 
Tl\i.  to  Tf\iv.,  administered  on  sugar,  or  in  syrup,  mucilage, 
or  spirit  and  water. 

ASAFCBTIDA 

A  Gum  Resin  obtained  by  incision  from  the  root  of  Ferula 
foetida,  and  probably  other  species.  Imported  from 
Bombay  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord.— Umbelliferse. 

The  Ferula  fcetida,  or  Narthex  asafcetida,  has  a  massive 
perennial  root,  black  externally,  white  within.  When  the 
plant  is  four  years  old,  the  leaves  and  stems  are  removed, 
and,  six  weeks  later,  a  slice  is  cut  from  the  upper  part  of 
the  root ;  the  slicing  is  repeated  several  times  at  intervals, 
when  the  plant  is  exhausted,  after  yielding  from  a  half 
pound  to  two  pounds  of  a  foetid  milky  juice,  which  concretes. 
The  yellow-brown  tears  are  mixed  with  soft  earth  and  made 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  587 

into  irregular  masses,  which  are  red-brown  externally,  and 
within  are  opaque  and  milk-white,  but  gradually  change 
to  a  dull  yellow-brown.  Asafcetida  has  a  strong,  persistent, 
alliaceous  odour,  and  a  bitter,  acrid  taste.  It  is  pulverised 
with  difficulty,  forms  an  emulsion  with  water,  is  dissolved 
in  rectified  spirit,  and  also  in  potash  and  ammonia.  Its 
active  constituents  are  resin,  gum,  and  about  5  per  cent, 
of  an  acrid  volatile  oil  containing  allyl  sulphide  (C3H5)2S. 
A  good  sample  of  asafcetida  should  contain  about  65  per 
cent,  of  matter  soluble  in  rectified  spirit. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Asafoetida  is  a  mild  stimulant,  ex- 
pectorant, carminative,  antispasmodic,  and  vermifuge.  It 
is  speedily  absorbed,  its  disagreeable  odour  indicating  its 
general  distribution  ;  it  is  eliminated  from  the  pulmonary 
mucous  surface,  the  skin,  and  kidneys,  gently  stimulating 
their  secretions.  Robertson  used  asafoetida,  with  aloes 
and  nux  vomica,  in  constipation  and  torpidity  of  the  bowels 
in  horses,  and  in  flatulent  colic  prescribed  the  tincture 
along  with  oil  of  linseed  and  of  turpentine.  The  spiritus 
ammonias  fcetidus,  made  with  1J  ounce  asafoatida,  2  ounces 
strong  solution  of  ammonia,  and  sufficient  alcohol  (90  per 
cent.)  to  make  one  pint  of  the  spirit ;  and  the  tincture  of 
asafcetida,  are  sometimes  prescribed  in  colic  and  chronic 
cough.  Like  other  substances  containing  odorous  volatile 
oils,  asafcetida  is  a  vermifuge,  but  its  action  is  uncertain. 
It  is  allied  in  some  of  its  actions  to  valerian,  and  to  sumbul, 
and  closely  resembles  the  two  gum-resins,  ammoniacum 
and  galbanum,  which  are  scarcely  so  active,  and  are  chiefly 
used  for  making  charges  and  plasters. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  ^ij.  to  ^iv.  ;  cattle,  §j.  ; 
sheep,  3i-  \  an(i  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.  It  is  given  several 
times  a  day  ;  may  be  made  into  bolus  with  camphor  and 
ammonium  carbonate  ;  is  frequently  prescribed  in  draught 
with  watery  or  alcoholic  solution  of  ammonia  ;  and,  to 
prevent  their  misappropriation,  it  may  be  added  to  alcoholic 
and  ethereal  preparations  intended  for  veterinary  patients. 
In  colic,  asafoetida  (3JV0  may  be  added  to  a  quart  of  linseed 
tea  and  administered  per  rectum. 


588  ARNICA 

ARNICA 

ARNICA  RHIZOMA.  The  dried  rhizome  and  roots  of  Arnica 
montana  (B.P.).  Leopard's  Bane.  Mountain  Tobacco. 
Nat.  Ord. — Composite. 

Arnica  montana  is  a  perennial,  growing  on  the  mountain- 
ous parts  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  and  also  in 
Asia  and  America.  It  has  a  hairy  stem  about  one  foot 
high,  composite  yellow  flowers,  used  in  America  for  making 
the  tincture,  obovate  leaves,  and  a  cylindrical,  contorted, 
brown  root,  one  to  three  inches  long,  two  or  three  lines  thick, 
distinguished  by  a  peculiar,  aromatic,  offensive  odour,  and 
a  bitter,  peppery,  acrid  taste.  It  contains  mucin,  extractive 
matter,  two  volatile  oils,  and  an  active,  bitter,  yellow, 
amorphous  principle,  arniein. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Arnica  is  irritant  and  stimulant, 
has  been  credited  with  alterative  properties,  and  is  used 
externally  as  a  stimulant  for  strains,  bruises,  and  wounds. 

Externally,  arnica  is  a  popular  vulnerary  for  strains, 
bruises,  and  wounds,  and  especially  for  broken  knees  and 
sore  shoulders.  An  ounce  of  the  tincture  is  dissolved  in 
twelve  to  twenty  ounces  of  cold,  water.  A  more  efficient 
lotion  is  made  with  a  drachm  of  arnica  tincture  and  one  to 
two  drachms  of  zinc  sulphate  or  lead  acetate,  diluted  with 
ten  or  twelve  ounces  of  water.  For  painful  or  irritable 
wounds  the  tincture  is  employed  with  chloroform,  bella- 
donna, or  laudanum,  diluted  with  water  according  to 
circumstances.  With  liberal  feeding  and  tonics,  a  drop 
of  arnica  tincture  placed  daily  within  the  eyelids  is  one 
of  the  remedies  for  those  troublesome  ulcers  of  the 
cornea  which  affect  weakly  dogs  recovering  from  distemper. 
Arnica  has,  however,  been  overestimated  ;  the  evidence 
of  its  value  as  an  internal  remedy  requires  confirmation, 
while  the  healing  properties  ascribed  to  it  appear  to  depend 
on  the  other  drugs,  spirit,  or  cold  water  with  which  it  is 
generally  used. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  f3iv.  to  f  §i.  of  the  tincture  ; 
cattle,  double  that  quantity  ;  dogs  H\v.  to  fl\viij.,  mixed 
with  water,  ale,  or  gruel.  The  flowers,  leaves,  and  root 
are  occasionally  used  powdered,  especially  in  poultices  ; 


ANISE  589 

the  tincture  is  made  with  an  ounce  of  the  root  in  powder 
(No.  40)  to  a  pint  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.).  Watery  infu- 
sions can  be  of  little  efficacy,  for  neither  the  arnicin  nor 
volatile  oil  is  soluble  in  water.  Arnica  opodeldoc  consists 
of  white  soap  four  parts,  rectified  spirit  ten,  tincture  of 
arnica  five  and  camphor  one.  It  is  used  as  a  local  stimu- 
lant. 

ANISE 

ANISI  FRUCTUS.  Anise  fruit.  The  dried  ripe  fruit  of  Pim- 
pinella  anisum.  Nat.  Ord. — Umbelliferae. 

OLEUM  ANISI.  Oil  of  Anise.  The  oil  distilled  from  anise 
fruit ;  or  from  the  fruit  of  the  Star  anise,  Illicium 
verum  (B.P.). 

The  natural  order  Umbelliferae  yields  many  aromatic 
fruits,  such  as  anise,  caraway,  coriander,  dill,  and  fennel, 
as  well  as  the  aromatic  gum-resins,  asafcetida,  galbanum, 
and  ammoniacum.  These  aromatic  umbelliferous  fruits, 
like  the  fruits,  leaves,  and  other  parts  of  various  plants  of 
such  orders  as  the  Myrtacese,  Labiatae,  and  Coniferae,  owe 
their  medicinal  value  chiefly  to  their  yielding  volatile  oils. 
These  oils  possess  certain  properties  and  actions  in  common, 
and  the  student  should  be  familiar  with  their  group  char- 
acters. 

ACTIONS  OF  VOLATILE  OILS. — Volatile  oils  are  readily 
diffusible  ;  their  in-contact  effects  are  produced,  not  only 
when  they  are  applied  topically,  but  when  they  are  absorbed 
and  distributed  in  the  blood  stream.  When  concentrated 
they  are  local  irritants  and  parasiticides  ;  when  diluted 
they  paralyse  sensory  nerve-endings.  Internally,  they 
exert  the  same  actions  in  the  alimentary  tract,  and  hence 
are  anodyne,  carminative,  and  antispasmodic.  As  a  result 
of  this  topical  action  they  reflexly  stimulate  circulation, 
respiration,  and  secretion.  When  absorbed  they  have 
little  effect  on  the  system  in  medicinal  doses,  but  large  doses 
first  stimulate  and  later  paralyse  the  central  nervous  system. 
As  with  other  stimulants  large  doses  paralyse  the  heart. 
They  reduce  inordinate  reflex  activity  of  the  spinal  cord. 
They  are  eliminated  chiefly — (1)  by  the  respiratory  mucous 


590  ANISE 

membrane,  being  stimulant  antiseptic  expectorants,  in- 
creasing bronchial  secretion,  and  counteracting  septic 
conditions  of  the  membrane  ;  and  (2)  by  the  kidneys,  in 
moderate  doses  producing  diuresis  and  antisepsis  through- 
out the  urinary  tract,  but  in  large  doses  causing  over- 
stimulation  and  strangury. 

Anise  is  chiefly  imported  from  Spain,  Germany,  and 
Southern  Russia.  It  is  an  ovoid,  grey-brown  fruit, 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  covered  with  minute 
hairs.  Like  other  fruits  of  this  order,  it  is  separable  into 
two  symmetrical  mericarps,  each  of  which  is  encircled  by 
five  slender  ridges,  while  its  transverse  section  exhibits 
about  fifteen  vittse,  which  elaborate  the  oil. 

Both  anise  fruits  yield  about  5  per  cent,  of  a  mixture,  in 
nearly  equal  proportions,  of  a  fixed  oil,  and  a  volatile 
anethol  or  camphor-like  body,  common  to  the  Umbelli- 
ferse,  and  some  other  plants,  and  having  the  formula 
C10H120.  It  is  a  phenol  derivative,  with  some  of  its  hydro- 
gen atoms  displaced  by  methyl  and  allyl,  and  having  the 
rational  formula  C3H5.C6H4.OCH3.  It  is  colourless,  but 
becomes  yellow  on  keeping  ;  exhibits  intensely  the  char- 
acteristic aromatic  odour  and  taste  of  the  fruit,  and  is 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  The  oil  from  the  pimpinella 
solidifies  at  from  50°  to  60°  Fahr.  ;  that  from  the  star- 
anise  at  about  36°  Fahr. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Anise  is  an  aromatic  stimulant, 
stomachic,  and  carminative.  It  is  used  to  relieve  indiges- 
tion and  flatulence,  to  communicate  an  agreeable  flavour 
to  many  medicines,  and  to  diminish  the  griping  of  purga- 
tives. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  receive  about  gi.  ;  cattle,  §i.  to  gij.  ; 
sheep  and  swine,  39-  to  S^i-  ;  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  1., 
given  powdered,  repeated  several  times  a  day,  often  con- 
joined with  ginger  or  other  aromatics,  and  conveniently 
administered  in  ale  or  in  spirit  and  water.  Oil  of  anise, 
like  oil  of  caraway,  or  coriander,  is  a  diffusible  stimulant, 
antiseptic,  carminative,  and  antispasmodic.  For  such  pur- 
poses cheaper  remedies  are  generally,  however,  employed  ; 
but  it  is  occasionally  used  as  a  flavouring  ingredient, 
more  especially  for  ball  masses,  and,  mixed  with  a  little 


EUCALYPTUS  591 

spirit  and  bland  oil,  for  the  destruction  of  lice  in  pet  dogs 
and  other  small  animals. 

Caraway,  cardamoms,  coriander,  fennel,  and  fenugreek 
resemble  anise  in  their  actions  and  uses,  and  may  be  given 
in  similar  doses.  These  seeds  are  sometimes  used  by  feeders 
of  pigs,  sheep,  and  cattle,  and  by  waggoners  and  others, 
for  improving  the  coat  and  condition  of  their  charges. 
Fenugreek  especially  is  prized  for  such  purposes,  is  a  con- 
stituent of  various  '  drinks,'  and,  with  ground  peas,  maize 
meal,  locust  bean,  and  linseed  meal,  forms  several  vaunted 
condiments  or  i  nourishing  foods.' 


EUCALYPTUS 

OLEUM  EUCALYPTI.  Oil  of  Eucalyptus.  The  oil  distilled 
from  the  fresh  leaves  of  Eucalyptus  globulus,  and  other 
species  of  Eucalyptus  (B.P.).  C10H180. 

EUCALYPTI  GUMMI.  Eucalyptus  gum,  a  ruby-coloured 
exudation  from  the  bark  of  Eucalyptus  rostrata,  and 
some  other  species  of  Eucalyptus.  Imported  from 
Australia  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — Myrtaceae. 

The  leaves  and  flower-buds  of  various  Myrtacese,  such  as 
cloves,  pimento,  myrtle,  and  cajuput,  as  well  as  eucalyptus 
yield,  when  distilled,  aromatic,  antiseptic,  volatile  oils. 
The  rapidly-growing  eucalyptus-trees,  indigenous  to  the 
Australian  colonies,  are  now  largely  cultivated  in  many 
temperate  regions  with  the  view  of  preventing  malarial 
fevers. 

The  dried  leaves  yield  about  70  per  cent,  of  eucalyptol,  a 
colourless  or  pale,  straw-coloured,  liquid  volatile  oil,  darken- 
ing by  exposure,  of  an  aromatic  odour,  and  spicy,  pungent 
taste,  and  soluble  in  about  its  own  weight  of  alcohol.  Its 
antiseptic  powers  increase  as  it  undergoes  oxidation  by  keep- 
ing. Other  constituents  are  a  crystallisable  resin,  tannin, 
and  an  oil,  cineol,  which  crystallises  at  30°  Fahr. 

Eucalyptus,  or  red  gum,  occurs  in  grains  or  masses.  It  is 
tough,  and  has  a  very  astringent  taste.  Cold  water  dissolves 
80  to  90  per  cent.,  forming  a  neutral  solution.  It  is  soluble 
in  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  Red  gum  contains  kino-tannic 


592  EUCALYPTUS 

acid,  catechin,  and  catechol.     It  resembles  kino,  which  is 
less  soluble  in  water. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  oil  possesses  in  marked  degree 
the  group  characters  of  volatile  oils,  well  illustrated  by 
turpentine.  When  freely  used  in  concentrated  form  it  is 
an  in-contact  irritant.  It  is  powerfully  antiseptic  and 
disinfectant,  destroying  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life. 
Locally  applied  it  first  irritates  and  then  impairs  sensibility 
by  paralysing  sensory  nerve  terminals.  It  is  readily 
absorbed,  increasing  cardiac  action,  and  is  hence  a  stimulant 
and  antispasmodic  ;  and  as  it  passes  out  of  the  body  it 
increases  the  activity  of  the  excreting  channels,  chiefly 
the  respiratory  mucous  membrane  and  the  kidneys.  Its 
antiseptic  properties  confer  some  anti-malarial  action ; 
but  it  cannot,  as  has  been  suggested,  take  the  place  of  the 
cinchona  alkaloids. 

Eucalyptus  oil  is  used  as  a  stimulant  and  antiseptic  gargle, 
inhalation,  and  spray  to  diminish  excessive  quantity  and 
fcetor  of  nasal,  pharyngeal,  and  bronchial  secretions.  It  is 
administered  in  protracted  cases  of  strangles,  influenza, 
and  purpura  in  horses,  septicaemia  in  all  animals,  and  in 
distemper  in  dogs — in  such  cases  being  usefully  combined 
with  quinine,  ether,  and  alcohol.  Arloing  and  Thomas 
state  that  solutions  containing  one  xfrath  Par^  destroy  the 
virus  of  black-quarter.  As  an  antiseptic  it  is  three  times  as 
powerful  as  carbolic  acid,  for  which  it  is  sometimes  sub- 
stituted in  surgical  cases.  Eucalyptus  gauze  is  unbleached 
cotton  impregnated  with  one  part  oil  of  eucalyptus,  three 
of  dammar  resin,  and  three  of  paraffin  wax.  Eucalyptus 
wool  contains  5  per  cent,  of  the  oil.  In  foetid  uterine 
discharges,  eucalyptol  injections  or  pessaries  are  useful. 
The  gum  is  astringent,  and  styptic.  As  a  desiccant, 
mixed  with  starch  and  zinc  oxide,  it  is  used  for  superficial 
wounds.  Occasionally  red  gum  is  prescribed  for  diarrhoea 
in  dogs. 

DOSES,  etc.,  of  the  oil. — Horses  and  cattle  take  f3i.  to 
f3iv.  ;  dogs,  n\ii.  to  fl\x.,  in  diluted  spirits,  mucilage,  or 
milk.  For  parasitic  skin  affections  and  other  external 
purposes  it  is  dissolved  in  oil  or  cacao  butter,  and  is  often 
usefully  conjoined  with  iodoform.  Eulyptol,  consisting  of 


JUNIPER  593 

equal  parts  of  eucalyptol,  carbolic  acid,  and  salicylic  acid, 
has  been  recommended  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic. 


JUNIPER 

OLEUM  JUNIPERI.     Oil  of  juniper.     The  oil  distilled  from 

the  full-grown,  unripe,  green  fruit  of  Juniperus  com- 

munis. 
SPIRITUS  JUNIPERI.     Spirit  of  Juniper.     A  solution  of  the 

oil    in    alcohol    (90    per    cent.)    (B.P.).     Nat.    Ord.— 

Coniferae. 

The  junipers  are  shrubby  evergreen  trees,  growing  in  most 
temperate  countries.  Their  leaves  are  dark-green,  linear 
and  arranged  three  in  a  whorl.  Juniper  berries  are  bluish- 
purple,  furrowed,  of  the  size  and  appearance  of  currants  ; 
have  an  aromatic,  terebinthinate  odour,  and  a  warm, 
sweet  taste,  followed  by  bitterness.  For  flavouring  gin 
about  two  pounds  of  the  berries  are  added  to  one  hundred 
gallons  of  spirit.  They  owe  their  distinctive  properties  to 
about  2  per  cent,  of  a  mixture  of  two  volatile  oils,  one  of 
which  is  polymeric  with  terpene  (C10H16). 

The  fresh  and  dried  tops  of  Juniperus  sabina  yield  oil  of 
savin,  which  is  sometimes  used  as  an  ecbolic.  From  the 
wood  of  the  Juniperus  oxycedrus,  and  occasionally  from 
that  of  the  communis,  the  brown  empyreumatic  oil  of  cade 
is  got  by  dry  distillation.  It  is  used  in  France  and  other 
continental  countries  for  most  of  the  purposes  of  oil  of  tar, 
and  is  recommended  in  scaly  skin  diseases. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  fruit,  oil,  and  spirit  of  common 
juniper  are  topical  irritants,  and  when  absorbed  are  stimu- 
lant, stomachic,  carminative,  and  diuretic.  They  resemble 
the  turpentines,  and  thuja,  or  arbor  vitae. 

Two  ounces  of  the  berries  given  to  horses  and  cattle  have 
little  notable  effect ;  but  three  to  four  ounces  induce 
diuresis.  The  fruit  and  oil  are  occasionally  given  as  diuretics, 
stomachics,  and  carminatives  in  indigestion  and  flatulence, 
and  are  stated  to  diminish  the  evil  effects  of  bad  fodder  and 
marshy  pastures,  and  to  aid  alike  the  prevention  and  cure 
of  ascites  in  sheep.  This  is  probably  on  account  of  their 

2p 


594  PEPPERMINT — MENTHOL 

effects  on  intestinal  parasites  and  those  ingested  with  the 
food,  such  as  flukes  and  strongyles.  The  oil  mixed  with 
lard  and  applied  to  exposed  wounds  prevents  irritation  from 
flies. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  fruit,  as  a  stomachic,  horses  and 
cattle  take  §i.  to  gij.  ;  sheep,  3ij-  to  3iv-  5  dogs,  grs.  xx. 
to  grs.  xl.,  repeated  twice  a  day,  in  electuary  or  bolus.  The 
fruit  is  readily  eaten  by  most  animals,  especially  by  sheep. 
A  decoction,  made  from  the  fruit,  is  occasionally  prescribed, 
and  also  used  as  an  external  stimulant.  As  a  diuretic  the 
oil  is  the  best  form.  Horses  and  cattle  take  %i.  to  3iJ-  > 
dogs,  TT[v.  to  H\x.,  which  may  be  repeated  at  intervals  of 
three  hours  till  diuresis  is  induced.  Of  the  spirit,  as  a 
carminative  and  stomachic,  cattle  and  horses  take  "^iv.  to 
§j.  ;  sheep,  39-  to  3iv.  ;  dogs,  H\xx.  to  3J->  in  oil,  or  mixed 
with  other  medicines. 


PEPPERMINT 

OLEUM  MENTHJE  PIPERITJE.     Oil  of  Peppermint.     The  oil  j 
distilled  from  the  fresh  flowering  peppermint,  Mentha 
piperita  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Labiatse. 

The  natural  order  Labiatse  furnishes  peppermint,  spear- 
mint, pennyroyal,  lavender,  rosemary,  marjoram,  and 
thyme ;  and  from  these  plants,  when  fresh  flowering, 
aromatic,  antiseptic,  volatile  oils  are  obtained.  Similar  oils 
are  extracted  from  the  leaves  of  various  Myrtacese,  from  the 
petals  of  roses,  from  the  flowers  and  fruit  of  various  Rutaceae,  * 
and  from  the  seeds  of  various  Umbelliferae. 

Of  the  Labiatse  volatile  oils  peppermint  is  the  most  com- 
monly used.  The  fresh  plant  yields  1  to  T25  per  cent,  of 
the  colourless  or  pale  yellow  oil,  characterised  by  its  warm 
aromatic  taste  and  subsequent  sensation  of  coldness.  It 
consists  of  two  isomeric  oils — the  fluid  menthene  (C10H18), 
and  the  crystalline  menthol  (C10H19.OH),  which  is  homo- 
logous with  thymol,  obtained  from  the  volatile  oil  of  thyme. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Oil  of  peppermint  is  a  typical  volatile 
oil ;  it  is  an  antiseptic,  topical  stimulant  and  anaesthetic, 
carminative,  antispasmodic,  and  parasiticide.  It  is  moi 


CHAMOMILE   FLOWERS  595 

active  than  the  oil  from  Mentha  viridis,  or  spearmint,  or  M. 
pulegium,  or  pennyroyal.  Diluted  solutions  arrest  the  de- 
velopment of  bacilli  as  effectually  as  carbolic  acid,  or 
eucalyptus  oil,  and  are  hence  used  as  dressings  for  wounds, 
and  as  sprays  or  gargles  for  ulcerated  throat.  It  destroys 
vegetable  and  animal  parasites  infesting  the  skin.  After 
stimulating,  it  paralyses  the  ends  of  sensory  nerves  with 
which  it  is  brought  into  contact,  and  hence  relieves  gastro- 
intestinal, neuralgic,  and  other  pains.  Painful  surfaces  are 
gently  rubbed  with  a  cone  of  menthol,  solution  being  pro- 
moted by  wetting  with  a  little  spirit.  Increased  anaesthesia 
is  secured  by  diluting  the  menthol  with  eight  or  ten  parts  of 
ether,  or  mixing  it  with  an  equal  part  of  thymol,  carbolic 
acid,  or  butyl  chloral-hydrate.  Peppermint  oil  is  used  to 
prevent  the  nausea  and  spasms  sometimes  produced  by 
purgatives  ;  to  flavour  medicinal  preparations  or  cover  their 
unpalatable  taste.  It  forms  a  useful  addition  to  drenches 
for  flatulent  colic. 

DOSES,  etc.,  of  the  oil. — For  horses  and  cattle,  ll\xx.  to 
u\xxx.  ;  for  dogs,  Tf[iii.  to  Tl\v.,  given  on  a  piece  of  sugar  or 
in  spirit  and  water.  Peppermint  water  contains  one  of  oil 
in  one  thousand  of  water.  The  spirit  consists  of  one  part 
of  oil  to  nine  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 


CHAMOMILB    FLOWERS 

ANTHEMIDIS  FLORES. — The  dried  expanded  flower-heads  of 
Anthemis  nobilis.  Collected  from  cultivated  plants 
(B.P.).  Nat.  Ord.— Composite. 

Chamomile  flowers  are  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  England,  are  gathered  during  dry  weather, 
exposed  for  a  short  time  on  trays  in  the  shade,  and  carefully 
stored  and  kept  very  dry.  Both  varieties,  but  especially 
the  single,  have  a  hot,  bitter  taste,  and  a  strong  aromatic 
odour.  They  contain  bitter  extractive  matter,  soluble  both 
in  water  and  alcohol ;  a  small  quantity  of  tannin  ;  traces 
of  the  bitter  anthemic  acid  ;  a  crystallisable,  soluble  base, 
anthemine  ;  and  0'60  to  0'80  per  cent,  of  volatile  oil, 
obtained  by  distillation.  The  oil  is  of  a  pale-blue  or  green 


596  VALERIAN 

colour,  gradually  becoming  yellow-brown,  and  consisting 
of  a  mixture  of  esters,  chiefly  of  the  angelates  and  valerian- 
ates  of  butyl  and  amyl. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Chamomile  flowers  are  mildly 
stimulant,  aromatic,  stomachic,  and  carminative  ;  full  doses 
produce  emesis  in  dogs.  The  infusion  is  sometimes  given  in 
atonic  dyspepsia  and  diarrhoea.  Horses  and  cattle  take  one 
to  two  ounces  ;  calves,  sheep,  and  swine,  a  drachm  or  more. 
The  flowers  are  occasionally  used  for  fomentations  and 
poultices.  Like  other  volatile  oils,  that  of  chamomile  lowers 
reflex  irritability,  and  hence  is  useful  in  dyspepsia,  diarrhoea, 
and  spasmodic  cough.  Dose  of  the  oil  for  the  dog,  Tl\i.  to 
lT[iii.  on  sugar. 

VALERIAN 

VALERIANS  RHIZOMA.  The  dried  rhizome  and  roots  of 
Valeriana  officinalis.  Collected  in  the  autumn  (B.P.). 
Nat.  Ord. — Valerianacese. 

The  official  valerian  consists  of  a  short,  yellow-brown, 
tuberous  rhizome,  about  the  thickness  of  the  little  finger, 
with  attached  radicles,  shrivelled,  brittle,  and  of  an  earthy- 
brown  colour.  It  has  a  penetrating  odour,  becoming  strong 
and  even  foetid  by  keeping,  and  a  camphoraceous,  un- 
pleasant, rather  bitter  taste.  It  contains  1  to  2  per  cent,  of 
a  strong-smelling,  active  volatile  oil,  isomeric  with  oil  of 
turpentine  (C10H16),  and  the  oily,  acrid  valerianic  acid 
(C5H1002),  which  is  also  present  in  the  berries  of  the  guelder 
rose,  in  cod-liver  oil,  and  decaying  cheese,  and  may  be 
obtained  artificially  by  distilling  amylic  alcohol,  and  treating 
the  distillate  with  caustic  alkali. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Valerian  and  its  volatile  oil  are  topical 
irritants,  stimulants,  and  antispasmodics.  In  large  doses 
they  paralyse  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  lower  blood- 
pressure,  and  slow  the  pulse.  Valerianic  acid  has  no  special 
stimulant  action,  but  is  said  to  resemble  acetic  acid.  The 
valerianates  accordingly  do  not  exhibit  the  action  of 
valerian  or  of  the  volatile  oil. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Valerian  resembles  asafcetida,  the  other 
gum-resins,  camphor,  and  sumbul  or  musk-root  impoi 


TURPENTINES  597 

from  Russia  and  India,  and  produced  by  an  umbelli- 
ferous plant.  It  has  little  effect  on  horses  or  cattle,  even  in 
doses  of  several  ounces.  It  is  occasionally  given  to  dogs  to 
allay  nervous  irritability,  and  relieve  chorea  and  epilepsy  ; 
but  little  dependence  can  be  placed  on  it ;  used  for  similar 
conditions  in  man  its  effects  are  chiefly  psychical  and  due 
to  its  nauseous  taste  and  smell.  It  attracts  and  excites 
cats,  developing  by  its  suggestive  odour  their  amatory 
propensities.  The  volatile  oil  abates  the  convulsions  of 
strychnine  poisoning,  is  an  anthelmintic,  and  is  excreted 
by  the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys. 

DOSES,  etc. — Used  for  horses  or  cattle,  valerian  may  be 
given  in  doses  of  3JV-  to  §j.  ;  for  dogs,  grs.  viii.  to  3J-  5 
for  cats,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  xx.,  given  in  powder  or  infusion 
several  times  daily,  conjoined  with  ginger,  gentian,  or 
camphor,  or  dissolved  in  spirit  of  ammonia. 

THE  VALERIANATES,  as  above  indicated,  exhibit  the  actions 
of  their  bases,  .but  not  those  of  valerian.  Where  it  is 
desired  to  conjoin  the  physiological  action  of  valerian  with 
iron,  zinc,  or  other  metallic  salt,  or  with  quinine,  the  oil  of 
valerian  should  be  prescribed  with  a  suitable  salt  of  the 
metallic  or  vegetable  base.  The  valerianate  of  zinc  has 
been  used  for  dogs  aiid  cats  in  epilepsy,  chorea,  and  nervous 
excitability,  in  doses  of  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  v.,  but  this  use  is 
quite  irrational,  and  no  good  effects  ensue. 


TURPENTINES 
TEREBINTHIN^E.     Nat.  Ord. — Coniferse. 

The  Coniferse  yield  the  following  drugs — 

I.  Oleo-resinous  juices  exuding  spontaneously  or  from 
incisions  made  into  the  trunks  or  branches,  consisting  of 
common  and  Venice  turpentines,  Canada  balsam,  frankin- 
cense, and  Burgundy  pitch. 

II.  Oil  of  turpentine  (C10H16) — the  volatile  or  essential 
oil  procured  from  turpentines  by  distillation. 

III.  Hydrates  of  turpentine, — terebene,  terpene,  and  ter- 
pinol,  prepared  by  acting  on  oil  of  turpentine  with  acids. 

IV.  Resins — the  residue  of  the  distillation  of  turpentine. 


598  TURPENTINES 

V.  Tar  and  black  pitch — got  by  subjecting  the  roots  and 
wood  to  destructive  distillation.  Wood  wool  prepared  from 
pine  wood. 

I.  THE  TURPENTINES  OR  CONIFEROUS  OLEO-RESINS. 

The  terebinthinate  juices  while  recently  exuded  are  fluid, 
or  nearly  so  ;  but  exposure  to  the  air  volatilises  and  oxidises 
their  essential  oil,  and  they  solidify.  They  have  a  peculiar, 
pungent,  bitter  taste  and  odour,  are  scarcely  soluble  in 
water,  partially  soluble  in  rectified  spirit,  dissolving  readily 
in  oils,  ether,  and  alkaline  solutions  ;  are  inflammable,  and 
leave,  when  burnt,  a  finely-divided  residue  of  carbon  or 
lamp  black.  Several  of  the  more  important  varieties 
demand  notice. 

COMMON  TURPENTINE  is  obtained  throughout  the  Southern 
States  of  America,  from  Virginia  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
chiefly  from  the  Pinus  Tseda,  and  P.  palustris,  australis, 
or  swamp  pine,  a  tree  sixty  or  seventy  feet  high,  having 
bright  green  linear  leaves  about  a  foot  in  length,  and 
collected  into  bundles  like  those  of  the  Pinus  sylvestris,  or 
Scotch  fir,  from  which,  throughout  Northern  Europe, 
turpentine  is  also  procured. 

BORDEAUX  TURPENTINE,  chiefly  produced  in  the  south- 
west of  France,  from  Pinus  maritima  and  P.  pinaster,  is  got 
by  bleeding  or  hacking  the  bark,  and  conducting  the  juice 
into  suitable  vessels  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  tree. 

Turpentine  from  different  sources  differs  somewhat  in 
appearance  ;  the  American  is  dextro-rotatory,  the  French 
laevo-rotatory  ;  it  is  semi-fluid,  its  consistence  varies  with 
the  temperature  ;  it  gradually  solidifies  from  escape  and 
oxidation  of  the  volatile  oil ;  it  has  a  yellow  colour,  an 
aromatic  odour,  and  a  warm,  pungent  taste.  Unless 
melted  and  strained,  it  usually  contains  impurities.  Water 
acquires  its  flavour,  but  separates  only  traces  of  its  active 
principles.  Rectified  spirit  and  ether  dissolve  it ;  eggs  and 
mucilage  form  with  it  emulsions  convenient  for  administra- 
tion. The  crude  American  variety,  when  recent,  yields 
15  to  25  per  cent,  of  volatile  oil. 

VENICE  TURPENTINE  (Terebinthina  Veneta)  is  chiefly  ob- 


CANADA   BALSAM  599 

tained  in  the  Tyrol,  Switzerland,  and  Piedmont,  from  the 
common  larch,  Larix  Europaea — a  lofty  tree  with  graceful 
drooping  branches,  and  leaves  at  first  in  fasciculse,  like  the 
pine  tribe,  but  afterwards  becoming  solitary  by  elongation 
of  the  twigs.  Venice  turpentine  is  tenacious,  rather  opaque, 
and  fluorescent ;  less  apt  than  common  turpentine  to  con- 
crete with  keeping  ;  has  a  pale  yellow  colour,  an  acrid, 
bitter  taste,  a  disagreeable  terebinthinate  odour,  and  con- 
tains 15  per  cent,  of  oil  of  turpentine.  The  Venice  turpen- 
tine of  the  shops  almost  invariably  consists  of  about  three 
parts  of  common  resin  dissolved  in  one  part  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine. This  artificial  mixture  is  distinguished  by  its  strong 
odour,  and  its  more  quickly  evaporating,  and  leaving  a 
varnish  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  on  which  the  natural  Venice 
turpentine  remains  viscid. 

CANADA  BALSAM,  chiefly  brought  from  Lower  Canada,  is 
obtained  by  puncturing  the  vesicles  lying  between  the  bark 
and  wood  of  Abies  balsamea.  It  is  a  pale,  greenish-yellow 
oleo-resin  of  the  consistence  of  thin  honey,  has  an  agreeable 
terebinthinate  odour,  and  a  slightly  bitter,  feebly  acrid 
taste.  On  exposure  it  dries  slowly  into  a  transparent 
adhesive  varnish,  and  solidifies  when  mixed  with  one-sixth 
of  its  weight  of  magnesia  and  water.  It  contains  15  to 
18  per  cent,  of  oil,  is  much  used  by  varnish-makers,  opticians, 
and  microscopists,  and  is  a  constituent,  with  collodion  and 
castor  oil,  of  flexible  collodion.  It  is  sometimes  improperly 
termed  Balm  of  Gilead,  which,  however,  is  derived  from 
an  Arabian  balsamodendron.  Strasburg  turpentine  is  a 
fluid,  citron-smelling  oleo-resin  obtained  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Alps  from  Abies  picea.  Chian  or  Cyprus  turpentine, 
from  the  island  of  Scio,  nearly  resembles  Canada  balsam 
in  its  properties  and  uses ;  it  is  a  greenish-yellow,  liquid 
oleo-resin  from  the  Pistacia  terebinthus,  a  tree  of  the  mastic 
order. 

FRANKINCENSE,  or  Thus  Americanum,  is  the  semi-opaque, 
soft,  concrete  turpentine  scraped  off  the  trunks  of  Pinus 
palustris,  P.  Tseda,  and  other  American  Coniferae.  On  keep- 
ing it  becomes  dry,  brittle,  and  darker  in  colour.  A  similar 
concrete  turpentine  comes  from  the  south  of  France  under 
the  name  of  gallipot  or  barras. 


600  TURPENTINES 

BURGUNDY  PITCH  is  the  resinous  exudation  from  the  stem 
of  Picea  excelsa,  or  spruce  fir,  melted  and  strained.  It 
consists  of  an  amorphous  resin,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  other 
isomeric  oils,  and  abietic  acid.  It  occurs  in  semi-opaque 
red-brown  masses,  breaks  with  a  shining  conchoidal  fracture, 
and  has  an  empyreumatic  turpentine  odour  and  aromatic 
taste.  The  substance  sold  as  Burgundy  pitch  is  generally 
made  by  melting  resin  and  palm  oil  and  stirring  in  some 
water.  True  Burgundy  pitch  and  its  imitations  spread  upon 
leather  are  used  for  stimulant  and  adhesive  plasters,  applied 
in  swellings  of  joints,  chest  affections,  and  rheumatism. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  turpentines  are  topical  irri- 
tants. When  swallowed  they  are  speedily  absorbed,  act  as 
general  stimulants,  and  are  discharged  by  the  kidneys, 
bronchial  membrane,  and  skin,  stimulating  these  channels 
of  excretion.  Their  uses  resemble  those  of  their  more 
active  constituent,  oil  of  turpentine.  In  percentage  of 
oil,  and  hence  in  activity,  they  stand  as  follows  :  Canada 
balsam,  Venice  turpentine,  common  turpentine,  and  frank- 
incense. They  are  occasionally  used  as  stimulants  in 
indigestion,  colic,  and  general  debility ;  as  laxatives, 
especially  when  in  combination ;  and  as  anthelmintics, 
diuretics,  and  expectorants. 

Externally  applied,  they  are  stimulants,  styptics,  and 
antiseptics,  and  are  used  as  excipients  for  making  up  diuretic 
and  stimulant  balls.  In  the  south  of  France  the  resinous 
vapours  of  the  Coniferse  have  been  employed  for  the  relief 
of  bronchitis,  phthisis,  and  rheumatism  in  human  patients. 
The  growing  pine  forests,  and  the  oleo-resins  extracted  from 
them  in  presence  of  oxygen,  evolve  antiseptic  camphor- 
aceous  oils  and  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  which  purify  the  air 
and  destroy  disease  germs. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  §j.  to  giij.  ;  sheep, 
3J.  to  3iij.  ;  pigs,  3j.  to  3ij.  ;  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  Ix. 
The  maximum  doses  are  stimulant  and  antispasmodic  ; 
the  minimum,  frequently  repeated,  are  diuretic  and  expec- 
torant. They  are  administered  with  milk,  oils,  linseed 
gruel,  mucilage,  eggs,  or  about  ^th  part  of  magnesia. 
For  external  purposes  they  are  made  into  liniments  and 
ointments. 


TEREBINTHINJE    OLEUM  601 

II.  OIL  OF  TURPENTINE.     Oleum  Terebinthinse. 

The  oil  distilled  from  the  oleo-resin,  obtained  from  Pinus 
sylvestris,  and  other  species  of  pinus. 

The  crude  turpentines  when  heated,  as  they  usually  are,  by 
steam,  yield  15  to  25  per  cent,  of  oil  of  turpentine,  some- 
times improperly  called  spirit  of  turpentine.  It  is  a  mixture 
of  several  hydrocarbons  (terpenes)  having  the  composition 
C10H16.  It  is  limpid,  with  a  strong,  peculiar  odour  and  a 
pungent,  bitter  taste.  It  commences  to  boil  at  about 
320°  Fahr.  According  to  its  source,  it  varies  in  its  odour, 
specific  gravity,  boiling  point,  and  effect  on  polarised  light. 
It  is  very  inflammable,  burning  with  a  heavy  yellow  flame 
and  producing  much  smoke.  It  is  insoluble  in  water, 
soluble  in  6J  of  alcohol,  and  readily  dissolved  in  ether, 
chloroform,  glacial  acetic  acid,  fixed  and  volatile  oils.  It 
is  a  valuable  solvent  for  wax,  resins,  fats,  many  alkaloids, 
iodine,  and  phosphorus. 

It  is  the  representative  of  a  large  group  of  terpenes,  in- 
cluding the  volatile  oils  of  chamomile,  caraway,  juniper, 
lemons,  pepper,  savin,  thyme,  tolu,  and  valerian — all  of 
which  have  the  formula  C10H16.  In  common  with  other 
terpenes,  it  is  convertible  into  isomerides,  oxidises  on 
exposure  to  air,  forming  camphoric  peroxide  ;  with  water 
produces  crystalline  hydrates  ;  and  with  hydrochloric 
acid  forms  crystalline  compounds.  By  this  action  of 
hydrochloric  acid  on  turpentine  artificial  camphor  is 
produced. 

Terebene  (C10H16),  a  mixture  of  dipentene  and  other 
hydrocarbons,  obtained  by  agitating  oil  of  turpentine  with 
successive  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  distilling 
in  a  current  of  steam  ;  is  less  disagreeable  and  acrid  to 
the  taste,  and  optically  inactive.  It  has  the  same  medicinal 
properties. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Oil  of  turpentine  has  the  group 
actions  of  a  volatile  oil.  It  is  an  antiseptic  topical  irritant 
and  disinfectant,  and  is  used  as  a  rubefacient  and  vesicant. 
Large  doses  are  irritant  and  narcotic.  Medicinal  doses  are 
antiseptic,  stimulant,  especially  of  mucous  and  skin  sur- 
faces, antispasmodic,  haemostatic,  anthelmintic,  and  anti- 


602  TEREBINTHIN^]    OLEUM 

parasitic:  It  is  also  prescribed  as  an  adjuvant  cathartic, 
diaphoretic,  and  diuretic. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Like  other  volatile  oils,  it  is  an  active 
antiseptic.  In  destroying  bacteria  spores,  Koch  found  it 
more  effective  than  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  or  benzol. 
It  poisons  lice,  acari,  entozoa,  and  other  parasites,  whether 
lodged  in  the  skin,  bronchial  tubes,  or  bowels.  Applied  to 
the  skin  it  irritates,  and,  if  evaporation  be  prevented, 
vesicates,  and  even  ulcerates. 

When  swallowed  it  is  rapidly  absorbed,  diffused,  and 
excreted,  and  may  be  speedily  detected  in  the  sweat,  breath, 
and  milk,  and  in  the  urine,  to  which  it  imparts  the  odour  of 
violets.  In  the  mouth  and  stomach,  its  slight  irritant 
action  determines  an  increased  flow  of  blood  to  those 
parts,  stimulates  secretory  glands  and  the  nerves  of  taste, 
so  that  digestion  is  improved.  In  the  intestine  the  same 
action,  combined  with  its  antiseptic  properties,  makes  it 
useful  in  preventing  griping,  in  improving  the  tone  of  the 
bowel  wall,  and  in  promoting  peristalsis.  After  absorption 
the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood  are  increased  in  number, 
especially  the  polynuclear  ones.  The  central  nervous  system 
is  but  little  affected  by  medicinal  doses,  but  reflexly  the 
local  irritation  and  stimulation  of  function  of  the  alimentary 
tract  cause  a  general  stimulation.  Thus  the  heart  is 
stimulated  and  the  pulse  quickened,  respiration  is  generally 
increased,  blood-pressure  is  raised,  and  it  is  not  until 
dangerous  doses  have  been  given  that  the  narcotic  depressant 
effect  is  developed.  It  is  eliminated  by  the  lungs,  acting 
as  a  stimulating  antiseptic  expectorant.;  by  the  skin, 
promoting  diaphoresis  ;  by  the  kidneys,  inducing  diuresis  ; 
while  full  doses,  especially  in  combination  with  laxatives, 
are  cathartic. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Large  doses  when  inhaled  irritate  the 
respiratory  mucous  membrane,  and  reflexly  cause  difficult 
breathing.  Large  doses  when  swallowed  cause  irritation, 
and  occasionally  ulceration  of  the  bowels.  A  very  large 
dose  quickly  swallowed  is  absorbed,  and  as  in  the  case  of 
alcohol,  produces  brief  primary  stimulation  and  prolonged 
subsequent  paralysis  of  the  central  nervous  system.  Rabbits 
and  kittens  were  paralysed  (narcotised)  by  injection  of 


MEDICINAL   USES  603 

turpentine  emulsion  into  the  stomach.  The  motor  centres 
are  implicated  in  the  same  order  as  in  poisoning  with 
members  of  the  alcohol  series,  those  of  the  brain  being 
first  affected,  those  of  the  cord  later,  and  those  of  the 
medulla  last.  A  dog  receiving  two  drachms,  intravenously, 
staggered,  was  convulsed,  circulation  and  respiration  failed, 
and  death  occurred  in  three  minutes  (Christison).  During 
excretion  large  doses  cause  congestion  of  the  urino-genital 
organs,  diminish  or  arrest  secretion  of  urine,  and  induce 
strangury  and  sometimes  hsematuria. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — In  indigestion,  flatulence,  and  atonic 
diarrhoea,  it  checks  undue  fermentation  and  acts  as  a 
carminative  and  gastro-intestinal  stimulant  and  astringent. 
Although  an  uncertain  cathartic  when  given  alone,  like 
many  other  volatile  oils  it  promotes  the  action  of  cath- 
artics, with  which  it  is  usefully  conjoined  in  flatulent  colic, 
and  in  such  cases  it  is  also  used  in  enemata.  Alike  in 
flatulent  and  spasmodic  colic  in  horses,  it  is  frequently 
given  combined  either  with  linseed  oil  or  with  mucilage 
and  aloes,  and  in  spasmodic  cases  is  conjoined  with 
opium. 

As  a  cardiac  and  general  stimulant  it  is  not  so  effective 
as  alcohol  or  ether.  But  stimulating  vaso-motor  centres 
and  contracting  arterioles,  as  well  as  by  its  local  action 
during  excretion,  it  checks  excessive  or  faulty  mucous 
discharges.  Thus,  in  chronic  bronchitis  and  nasal  gleet, 
terebene  gargles  and  turpentine  emulsions  and  inhalations 
prove  useful,  especially  when  seconded  by  turpentine 
liniments  applied  externally.  Turpentine  has  been  credited 
with  astringent  haemostatic  properties,  and  for  this  purpose 
it  is  used  in  purpura,  and  in  passive  haemorrhage  from  the 
lungs,  stomach,  or  bowels,  as  well  as  from  the  kidneys, 
although  in  renal  cases  the  drug  must  be  used  cautiously  and 
in  small  doses.  That  it  really  possesses  haemostatic  pro- 
perties is  doubtful.  In  purpura  in  horses,  ounce  doses  are 
prescribed,  with  the  same  quantity  of  ferric  chloride  tincture, 
in  milk,  twice  or  thrice  daily.  This  prescription,  with  two 
drachms  potassium  chlorate,  is  useful  in  many  cases  of 
haemoglobinuria.  Chronic  rheumatism  in  all  classes  of 
patients  is  frequently  relieved  by  conjoining  turpentine 


604  OIL    OF   TURPENTINE 

with  salines,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  also  usefully  applied 
externally. 

Turpentine,  well  kept  and  fully  oxidised,  as  the  French 
variety  generally  is,  contains  formic,  acetic,  and  carbonic 
acids,  and  is  an  antidote  in  poisoning  with  phosphorus. 
Phosphorus  in  repeated  doses  produces  in  animals  fatty 
degeneration  ;  but  neither  this  nor  other  forms  of  phos- 
phorus poisoning  occurred  when  the  drug  was  given  with 
French  turpentine  (Kohler).  Personne  gave  phosphorus  to 
five  dogs,  and  all  died.  To  five  others,  an  hour  or  two  after 
similar  lethal  doses,  he  gave  turpentine,  and  only  one  died. 
Of  five  dogs  to  which  he  gave  turpentine,  immediately  after 
deadly  doses  of  phosphorus,  only  one  died  (Ringer). 

In  cattle  practice  full  doses  are  valuable  in  hoven.  Chronic 
diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  especially  when  accompanied  by 
flatulence,  are  often  benefited  by  small  doses  conjoined 
with  lime-water,  aromatics,  or  opium.  In  post-partum 
haemorrhage  in  cows  turpentine  is  prescribed  in  doses  of 
3  or  4  ounces,  and  it  is  commonly  given,  along  with  iron 
salts,  in  cases  of  bovine  piroplasmosis  or  red-water  in  this 
country. 

For  the  destruction  of  intestinal  worms  oil  of  turpentine 
is  generally  conjoined  with  a  laxative,  and  given  after  the 
bowels  have  been  emptied  by  a  cathartic,  and  the  patient 
has  been  fasted.  Although  it  removes  round  worms,  it  is 
not  in  horses  a  certain  remedy  for  tape-worms,  but  its 
efficacy  is  increased  by  combination  with  male  fern.  A 
tolerably  good  taeniacide  for  the  horse  consists  of  two  ounces 
of  turpentine  and  one  ounce  of  male  fern  extract,  dissolved 
in  a  pint  of  linseed  oil.  For  tape-worms  in  dogs,  areca  nut, 
male  fern,  and  cusso  are  more  effectual  than  turpentine. 

For  destroying  strongyles  infesting  the  air-passages  of 
calves  and  lambs,  turpentine  has  been  widely  used.  In 
some  sheep-breeding  districts  of  England,  thriftless,  cough- 
ing lambs,  throughout  the  summer  months,  at  intervals  of 
a  week  or  ten  days  are  given  turpentine  drenches,  with 
the  view  of  killing  both  bronchial  and  intestinal  worms  : 
and  such  treatment  certainly  greatly  diminishes  the  scouring 
and  mortality  to  which  lambs  in  some  localities  are  liable. 
Six-month  calves  take  half  an  ounce,  lambs  of  the  like 


MEDICINAL  USES  605 

age  a  drachm,  of  oil  of  turpentine,  conveniently  mixed 
with  milk,  and  administered  by  the  mouth.  Two  or  three 
doses,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  days,  usually  effect  a 
cure.  Turpentine  inhalations,  although  fairly  effectual,  are 
troublesome  to  manage.  For  calves  intratracheal  injection 
of  turpentine  was  introduced  by  Hutton,  who  made  a 
small  incision  in  the  skin,  half-way  down  the  neck,  and 
between  two  rings  of  the  trachea,  and  with  a  suitable 
syringe  injected  f3i-  to  f3ij-  oil  of  turpentine,  with  f3ss. 
each  of  carbolic  acid,  chloroform,  and  glycerin,  which 
ensures  solution  of  the  carbolic  acid.  No  serious  irritation 
resulted.  A  few  paroxysms  of  coughing  occasionally 
occurred.  Brought  into  actual  contact  with  the  parasites, 
the  vermicide  promptly  destroyed  them. 

Gapes  in  poultry,  caused  by  the  Syngamus  trachealis,  is 
successfully  treated  by  a  similar  mixture,  used  diluted  with 
four  or  five  parts  of  milk  or  bland  oil,  two  or  three  drops 
being  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  ailing  fowl.  A  similar  dress- 
ing is  sometimes  applied  around  the  throat,  but,  although 
in  part  absorbed,  is  not  so  effectual  as  when  swallowed. 

Externally,  oil  of  turpentine  is  used  as  an  antiseptic, 
stimulant,  and  counter-irritant.  Rubbed  undiluted  into  the 
skin  of  horses,  it  quickly  causes  topical  irritation,  great 
restlessness,  and  much  excitement,  continuing  for  twenty  or 
thirty  minutes,  and,  if  used  largely  and  repeatedly,  it  vesi- 
cates, and  may  blemish.  Cattle  are  not  so  sensitive  to  its 
irritant  effect,  and  for  them  it  is  sometimes  employed  to 
increase  the  activity  of  other  vesicants.  A  piece  of  flannel 
wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  sprinkled  with  turpentine  oil 
(turpentine  stupes),  is  frequently  applied  as  a  counter- 
irritant.  A  continuous  moderate  action  is  more  serviceable 
than  a  single  violent  effect.  For  inveterate  eczema  and 
psoriasis,  after  removal  of  the  scales  with  soft  soap  and 
water  or  alkaline  dressings,  turpentine,  diluted  with  one  or 
two  parts  of  oil  or  glycerin  and  water,  sometimes  beneficially 
stimulates  the  hypertrophied,  weakened  skin,  and  promotes 
cure. 

It  is  used  as  a  stimulant  for  rheumatic  swellings,  more 
particularly  of  cattle  and  sheep  ;  for  sprains  and  bruises 
after  the  first  pain  and  tenderness  have  been  subdued  by 


606  OIL    OF    TURPENTINE 

fomentation  ;  for  controlling  venous  congestion  and  stasis 
arising  from  frostbite,  which  is  not  uncommon  in  the  limbs 
of  horses  used  for  night  work  ;  for  promoting  absorption 
of  small  cysts  ;  for  healing  the  troublesome  chronic  sores 
occurring  about  the  heels  of  draught-horses ;  and  for 
relieving  tedious  foot-rot  in  sheep.  For  such  cases  it  is 
usually  mixed  with  two  or  three  parts  of  vaseline,  oil,  or 
glycerin.  A  smilar  mixture  destroys  lice  and  other  skin 
vermin,  as  well  as  the  fungi  of  ringworm.  An  occasional 
sprinkling  over  dogs'  beds  keeps  them  free  of  fleas.  It  is 
often  added  to  stavesacre,  tobacco,  and  other  antiparasitic 
dressings.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  various  mix- 
tures used  by  shepherds  to  protect  their  flocks  from  flies, 
and  to  kill  maggots.  For  such  purposes  three  ounces  oil 
of  turpentine,  one  ounce  each  of  sweet  oil,  common  salt, 
and  mucilage,  and  half  a  drachm  corrosive  sublimate,  are 
mixed  in  a  quart  of  water. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses  and  cattle,  as  a  stimulant  and 
anti-spasmodic,  the  dose  is  f  §j.  to  f  §ij.  ;  as  a  diuretic,  f  §ss. 
to  f  §j.  As  an  adjuvant  cathartic  or  anthelmintic  the  dose 
is  about  f§ij.,  combined  with  aloes  in  solution,  with  castor 
or  linseed  oil,  with  iron  salts,  quassia,  gentian,  or  other 
bitters.  Full-grown  cattle  take  double  these  doses.  Sheep 
and  pigs  receive  f3J-  to  f3iv-  ;  dogs,  TT[xx.  to  f3J-  It  is 
administered  dissolved  in  bland  oils,  shaken  up  with  linseed 
gruel  or  milk,  or  made  into  an  emulsion  with  mucilage  or 
eggs.  Aromatics,  bitters,  or  ethers  are  sometimes  added. 
Intratracheally,  3J-  to  3ij-j  mixed  with  an  equal  measure 
of  olive  oil,  may  be  administered  to  horses  affected  with 
catarrh. 

For  inhalation  half  a  bucket  of  boiling  water  is  placed 
under  the  patient's  nostrils,  and  an  ounce  of  turpentine 
placed  in  it ;  or  it  may  be  introduced  into  the  steam-kettle, 
which  is  almost  as  serviceable  in  the  treatment  of  bronchitis 
in  animals  as  in  man.  For  enemata,  turpentine  is  usually 
diluted  with  fifty  or  sixty  parts  of  oil ;  or  it  is  mixed  with 
two  or  three  parts  of  oil  or  mucilage  to  ensure  solution, 
and  then  added  to  the  soap  and  water.  In  diarrhoea  or 
dysentery  it  is  conjoined  with  laudanum  and  starch  gruel. 

For  external  purposes  it  is  usually  applied  with  linseed 


OIL    OF   PINE — TEREBENE — TERPENE-HYDRATE       607 

oil,  soft  soap,  or  ammonia  liniment.  Convenient  stimulant 
dressings  are  made  with  equal  quantities  of  oil  of  turpentine, 
bland  oil,  and  soft  soap,  or  two  to  three  ounces  of  oil  of 
turpentine  are  added  to  a  pint  of  soap  liniment.  As  a 
stimulant  for  rheumatism,  equal  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine 
and  laudanum  are  mixed  with  two  or  three  parts  of  linseed 
oil  or  soft  soap.  For  dogs,  an  active  embrocation  is  prepared 
with  an  ounce  each  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  medicinal 
ammonia,  and  six  to  ten  ounces  of  olive  oil. 

OIL  OF  SCOTCH  FIR  (oleum  pini  sylvestris)  is  prepared 
by  distilling  the  fresh  leaves  of  the  Scotch  fir  or  Pinus 
sylvestris.  It  has  most  of  the  properties,  and  is  applied 
for  many  of  the  uses  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

TEREBENE  being  less  acrid  than  oil  of  turpentine,  and  less 
liable  to  act  on  the  kidneys,  is  sometimes  substituted  for 
it,  especially  as  an  internal  stimulant  and  antiseptic  in 
excessive  mucous  discharges,  and  for  relieving  flatulence. 
Externally,  it  is  applied  as  a  stimulant,  antiseptic,  and 
deodoriser. 

OIL  OF  PlNE,  oleum  pini  (pinol  or  pumuline),  the  oil  dis- 
tilled from  the  fresh  leaves  of  Pinus  Pumilio,  is  used  as  an 
inhalation  in  bronchial  catarrh  and  in  laryngitis. 

TERPENE  HYDRATE  (C10H262HO),  prepared  by  passing  a 
current  of  air  through  a  mixture  of  four  parts  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, one  part  nitric  acid,  and  three  parts  rectified  spirit. 
It  is  crystalline,  has  a  slight  agreeable  balsamic  odour  and 
taste  ;  is  soluble  in  220  parts  of  cold  water,  twenty-two 
parts  of  warm  water,  and  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
turpentine,  and  oils.  Its  general  actions  resemble  those  of 
oil  of  turpentine.  One  or  two  drachms  may  be  swallowed 
by  small  dogs  without  causing  gastric  derangement ;  two 
to  three  drachms  quickly  produce  intoxication  with  rest- 
lessness, uncertain  gait,  impaired  vision,  and  dreaming, 
followed  in  a  few  hours  by  sound  sleep.  It  has  been  pre- 
scribed in  bronchitis,  especially  in  dogs,  to  stimulate  secretion 
in  the  earlier  stages,  and  in  the  later  chronic  stages  to  liquefy 
and  so  get  rid  of  excessive  discharges.  The  doses  for  horses 
or  cattle  are  grs.  xxx.  to  3ij-  ;  f°r  dogs  and  cats,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  xxx.,  repeated  two  or  three  times  daily,  and  given  with 
alcohol,  glycerin,  or  syrup,  in  drench  or  in  the  patient's  food. 


608  RESIN 

Terpinol,  prepared  by  boiling  terpene  in  water  acidulated 
with  sulphuric  acid,  is  a  mobile  liquid,  with  a  strong  aromatic 
odour ;  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol  and 
ether.  Its  actions  are  similar  to  those  of  terpene.  Doses 
for  dogs  and  cats,  Tl\iv.  to  H|xv. 

III.  RESIN,  ROSIN,  RESINA. 

The  crude  turpentines  contain  75  to  90  per  cent,  of  resin 
or  colophony,  developed  by  a  process  of  oxidation.  Crude 
turpentine,  when  distilled  with  a  little  water,  which  the 
resin  retains,  leaves  a  residue  of  yellow  or  white  resin. 
When  the  water  is  removed,  the  resin  becomes  transparent, 
and  when  more  strongly  heated  is  still  clearer,  and  is  known 
as  black  or  fiddler's  resin.  These  turpentine  resins  are  types 
of  a  considerable  group  of  resins,  derived  chiefly  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  distinguished  by  their  appearance, 
fusibility,  inflammability,  acidity  to  test-paper  ;  burning 
with  a  smoky  flame  ;  insoluble  in  water,  and  soluble  in 
alcohol,  volatile  oils,  and  alkalies.  They  unite  with  fats, 
wax,  and  spermaceti,  and  are  largely  used  in  the. manu- 
facture of  yellow  soap.  Resin  has  the  formula  C44H6204. 
Coarsely  powdered  and  shaken  with  warm  dilute  alcohol,  it 
undergoes  hydra tion,  and  yields  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  abietic 
or  sylvic  acid  (C44H6405).  Bordeaux  resin  or  gallipot 
contains  besides  the  isomeric  pimaric  acid. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Resin  is  a  gentle  stimulant,  astrin- 
gent, and  diuretic.  Two  to  four  ounces,  swallowed  by  horses 
or  cattle,  cause  diuresis.  It  is  added  to  diuretic  masses  to 
increase  their  consistence.  Externally,  it  is  used  as  a  stimu- 
lant, astringent,  and  styptic.  In  castration,  a  pinch  applied 
to  the  severed  cord,  and  melted  by  the  hot  iron,  helps  to 
seal  bleeding  vessels.  It  is  largely  used  to  impart  firmness 
and  adhesiveness  to  stimulant  plasters.  Resin  ointment  is 
made  with  eight  parts  each  of  resin,  yellow  wax,  and  olive 
oil,  and  six  of  lard,  melted  with  gentle  heat,  strained  while 
hot  through  flannel,  and  stirred  constantly  while  it  cools. 
This  simple  ointment  is  much  used  as  a  lubricant,  and  mild 
stimulant  for  wounds,  ulcers,  blistered  surfaces,  and  for 
giving  bulk  and  consistence  to  other  ointments. 


TAR,    OIL   OF   TAR,    AND    PITCH  609 

IV.  TAB,  OIL  OF  TAB,  AND  PITCH. 

Tar,  or  Pix  liquida,  is  a  thick,  viscid,  brown-black, 
aromatic  liquid,  obtained  from  the  wood  of  Pimis  sylvestris 
and  other  pines  by  destructive  distillation.  Mineral  or 
Barbados  tar  has  already  been  noticed.  Coal  tar  (pix 
carbonis),  obtained  from  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal, 
is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  gas.  Two  descriptions 
of  wood  tar  are  in  use — one  got  from  hard  exogens,  such  as 
oak,  birch,  and  ash,  as  a  residual  product  in  the  making  of 
charcoal  for  gunpowder  ;  and  the  other  as  an  empyreumatic 
variety  imported  from  Stockholm,  Archangel,  and  America, 
is  got  by  roasting  billets  of  the  roots,  branches,  and  refuse 
coniferous  timber  stacked  in  shallow  pits  dug  on  a  bank  or 
inclined  plane.  This  old  process  is  now  superseded  by 
distillation  of  the  refuse  wood  in  cast-iron  stills,  whereby 
nearly  double  the  yield  of  tar  is  obtained  ;  14  per  cent,  is 
got  from  air-dried  stems,  16  to  20  per  cent,  from  roots. 
When  wood  is  thus  distilled  the  condensed  products  separate 
into  two  layers,  the  upper  a  mixture  of  methyl-alcohol, 
pyroligneous  acid,  acetone,  etc.,  in  water ;  the  lower  wood  tar. 

Stockholm  tar  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  oils,  and  alkaline 
solutions,  but  not  in  water,  which,  agitated  with  it,  acquires, 
however,  its  odour,  taste,  and  brown  colour,  and  constitutes 
tar  water,  once  regarded  as  a  valuable  medicine.  Tar  con- 
sists of  pyroligneous  acid,  methyl-alcohol,  creosote,  and 
various  phenols,  with  toluene,  xylene,  and  other  hydro- 
carbons. 

Tar  when  distilled  yields  oil  of  tar  (oleum  pieis  liquidae), 
an  empyreumatic  acid  liquid,  which,  although  colourless 
when  first  distilled,  speedily  becomes  yellow  or  brown,  and 
is  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  contains  the  more  volatile  hydro- 
carbons of  the  tar.  There  remains  in  the  retorts  pitch,  or 
pix  nigra,  a  black,  bituminous  substance,  solid  and  brittle, 
with  a  shining  fracture,  dissolved  by  the  same  solvents  as 
tar,  and  consisting  of  modified  resin,  and  a  colourless,  in- 
odorous, crystalline  substance,  melting  at  194°  Fahr.,  called 
retene  (C18H18)  (Fliickiger). 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Tar  is  antiseptic,  stimulant,  diuretic, 
diaphoretic,  expectorant,  and  parasiticide.  Its  active  prin- 

2Q 


610  TAB,    OIL   OF   TAR,    AND    PITCH 

ciples  being  diffusible  phenols,  it  acts  not  only  when  applied 
externally,  but  produces  most  of  its  effects  when  given 
internally.  The  urine  of  horses  receiving  tar  water  keeps 
unchanged  for  several  days.  It  is  still  occasionally  pre- 
scribed for  horses  with  chronic  cough  and  bronchitis,  where 
the  discharges  are  copious.  It  is  used  both  internally  and 
externally  as  a  cutaneous  stimulant  and  antiseptic  in  the 
squamous  stages  of  grease  and  other  forms  of  eczema,  in 
psoriasis,  and  in  pityriasis,  the  scaly  surfaces  being  coated 
daily  with  undiluted  tar,  the  dressing  after  several  days 
washed  off  with  soft  soap  and  water,  and  any  refractory 
spots  dressed  with  mercurial  ointment.  In  chronic  eczema 
one  part  of  tar  is  usefully  added  to  four  of  zinc  oxide  oint- 
ment. Tar  water  is  a  popular  but  serviceable  lotion  for 
indolent  ulcerations  and  haemorrhoids.  For  thrush  and 
canker  of  the  horse's  foot  tar  is  used  either  alone  or  with 
copper  sulphate,  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid,  and  other  agents. 
:  Mixed  with  equal  parts  of  fatty  matters  or  soft  soap,  to 
impart  proper  consistence,  it  forms  an  excellent  stopping  for 
horses'  feet,  keeping  the  hoof  moist  and  soft.  As  a  hoof 
dressing,  Miles  recommends  a  quarter  of  a  pound  each  of  tar, 
beeswax,  and  honey,  a  pound  and  a  half  of  lard,  and  three 
ounces  of  glycerin ;  the  lard  and  beeswax  are  melted 
together,  the  lard,  tar,  and  glycerin  stirred  in,  and  stirring 
continued  until  the  mass  begins  to  set.  For  foot-rot  in 
sheep,  tar  has  the  several  advantages  of  stimulating  healthy 
growth  of  horn,  deodorising,  and  preventing  attacks  of  flies. 
It  is  used  in  securing  wounds,  binding  broken  horns,  and 
making  adhesive  plasters. 

Oil  of  tar  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  oil  of  turpentine. 
Its  empyreumatic  constituents  confer  antiseptic  properties  ; 
it  cures  mange  and  scab,  destroys  other  parasites,  is  some- 
times added  to  sheep  dips,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of 
discolouring  the  wool,  does  not  mix  well  with  the  other 
ingredients,  while  large  doses  or  strong  solutions  are  apt  to 
poison.  It  is  applied  in  both  varieties  of  ringworm,  but  is 
seldom  so  successful  as  iodine. 

Pitch  is  used  as  a  mild  stimulant  in  thrush,  canker,  and 
sand-crack  in  horses  ;  in  foot-rot  in  sheep  ;  and  to  give 
adhesiveness  to  plasters  and  charges. 


ABECA — ARECOLINE  611 


ARECA-ARECOLINE 

ARECJE  SEMINA.     The  seed  of  Areca  catechu.     Betel-Nut. 
Nat.  Ord. — Palmacae.     (Not  official.) 

The  catechu  or  betel-nut  palm  is  a  straight,  slender  tree, 
forty  or  fifty  feet  high,  growing  on  the  Coromandel  and 
Malabar  coasts,  and  throughout  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia. 
Within  a  fibrous  fruit  lies  the  hard,  ovoid,  red-brown  seed, 
of  the  size  and  appearance  of  a  nutmeg.  When  ground,  the 
powder  is  brown,  astringent,  and  partially  soluble  in  hot 
water  and  spirit.  It  contains  besides  tannin,  the  alkaloids, 
arecoline,  arecaine,  arecaidine,  and  guvacine.  Arecoline 
(C8H13N02),  the  chief  alkaloid,  is  strongly  alkaline,  liquid, 
colourless,  and  volatile,  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform.  With  acids  it  forms  salts,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  the  hydrobromide. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Arecoline  is  a  powerful  sialogogue, 
diaphoretic,  intestinal  stimulant  and  vermifuge.  In  physio- 
logical actions  it  is  allied  to  eserine,  pilocarpine,  and  pelle- 
tierine.  Like  eserine  it  contracts  the  pupil  and  stimulates 
peristalsis.  Exerting  more  energy  than  pilocarpine  it 
stimulates  the  secretory  nerves  of  glands,  and  under  its 
influence  the  salivary,  skin,  and  intestinal  secretions  are 
much  increased.  It  stimulates  unstriped  muscle  and  pro- 
motes the  discharge  of  urine.  Large  doses  act  on  striated 
muscle,  causing  twitching  and  spasm,  followed  by  partial 
paralysis.  Medicinal  doses  diminish  the  force  and  number 
of  the  pulsations,  and  excessive  doses  paralyse  the  heart. 
In  horses  respiration  is  increased  by  small  doses,  while  large 
and  repeated  doses  lessen  the  activity  of  the  respiratory 
nervous  centre  inducing  dyspnoea  and  suffocation.  Areco- 
line has  been  used  with  excellent  results  in  the  treatment  of 
acute  laminitis  and  colic  in  horses  and  of  constipation  in 
cattle.  Its  value  as  a  remedy  for  laminitis — first  ascer- 
tained by  Frohner — has  been  well  attested  by  Schumacher, 
Paimans,  Gobbels,  and  others.  Schumacher  asserts  that  it 
shortens  the  duration  of  the  disease.  In  colic  and  foecal 
impaction  it  is  almost  as  powerful  as  eserine,  and  stronger 
and  more  rapid  than  pilocarpine  though  not  so  lasting  in  its 


612  ARTEMISIA— SANTONIN 

effects.  Solutions  applied  to  the  eye  contract  the  pupil  and 
diminish  ocular  tension. 

Areca  nut  is  an  astringent  resembling  catechu,  and,  when 
freshly  powdered,  an  effective  vermicide,  especially  for  dogs, 
proving  destructive  alike  to  tape-  and  round-worms.  Its 
effects  on  horses  and  cattle  are  less  satisfactory.  A  suitable 
dose  given  to  a  dog  which  has  been  fasted  for  twelve  hours 
often  acts  effectively  within  half  an  hour,  but  it  is  usually 
desirable  to  conjoin  with  the  areca  ll\x.  to  17\xv.  of  male 
fern  extract.  This  combination  is  a  most  effectual  remedy 
for  tapeworm  in  dogs.  If  the  parasites  are  not  removed 
a  second  dose  of  the  mixture  should  be  given  two  or  three 
days  later.  Taenaline,  a  registered  liquid  preparation 
containing  the  taeniafuge  principles  of  freshly  ground  areca 
nut,  is  a  convenient  and  efficient  vermicide. 

DOSES,  etc.— Areea  nut.  Dogs,  grs.  x.  to  39 •  ;  horses, 
3iv.  to  3vi-  ;  poultry,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  x.  The  dose  of  the 
powder  for  the  dog  is  about  2  grains  for  every  pound  of  the 
animal's  weight  (Mayhew).  It  is  administered  in  linseed 
oil,  soup,  mucilage,  butter,  or  milk. 

Arecoline  hydrobromide.  Horses  and  cattle,  gr.  f  to 
grs.  1J  ;  dissolved  in  TT[60  to  11^90  of  sterilised  water,  and 
injected  subcutaneously  or  into  the  jugular  vein.  In 
laminitis  the  dose  is  repeated  daily  for  four  or  five  days. 
In  colic  a  single  injection  may  suffice.  To  contract  the  pupil 
a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  the  hydrobromide  may  be  employed. 

ARTEMISIA-SANTONIN 

ARTEMISIA  ABSINTHIUM.     Wormwood.     (Not  official.) 
ARTEMISIA  MARITIMA.     Santonica.     Nat.  Ord. — Composite. 
SANTONIN.    A  crystalline  principle  prepared  from  Santonica. 
(B.P.) 

Wormwood  and  Santonica  are  low  shrubby  plants,  char- 
acterised by  their  aroma  and  bitterness.  They  belong  to  the 
natural  order  Compositae,  which  comprises  the  familiar 
southernwood  and  tansy,  the  mildly  anodyne  lettuce,  and 
the  harmless  dandelion.  * 

The  dried  Artemisia  absinthium  contains  a  volatile  cam- 
phoraceous  oil,  absinthol,  and  a  bitter  extract,  yielding  the 


SANTONIN  613 

neutral  crystalline  absinthin,  which  is  a  narcotic  poison  and 
spinal  stimulant,  causing  in  dogs  and  rabbits  trembling, 
stupor,  and  epileptiform  convulsions,  which  may  prove  fatal. 
In  medicinal  doses,  it  is  an  aromatic  bitter  tonic,  and  a 
popular  remedy  for  worms.  It  is  the  chief  active  constituent 
of  the  liqueur  absinthe. 

Santonin.  The  unexpanded  minute  flower-heads  of 
Artemisia  maritima  contain  a  volatile  oil,  a  resin,  and 
about  two  per  cent,  of  a  crystalline  neutral  principle,  san- 
tonin (C15H1803).  It  is  soluble  in  300  parts  cold  water, 
in  chloroform,  in  40  parts  alcohol,  fixed  oils,  and  alkaline 
solutions,  and  hence  in  the  intestinal  juices.  It  is  rendered 
yellow  by  sunlight,  and  gives  a  violet  colour  when  added 
to  a  warm  alcoholic  solution  of  potassium.  It  imparts  a 
blood-red  colour  to  the  urine.  Large  doses  cause  in  dogs 
grave  symptoms  and  are  frequently  fatal.  At  first  there  is 
twitching  of  the  head  muscles,  rolling  of  the  eyes,  and  grind- 
ing of  the  teeth,  rotation  of  the  head,  then  regular  epilepti- 
form convulsions  followed  by  clonic  spasms  of  the  limbs  and 
trunk.  These  are  followed  by  intervals  of  repose.  During 
the  convulsions  respiration  is  irregular  and  insufficient,  and 
in  fatal  cases  asphyxia  results  (Cushney).  The  convulsive 
effects  are  probably  due  to  over-stimulation  of  the  cerebral 
cortex.  As  antidotes,  an  emetic  and  a  purgative  should 
first  be  given  to  promote  excretion.  Then  such  agents  as 
chloroform,  potassium  bromide,  and  chloral  hydrate  to 
prevent  convulsions.  Cold  water  cloths  applied  to  the  head 
are  useful,  and  artificial  respiration  must  be  carried  out  if 
necessary.  Santonin  is  a  vermicide,  without  effect  on 
taeniae,  but  destructive  to  round  and  thread  worms — given 
for  the  former  by  the  mouth,  for  the  latter  by  enemata,  and 
most  active  when  combined  with  castor  oil.  It  is  less 
effective  in  horses  than  in  pigs  and  dogs,  and  is  given 
conjoined  with  aloes  or  jalap.  Half  an  ounce  mixed  with 
the  food  serves  as  a  vermicide  for  fifteen  young  pigs.  As  in 
human  practice,  it  is  effectual  in  checking  incontinence  of 
urine  in  young  patients,  for  this  purpose  being  equal  to 
belladonna  and  superior  to  nux-vomica.  The  B.P.  santonin 
lozenge  containing  1  grain  of  the  drug,  forms  a  very  con- 
venient worm  medicine  for  cats  and  small  dogs.  Doses. — 


614  STAVES  ACRE 

Pigs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xv.  ;  dogs,  gr.  f  to  grs.  iii. ;  small  dogs 
and  cats,  gr.  J  to  gr.  ^. 

Santoninoxim  is  derived  from  santonin,  for  which  it  is 
sometimes  substituted,  as  larger  doses  may  be  given  without 
much  risk  of  poisoning.  It  is  said  to  kill  the  worms  outright. 

Oil  of  chenopodium,  a  volatile  oil  got  from  chenopodium 
ambrosioides,  the  American  worm-seed,  is  a  very  useful 
agent  for  destroying  round  worms  (ascarides)  in  dogs.  The 
dose  is  H\j.  to  TT[v.,  given  either  on  sugar,  or  in  an  emulsion 
with  castor  oil. 

STAVESACRB    SEEDS 

STAPHISAGRIJE  SEMINA.     The  dried  ripe  seeds  of  Delphinium 
staphisagria  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Ranunculacese. 

Stavesacre,  or  larkspur,  is  a  stout  biennial  herb,  two  to 
four  feet  high,  growing  throughout  the  south  of  Europe. 
Its  officinal  oily  seeds  are  brown,  wrinkled,  irregularly 
triangular,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long  and  scarcely  so 
broad,  and  have  a  bitter,  acrid,  and  nauseous  taste.  They 
contain  about  one  per  cent,  of  several  alkaloids,  soluble  in 
ether  and  acetic  acid,  the  most  important  being  delphinine, 
which  resembles  aconitine  and  veratrine,  slows  the  pulse  and 
respiration,  and  paralyses  the  spinal  cord ;  and  staphis- 
agrine,  resembling  curare,  paralysing  the  motor  nerves  and 
arresting  respiration. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  seeds  are  used  for  the  destruction 
of  lice,  and  hence  have  been  popularly  termed  louse  seeds. 
Their  action  is  also  exerted  on  the  acari  of  mange  and  scab. 
For  such  purposes  one  part  of  bruised  seeds  is  boiled  for  two 
hours  with  twenty  to  thirty  parts  of  water,  making  up  the 
water  to  the  quantity  originally  used.  Such  a  solution 
rubbed  into  the  skin  not  only  kills  pediculi,  but  also  destroys 
their  eggs.  Ointments  and  liniments  are  made  with  one  part 
of  powdered  seeds  heated  with  six  or  eight  of  vaseline  or  oil. 
Strong  preparations  too  freely  applied,  absorbed  from 
denuded  surfaces  or  licked,  as  they  are  apt  to  be  by  dogs,  are 
liable  to  nauseate  and  prostrate.  Occasionally  they  are 
conjoined  with  sulphur  and  tar. 


CUSSO— MALE    FERN  615 

CUSSO 

Kousso.  Brayera.  The  dried  pannicles  of  pistillate 
flowers  of  Brayera  anthelmintica  (B.P.)  Nat.  Ord. — 
Rosaceae. 

Kousso  consists  of  bundles,  rolls,  or  clusters  of  pannicles 
of  small  reddish-brown  flowers.  Its  active  principle  is 
koussotoxin — a  neutral  body,  with  a  bitter  taste,  insoluble 
in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol  and  alkaline  solutions. 
This  substance  is  allied  to  the  active  principle  of  male  fern, 
and  its  pharmacological  action  is  somewhat  similar.  It  also 
contains  resin,  gum,  tannic  acid,  and  a  volatile  oil. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  narcotises  and  kills  intestinal 
worms,  and  in  fasting  dogs,  two  consecutive  doses,  given 
with  an  interval  of  two  hours,  and  followed  by  a  purgative, 
bring  away  tape- worms.  Although  it  scarcely  causes 
catharsis,  full  doses  nauseate  dogs  and  cats,  and  sometimes 
excite  colic.  Doses — sheep,  3JV-  to  SJ-  \  lambs,  grs.  Ixxx. 
to  grs.  cl.  ;  dogs  and  cats,  according  to  their  size,  take  grs.  x. 
to  3iiJ->  usually  given  in  infusion,  most  effectually  used 
unstrained,  sweetened  with  honey  or  treacle,  and  the  taste 
veiled  by  a  little  peppermint  water. 

MALE    FERN 

FILIX  MAS.  The  rhizome  of  Aspidium  filix-mas.  Collected 
late  in  the  autumn,  divested  of  its  roots,  leaves,  and 
dead  portions,  and  carefully  dried.  Should  not  be 
kept  more  than  a  year  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — Filicinae. 

The  male  fern  grows  wild  throughout  most  temperate 
regions,  on  the  sides  of  roads  and  in  open  woods,  especially 
where  the  soil  is  light.  Its  root  stock  is  perennial,  about  a 
foot  long  and  two  inches  thick  ;  is  scaly,  tufted,  greenish- 
brown,  and  firmly  fixed  in  the  ground  by  numerous  black 
root  fibres.  The  dried  root  has  a  disagreeable  odour,  and  a 
sweet,  astringent,  nauseous  taste.  Besides  the  usual  plant 
constituents,  it  contains  about  4  per  cent,  of  resin,  6  of  a 
green  fixed  oil,  a  small  amount  of  volatile  oil,  with  8  per 
cent,  of  the  crystalline  filicic  acid  (C14H1805),  which  is  one  of 
its  active  constituents.  There  are  also  several  neutral  and 


616  MALE    FERN    EXTRACT 

acid  bodies,  of  which  aspidin  is  the  chief,  and  these  may 
be  the  important  therapeutic  and  toxic  agents.  The  root  is 
preserved  in  stoppered  bottles,  and  the  supply  renewed 
annually.  Deterioration  from  keeping,  and  the  substitution 
of  the  roots  of  inactive  ferns,  in  great  part  explain  the 
depreciatory  accounts  sometimes  given  of  its  efficacy.  The 
green  parts  are  most  active,  and  should  alone  be  used. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Male  fern  is  irritant,  vermicide, 
laxative,  and  in  large  doses  causes  haemorrhagic  gastro- 
enteritis, together  with  nervous  symptoms,  drowsiness,  and 
sometimes  convulsions,  coma,  and  collapse.  In  some  cases 
blindness,  temporary  or  permanent,  has  been  caused  by 
large  doses.  It  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  remedies  for 
tape- worm,  especially  in  dogs,  and  Kuchenmeister  considered 
it  quite  as  poisonous  to  the  genus  Bothriocephalus.  Doses 
quite  sufficient  for  this  purpose  have,  as  a  rule,  no  other 
effect,  being  too  small  to  cause  irritation.  Harley  believed 
that,  like  ergot,  it  stimulates  the  involuntary  muscular 
fibres  of  any  hollow  viscus  in  which  it  is  placed,  and  thus 
explained  the  vomiting  and  intestinal  peristalsis  which  full 
doses  produce  when  swallowed,  and  the  contractions 
induced  when  it  is  injected  into  the  urinary  bladder. 
Frohner  made  various  experiments  with  the  ethereal 
extract.  He  poisoned  a  small  dog  with  TT\xxx.,  a  dog  of 
40  Ibs.  with  f3v.,  a  sheep  of  88  Ibs.  with  f3vi->  a  cow  of 
660  Ibs.  with  about  f  giij. 

DOSES,  etc. — The  powdered  male  fern  rhizome  is  given 
to  horses  and  cattle  in  doses  of  §iv.  to  §vi.  ;  sheep,  §j. 
to  §iv.  ;  pigs,  3iij.  to  §j.  ;  dogs,  3ij.  to  3jv.  ;  and  cats, 
grs.  xxx.  to  3J-  But  the  powder  is  inconveniently  bulky, 
and  less  certain  than  the  B.P.  ethereal  or  liquid  extract. 
The  dose  of  the  extract  for  horses  and  cattle  is 
to  f  3vi. ;  for  sheep  and  pigs,  f  3i.  to  f  3nj-  ;  f°r  dogs, 
to  Tf^lx. ;  and  cats,  H\iv.  to  H\x.  It  is  given  sometimes  with 
half  a  dose  of  turpentine  or  calomel,  in  a  little  oil,  milk, 
or  gruel,  flavoured  with  ginger  or  peppermint,  when  the 
bowels  have  been  emptied  by  a  laxative  and  several  hours' 
fasting.  A  dose  of  the  extract,  with  half  a  dose  of  areca- 
nut,  constitutes  the  most  effectual  remedy  for  tape-worm 
in  dogs.  If  the  parasite  is  not  expelled,  the  medicine 


KAMALA — YOHIMBINE  617 

may  be  repeated  in  three  days.  Kaufmann  recommends 
doses  to  be  given  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  at  night. 
The  worms  narcotised,  relinquish  their  hold,  and  are  swept 
out  by  a  laxative,  administered  a  few  hours  after  the  last 
dose  of  extract. 

KAMALA 

A  powder  consisting  of  the  minute  glands  and  hairs  obtained 
from  the  surface  of  the  fruits  of  Mallotus  philippinensis. 
Nat.  Ord. — Euphorbiaceae.  (Not  official.) 

The  granular,  brick-red,  resinous  powder,  which  consti- 
tutes kamala,  is  obtained  from  the  capsules  of  an  evergreen 
small  tree  indigenous  to  Australia,  India,  and  Abyssinia. 
It  yields  an  active  yellow  crystalline  substance — rottlerin. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  a  drastic  purgative  and  vermi- 
cide. For  the  destruction  of  tape- worm  it  is  nearly  as  active 
as  areca-nut  and  male  shield  fern.  The  dose  for  a  dog  is 
3ss.  to  3i->  administered  in  thick  gruel,  treacle,  or  linseed 
oil,  or  an  alcoholic  tincture  may  be  used. 

YOHIMBINE 

YOHIMBINE,  or  APHRODINE  (C22H28N2O3),  an  alkaloid  ob- 
tained by  Spiegel  from  the"  bark  of  the  Yohimbehe  tree 
(Corynanihe  yohimbi),  growing  in  the  Cameroons,  and 
belonging  to  the  natural  order,  Rubiacece. 

Yohimbine  occurs  in  prismatic  needles,  or  as  a  white 
amorphous  powder,  nearly  insoluble  in  water  ;  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  acids.  Exposed  to  air  and 
light  it  gradually  alters  and  assumes  a  yellow  tint.  It  is 
generally  prescribed  as  the  hydrochloride,  which  keeps  well. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — In  properly  regulated  doses  yohim- 
bine  is  a  powerful  aphrodisiac  ;  it  stimulates  the  erection 
centre  in  the  spinal  cord,  and  causes  marked  congestion 
of  the  genital  organs.  Large  doses  appear  to  have  no 
special  influence  on  the  sexual  system,  but  they  produce 
a  state  of  general  excitement,  with  restlessness,  irregular 
respiration,  fall  in  blood-pressure,  increase  of  pulse  rate, 
and  more  or  less  cardiac  depression.  Applied  to  the  eye, 
a  one  per  cent,  solution  of  the  hydrochloride  induces  anaes- 


618  YOHIMBINE 

thesia,  lasting  for  an  hour  or  more,  without  mydriasis,  or 
alteration  of  the  corneal  epithelium.  Yohimbine  is  chiefly 
used  as  a  remedy  for  functional  impotence  and  sterility. 
It  appears  to  be  eminently  adapted  as  a  means  of  reviving 
the  sexual  powers  of  apparently  healthy  animals  which  have 
become  barren  or  impotent  from  prolonged  continence  or 
some  obscure  cause.  It  has  also  been  employed  to  arrest 
obstinate  vomiting  in  dogs,  and  in  the  treatment  of  spinal 
paralysis  in  young  horses.  Holterbach,  who  first  prescribed 
it  in  veterinary  practice,  records  the  case  of  a  bull  which 
for  nine  months  had  refused  to  cover.  Various  drugs 
having  been  tried  without  benefit,  the  bull  was  given 
yohimbine  in  his  drinking  water  for  ten  days.  He  then 
covered  twice  consecutively,  and  eleven  days  later  served 
again  quite  satisfactorily.  Similar  treatment  of  four  other 
bulls,  unable  or  unwilling  to  cover,  was  followed  by  equally 
good  results.  Cows,  which  had  ceased  to  exhibit  symptoms 
of  oestrum,  and  an  impotent  bull,  were  successfully  treated 
by  the  administration  of  gr.  1J  to  grs.  3  per  day.  Sub- 
cutaneous injections  of  gr.  ^  yohimbine,  prescribed  by 
Kogan  for  a  stallion  which  had  been  rendered  impotent 
by  injury  from  a  falling  beam,  rapidly  restored  sexual 
power.  Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by  Paarl, 
Simon,  Haas,  Manuel,  and  others  in  stallions,  bulls,  and 
cows  ;  by  Sewell,  Paul,  and  Cowan  in  bitches  ;  and  by 
Holterbach  in  the  sow.  Yohimbine  is  non-cumulative, 
and,  unlike  cantharides,  it  does  not  irritate  the  urinary 
organs  ;  but  as  dogs  have  been  poisoned  with  half  a  grain, 
care  should  be  exercised  in  prescribing  this  drug.  The 
symptoms  of  poisoning  are  dyspnoea,  depression  of  the 
heart,  salivation,  diarrhoea,  falling  temperature,  partial 
paralysis,  and  convulsions. 

Doses,  etc. — Stallions,  gr.  -| ;  bulls,  gr.  1J  ;  cows,  gr.  1  £  ; 
sheep,  gr.  J  ;  small  dogs,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  ^ ;  dogs, 
weighing  20  to  50  Ibs.,  gr.  ^  ;  dogs  over  50  Ibs.,  gr.  \  ; 
in  food,  drinking  water,  or  in  bolus  or  pill.  These  doses 
may  be  repeated  three  times  a  day.  Tablets  containing 
Sr-  A»  &r-  J>  anc*  8r-  *§  yohimbine  for  veterinary 
patients  are  now  obtainable. 

DAMIANA. — The    liquid    extract    of    damiana    prepared 


ERGOT  619 

from  the  leaves  of  Turnera  aphrodisiaca,  growing  in 
California  and  Mexico,  has  been  employed  in  the  United 
States  as  a  remedy  for  functional  sterility,  and  as  a  tonic 
and  diuretic.  The  compound  damiana  mixture  (Willows, 
Francis,  Butler  and  Thompson),  containing  the  liquid 
extract,  with  phosphorus  and  nux  vomica,  is  a  useful 
tonic  and  aphrodisiac  for  horses  in  doses  of  §j.,  given 
twice  a  day  for  a  week,  then  suspended  for  five  or  six 
days,  and  repeated  if  qp cessary. 

ERGOT 

ERGOTA.  Spurred  or  Horned  Rye.  Ergot  of  Bye.  The 
sclerotium  of  Claviceps  purpurea,  originating  in  the 
ovary  of  Secale  cereale  (B.P.). 

Ergot  attacks  not  only  rye  but  the  other  Graminaceae,  the 
Cyperaceae,  and  palms.  The  earliest  symptoms  occur  about 
the  time  of  blooming,  when  the  ears  of  the  rye  exhibit  drops 
of  yeUow,  sweet,  fungous  slime,  called  honey-dew,  which 
attracts  ants  and  beetles,  and  which  after  a  few  days  dries 
up.  The  soft  ovaries  of  the  grains  attacked  are  meanwhile 
covered  and  filled  by  white,  spongy,  felted-together  cells — 
the  mycelium  (or  spawn)  of  the  Claviceps  purpurea.  The 
grain  is  disintegrated  ;  at  its  base  the  mycelium  cells  separ- 
ate, swell,  solidify,  and  form  a  compact,  dark  violet  body, 
which,  as  it  grows  in  a  curved,  horn-like  shape,  protrudes 
from  the  pales,  and  constitutes  the  ergot.  The  further 
history  of  this  biennial  fungus,  investigated  by  Tulasne, 
shows  that  it  reaches  its  fully-developed  sclerotium  or  ergot 
state  in  July  ;  it  should  be  gathered  in  August  or  September, 
before  any  putrefaction  appears  ;  it  usually  remains  in  a 
quiescent  state  during  winter  ;  on  moist  soil,  in  March  or 
April,  it  produces  fruit  heads  of  the  perfect  fungus,  the 
Claviceps  purpurea,  which,  after  a  few  weeks,  is  again 
ready  to  distribute  its  earlier  spores.  Close,  damp  weather 
and  undrained  soils  favour  development  and  distribution 
of  these  ergot  spores  as  of  other  fungi.  The  injury  done  to 
the  rye  crop  by  ergot  varies  much  ;  sometimes  only  a  few 
grains  in  each  head  are  diseased,  sometimes  scarcely  one 
is  altogether  sound ;  five  to  ten  on  an  average  are  affected. 


620  ERGOT 

It  abounds  both  in  grain  and  grasses  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  where  it  is  stated  that  as 
much  as  1  Ib.  has  been  got  from  100  Ibs.  of  hay.  It  should 
be  collected  before  the  plants  are  cut. 

PROPERTIES. — Ergot  of  rye  is  cylindrical,  or  somewhat 
triangular,  curved,  resembling  a  cock's  spur  tapering  towards 
the  ends ;  it  varies  in  length  from  one-third  of  an  inch  to 
an  inch  and  a  half,  and  in  breadth  from  one  to  four  lines  ; 
is  marked  by  a  longitudinal  furrow  on  each  side,  often 
irregularly  cracked  ;  has  at  one  end  a  pale-grey,  fragile 
excrescence,  the  shrivelled  remains  of  the  style,  and  is 
covered  by  the  grey,  powdery  conidia  or  spores.  It  is 
dark  violet-black  externally  and  pinkish- white  within. 
Its  odour  is  peculiar  and  disagreeable  ;  its  taste,  at  first 
sweet,  becomes  bitter  and  slightly  acrid.  When  dry  it  is 
inflammable,  hard,  and  brittle ;  when  moist,  or  long  exposed, 
it  becomes  soft,  darker  in  colour,  and  covered  with  acari. 
Its  structure  is  made  up  of  felted  thread-like  cells,  amidst 
which  lie  drops  of  oil.  Ergot  should  be  free  from  mustiness  ; 
it  deteriorates  by  keeping,  and  by  exposure  to  damp  (B.P.). 
Infused  in  boiling  water,  it  forms  a  claret-coloured  solu- 
tion, retaining  the  odour,  taste,  and  actions  of  ergot. 

Ergot  consists  of  about  30  per  cent,  of  a  non-drying  fixed 
oil,  which  has  no  special  action  ;  a  peculiar  sugar  termed 
mycose  ;  lactic,  acetic,  and  formic  acids  ;  colouring  matters  ; 
and,  according  to  Kobert,  of  Strasburg,  three  active  prin- 
ciples—an alkaloid,  eornutine,  and  sphacelinic  and  ergotinic 
acids.  Another  base,  ergotinin,  has  been  described,  but 
is  inert.  Amine  and  ammonia  bases  are  formed  normally, 
and  are  also  produced  by  decomposition.  Jacoby  has  stated 
that  the  action  of  sphacelinic  acid  is  due  to  a  resinous 
substance,  sphacelotoxin. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Ergot,  eornutine,  and  sphacelinic 
acid  stimulate  and  contract  involuntary  muscular  fibre, 
and  hence  diminish  the  blood-stream  passing  through 
the  arterioles.  Large  or  continued  doses  thus  produce 
ergotism.  Medicinal  doses  are  given  to  contract  the 
uterus,  and  also  the  blood-vessels  in  cases  of  haemorrhage. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS.— The  physiological  effects  of  the  three 
active  principles  of  ergot  may  be  thus  described  : — 


STIMULATES  AND  CONTRACTS  MUSCULAR  FIBRE   621 

Cornutine  causes  spastic  rigidity  in  frogs,  lasting  many 
days,  even  when  given  in  very  minute  doses  (^  of  a  milli- 
gramme). In  warm-blooded  animals  half  a  milligramme 
causes  salivation,  vomiting,  diarrhoea,  and  active  movements 
of  the  uterus,  which  are  clonic  and  not  tonic.  The  vessels 
are  contracted  and  blood-pressure  raised.  These  clonic 
convulsions,  and  the  other  symptoms  probably,  are  due  to 
stimulation  of  the  medulla  oblongata  and  basal  ganglia 
of  the  brain.  With  large  doses  the  stimulation  passes 
into  paralysis,  and  death  results  from  paralysis  of  respira- 
tion. 

Sphacelinic  acid  or  Sphacelotoxin  especially  acts  on  un- 
striped  muscle  through  the  medium  of  the  sympathetic 
nerves,  increasing  its  tonus  and  contraction  throughout 
the  body.  There  is  marked  contraction  of  the  blood- 
vessels and  a  rise  of  blood-pressure,  and  in  cases  of  chronic 
poisoning  there  is  dry  gangrene  of  the  extremities.  As  a 
result  of  the  insufficient  blood  supply,  a  hyaline  infiltration 
of  the  walls  and  lumen  of  the  contracted  vessels  occurs, 
and  this  makes  the  constriction  permanent,  and  so  leads  to 
gangrene.  This  gangrene  is  especially  well  seen  in  fowls, 
and  to  a  less  extent  in  pigs.  In  all  animals  there  may  be 
salivation,  nausea,  vomiting,  and  purgation,  and  on  post- 
mortem, signs  of  gastric  irritation  with  blood  extravasation. 
Cornutine  and  sphacelinic  acid  are  evidently  the  principles 
which  cause  uterine  contraction  (Robert). 

Ergotinic  acid  is  a  saponin,  and  so  is  destroyed  by  diges- 
tion, and  has  little  effect  except  that  of  a  gastric  irritant, 
when  given  by  the  mouth.  When  injected  subcutaneously 
it  causes  ascending  paralysis  of  the  spinal  cord  and  brain 
both  in  frogs  and  mammals,  with  loss  of  voluntary  motion, 
paralysis  of  the  vaso-motor  centre,  and  fall  of  blood- 
pressure,  while  respiration  and  reflex  irritability  continue. 
It  does  not  appear  to  have  the  power  of  increasing  uterine 
contractions,  and  hence  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  most 
important  constituent  of  ergot. 

The  actions  of  ergot  are  the  combined  effects  of  these 
three  agents.  It  is  quickly  absorbed,  and  in  the  blood 
soon  exerts  its  specific  action.  All  unstriped  muscular  fibre 
is  contracted  ;  the  calibre  of  blood-vessels  is  hence  dimin- 


622  ERGOTISM 

ished,  as  may  be  readily  seen  in  the  web  of  the  frog's  foot 
the  iris  is  contracted  ;    intestinal  peristalsis  is  increased 
the  urinary  bladder  is  emptied.     With  moderate  doses 
the  normal  uterine  contractions  are  strengthened  and  im- 
proved in  tone,  but  with  large  doses  the  contractions  of 
the  uterus  are  continuous  and  tetanic,  are  usually  produced 
in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  last  about  an  hour.     They 
may  cause  expulsion  of  the  contents  of  the  pregnant  uterus. 
They  result  mainly  from  general  contraction  of  unstriped 
muscular  fibre,  but  are  also  believed  to  be  in  part  deter- 
mined by  stimulation  of  the  uterine  centre  in  the  spinal 
cord.     The  action  of  the  heart  is  weakened,  and  as  a  rule 
the  pulse  rate  is  slowed.     Blood-pressure,  after  a  temporary 
fall,  is  raised.     Respiration  is  little  affected  except  in  the 
depression  due  to  toxic  doses. 

Ergot,  given  experimentally  in  large  or  continued  doses, 
or  the  protracted  use  of  ergoted  grain,  causes  ergotism, 
which  is  characterised  by  gastro-intestinal  derangement, 
nausea,  diarrhoea  and  vomiting  in  animals  capable  of 
emesis,  and  from  the  impaired  circulation  and  nutrition 
affecting  different  areas,  subsequently  assumes  two  forms — 
(1)  dry  gangrene,  chiefly  involving  the  extremities,  ears, 
and  tail ;  (2)  inco-ordinate  spasms,  and  sometimes  epilepti- 
form  convulsions,  with  contractures  of  various  limb  or  trunk 
muscles  as  sequelae. 

The  fresh  extract,  injected  into  animals,  causes  inco- 
ordination,  cutaneous  anaemia,  anaesthesia,  and  paralysis, 
and  in  large  doses  death  due  to  paralysis  of  respiration. 
The  voluntary  muscles  are  unaffected  ;  the  motor  nerves 
are  not  paralysed,  but,  on  the  contrary,  have  their  power 
somewhat  increased  ;  the  sensory  nerves  are  paralysed  ; 
but  it  is  uncertain  whether  this  action  is  central  or  peri- 
pheral. The  spinal  cord  is  paralysed  (Brunton). 
,-4  Ergot  of  rye,  resembles  maize  ergot — a  fungus  occurring 
on  Indian  corn,  and  probably  containing  the  same  active 
principles  as  ergot.  The  physiological  antagonists  of  ergot 
are  nitrites. 

Toxic  EFFECTS  are  not  so  marked  on  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
and  rabbits  as  on  men  and  dogs.  Thirty  cows  amongst 
them  took  daily  with  impunity  37  Ibs.  for  three  months  \ 


CHRONIC   POISONING  623 

two  milk  cows  had  between  them  9  Ibs.  daily,  with  no 
further  evil  effect  than  that  the  butter  was  badly  tasted. 
Twenty  sheep  amongst  them  ate  daily  for  four  weeks  9  Ibs. 
without  injury  (Phoebus  and  Pereira).  Dogs  receiving  six 
to  twelve  drachms  suffered  from  vomiting,  tenesmus,  pros- 
tration of  muscular  power,  enfeebled  pulse,  convulsive 
twitchings,  spasms,  and  coma  (Tabourin).  Three  ounces 
proved  fatal  to  a  terrier  bitch  in  twenty  hours. 

Chronic  poisoning  occurs  especially  in  patients  placed  in 
unfavourable  sanitary  surroundings.  Wright  found  that 
ergot,  given  for  several  weeks  to  dogs  and  rabbits,  caused 
nausea,  impaired  appetite,  a  weak,  irregular  pulse,  soon 
becoming  intermittent,  diarrhoea  ;  excessive  fcetor  of  the 
secretions  and  excretions,  paralysis,  particularly  of  the  hind 
extremities,  enlargement  of  the  liver,  contraction  of  the 
spleen,  impairment  of  the  special  senses,  wasting,  and  general 
debility.  Gangrene  of  the  extremities  is  not,  however, 
produced  so  readily  as  in  man.  Dogs,  cats,  and  rabbits 
showed  great  aversion  to  the  drug,  even  when  it  was  mixed 
with  sound  grain,  or  considerably  diluted  with  water ; 
and,  although  pressed  by  hunger,  would  scarcely  eat  it 
of  their  own  accord.  Ergot  of  maize,  according  to  Roulin, 
is  common  in  Columbia,  and  its  continued  use  is  stated 
to  cause  shedding  of  the  hair,  and  even  of  the  teeth,  both 
of  man  and  beast.  Mules  freely  fed  on  it  lose  their  hoofs, 
and  fowls  lay  eggs  without  shells. 

Abortion  attributed  to  ergoted  grasses  occurs  amongst 

cows,  ewes,  and  deer  in  many  grass  districts  of  England  and 

Ireland,  especially  in  wet  seasons.     The  hay  from  pastures 

'subject  to  ergot  is  seldom,  however,  so  injurious  as  the 

grass,  for  it  is  generally  cut  before  the  fungus  is  matured. 

iCows  abort  from  this  cause  more  frequently  than  ewes  or 

<  deer  ;    for  they  are  more  prone  to  eat  the  coarser,  longer 

ergoted  grasses,  and,  moreover,  are  often  pregnant  in  the 

I  later    months    of    summer,    when    ergot    occurs.     Experi- 

1  mentally,  abortion  has  been  produced  in  guinea-pigs,  sows, 

[bitches,  cats,  cows,  and  ewes,  rabbits,  and  poultry  (Stille"). 

;  The  negative  results  obtained  by  some  experimenters  may 

I  be  explained  by  their  having  used  ergot  which  had  been  too 

long  kept. 


624  ERGOT   AN   ECBOLIC 

MEDICINAL  USES. — As  a  parturient,  ergot  is  seldom  needed] 
in  the  lower  animals.  The  foal  or  calf,  coming  naturally  at 
the  full  period,  if  assistance  is  requisite,  is  generally  brought 
away  by  judicious  traction.  It  is  sometimes  useful  in 
uterine  inertia,  where  the  throes  are  languid  and  occurring 
at  long  intervals,  where  the  animal  has  been  in  labour  for 
some  considerable  time,  where  no  obstruction  is  present, 
and  where  the  os  uteri  is  considerably  dilated.  It  is  un-j 
suitable  where  there  is  malformation  either  of  the  mother 
or  foetus,  where  the  position  of  the  foetus  prevents  its  ready 
expulsion,  and  sometimes  also  in  first  pregnancies,  where  the 
uterus,  roused  to  continuous  tetanic  contractions,  is  more 
liable  to  be  injured  or  torn.  After  parturition,  if  the  uterus 
remain  flaccid,  and  especially  if  haemorrhage  occur,  as 
occasionally  happens  both  in  cows  and  ewes,  ergot  effectually 
contracts  the  organ,  and  thus  arrests  the  bleeding.  In  such 
cases  it  may  be  given  by  the  mouth,  or,  where  prompt 
effects  are  sought,  it  is  injected  subcutaneously,  or  into  the 
substance  of  a  muscle.  It  is  sometimes  prescribed  to  remove 
uterine  cysts  and  hasten  expulsion  of  the  foetal  membranes, 
which  in  the  lower  animals  may  usually,  however,  be  readily 
removed  by  the  hand.  Given  either  by  the  mouth  or  in- 
jection, it  is  often  used  in  haemoptysis,  and  sometimes 
in  haematemesis  and  other  haemorrhages,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  any  beneficial  result  occurs  in  the  first  of  these. 
The  pulmonary  vessels  are  quite  independent  of  vaso-motor 
control ;  are  not  constricted  by  ergot ;  but  are  actually 
dilated  by  the  general  rise  of  blood-pressure.  It  is  of  no 
avail  in  purpura.  Robertson  recommended  it  in  cerebro- 
spinal  meningitis  in  horses  ;  and  several  practitioners  have 
tried  it,  but  without  much  success,  in  parturient  apoplexy 
in  cows.  The  reduction  of  fibroid  and  other  tumours  has 
sometimes  been  effected  by  injecting  them  with  ergot. 

In  addition  to  the  powdered  drug  the  following  official 
preparations  are  used : — Extractum  Ergotae  (Ergotin) ; 
Extractum  Ergotae  Liquidum  ;  Infusum  Ergotae  (1  to  20  of 
boiling  water) ;  Tinctura  Ergotae  Ammoniata  ;  and  In- 
jectio  Ergotae  Hypodermica  (made  with  ergot-extract). 
It  must  be  noted  that  the  active  constituents  of  ergot  are 
very  unstable,  and  hence  many  preparations  and  samples 


SAVIN  625 

of  the  drug  are  quite  inactive.  Proper  physiological 
standardisation  is  necessary,  and  without  this  there  is  no 
certainty  of  action. 

DOSES,  etc. — Ergot  freshly  powdered,  as  an  ecbolic  for  the 
mare  or  cow,  5SS-  to  %ij.  ;  for  sheep  about  39 •  '•>  f°r  swine 
and  bitches  3«s.  to  3J-  ;  Extract  of  Ergot  (Ergotin),  horses 
and  cattle,  grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  Ixxx.  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x.  ; 
in  drench  or  electuary,  and  repeated  as  may  be  required. 
The  liquid  extract  may  be  prescribed  for  horses  and  cattle  in 
doses  of  H\lx.  to  39-  5  f°r  dogs,  H\x.  to  Tl\xxx.  Of  the 
tincture  horses  and  cattle  may  be  given  "^iv.  to  §j.  or  more. 
The  B.P.  hypodermic  injection  of  ergot  contains  33  grains 
of  the  extract  in  110  minims.  For  the  mare  or  cow  the  dose 
is  1T[60  to  H\100  injected  subcutaneously  or  into  the  substance 
of  the  gluteal  muscles.  The  smaller  dose  should  first  be 
tried. 

SAVIN 

SABINA  CACUMINA.  Fresh  and  dried  tops  of  Juniperus 
sabina,  collected  in  spring  from  plants  cultivated  in 
Britain.  Nat.  Ord.— Coniferse.  (U.S.P.)  Not  official 
in  B.P. 

Juniperus  sabina  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  common  through- 
out Middle  and  Southern  Europe,  and  cultivated  in  this 
country.  The  tops  of  young  branches,  with  their  attached 
leaves,  when  fresh  are  green,  but  become  yellow  when  kept ; 
have  a  strong,  heavy,  disagreeable  odour,  and  a  bitter,  acrid, 
resinous  taste.  They  communicate  their  properties  to 
water,  spirit,  and  the  fixed  oils,  and  owe  their  activity  to 
about  three  per  cent,  of  a  colourless  or  pale  yellow  volatile 
Oil,  prepared  from  the  fresh  tops  by  distillation,  isomeric 
with  oil  of  turpentine  (C10H16),  and  associated,  as  constantly 
occurs  in  plants,  with  a  more  oxidised  oil  (C10H160).  From 
the  berries  ten  per  cent,  of  these  oils  is  said  to  be  obtained 
(Phillips). 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Savin  is  a  topical  irritant,  antiseptic, 
rubefacient  and  vesicant.  Administered  internally,  moder- 
ate doses  are  anthelmintic  and  diuretic  ;  they  increase 
appetite,  promote  digestion,  and  stimulate  the  urino-genital 

2E 


626  SAVIN 

organs.  Large  doses  produce  gastro-enteritis.  Excretion 
occurs,  to  a  slight  extent,  by  the  skin  and  pulmonary 
membrane,  but  especially  by  the  kidneys.  Savin  resembles 
the  turpentine  yielding  coniferae,  and  especially  the  other 
junipers. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — Hertwig  gave  horses  half  a  pound  twice 
daily  for  six  or  eight  days  without  effect.  Rose  records  the 
poisoning  of  five  horses,  of  which  one  died  immediately,  and 
two  after  five  days  ;  the  others  recovered,  after  suffering 
from  diarrhoea,  intense  thirst,  quickened  pulse  and  breathing, 
with  great  prostration.  Two  drachms  kill  rabbits  in  a  few 
hours,  producing  extreme  congestion  of  the  intestines, 
kidneys,  and  bladder.  Orfila  records  that  four  drachms 
destroyed  dogs  in  thirteen  hours,  when  the  gullet  was  tied 
to  prevent  vomiting  ;  and  similar  effects  followed  when 
powdered  savin  was  applied  to  a  wound  or  introduced  under 
the  skin.  Vomiting,  purging,  gastro-intestinal  inflamma- 
tion, and  collapse  were  produced.  The  kidneys  and  bladder 
were  irritated,  usually  causing  copious  discharge  of  bloody 
urine. 

The  uterus  is  also  irritated,  and  savin  has  been  ignorantly 
used  to  produce  abortion  and  hasten  parturition.  Two  cases 
of  abortion  in  mares  heavy  in  foal  have  been  recorded.  In 
these  cases  the  continued  use  of  savin  destroyed  both  foals, 
and,  being  still  persevered  with,  caused  their  expulsion 
apparently  ten  or  twelve  days  later. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Savin  cannot  be  safely  used  to  produce 
abortion  or  hasten  parturition.  Unlike  ergot,  it  does  not 
directly  contract  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  uterus.  It 
stimulates  the  uterus,  and  expels  its  contents  only  as  a 
result  of  irritation  of  the  intestines  and  urinary  organs.  It 
is  occasionally  used  chopped  with  fodder  for  the  destruction 
of  intestinal  worms  ;  but  other  remedies  are  safer  and  more 
certain.  If  used  at  all,  the  best  form  is  the  essential  oil. 
Infusions  of  the  tops  in  an  alkaline  ley,  and  the  essential  oil, 
are  occasionally  applied  as  antiseptics  and  stimulants  to 
warts  and  indolent  wounds. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  volatile  oil  as  an  anthelmintic — the 
only  purpose  for  which  savin  is  administered — horses  or 
cattle,  f3nJ'  to  f3iv-  \  dogs,  TT[iii.  to  JT|v.  dissolved  in  any 


COLCHICUM  627 

mild  fixed  oil  or  in  mucilage.  For  external  application, 
infusions  and  ointments  are  used.  Equal  parts  of  savin  and 
verdigris  ointments  form  a  popular  stimulant  dressing  for 
foot- rot  in  sheep.  An  infusion,  of  one  of  savin  to  one  hundred 
of  water,  is  sometimes  injected  into  the  uterus  to  promote 
expulsion  of  retained  fcetal  membranes. 


COLCHICUM 

COLCHICI  CORMUS.  Colchicum  Corm.  The  fresh  corm  of 
Colchicum  autumnale.  Meadow  Saffron.  Collected  in 
early  summer ;  and  the  same,  stripped  of  its  coats, 
sliced  transversely,  and  dried  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  150°  Fahr. 

COLCHICI  SEMINA.  The  dried,  ripe  seeds  of  C.  autumnale 
(B.P.).  Nat.  Ord.— Colchicacese. 

The  meadow  saffron  grows  wild  throughout  Middle  and 
Southern  Europe,  and  on  English  lawns  and  coarse,  wet 
pastures,  in  mild,  moist  localities,  and  is  cultivated  in 
gardens.  It  has  an  annual  stem  ;  lilac  or  purple  flowers, 
numerous  round,  red-brown,  bitter,  acrid  seeds  about  the 
size  of  millet ;  and  a  bulbous  root,  which,  when  about 
a  year  old,  reaches  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  matures  in 
July. 

The  corms  are  used  both  fresh  and  dried.  Dried  slices  are 
kidney-shaped,  about  one  and  a  half  inch  long,  and  an  inch 
broad,  are  greyish- white,  dry,  firm,  and  starchy,  with  a 
bitter,  acrid  taste.  They  yield  their  active  principles  to 
alcohol  and  vinegar.  They  contain  about  70  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  18  of  starch  and  gum,  with  j^th  of  1  per  cent, 
of  a  bitter,  crystallisable,  poisonous  alkaloid,  colchicine 
(C17H19N05).  It  is  conjoined  with  gallic  acid,  is  present  in 
other  parts  of  the  plant,  and  is  nearly  a  hundred  times  more 
active  than  the  fresh  bulb.  Soluble  in  water  and  alcohol, 
slightly  soluble  in  glycerin  ;  with  acids,  it  forms  crystalline 
salts. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Colchicum  irritates  most  textures 
with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  Large  doses  are  gastro- 
intestinal irritants  and  nervous  depressants.  Medicinal 


628  COLCHICUM 

doses  are  emetic,  cathartic,  and  cholagogue.  Its  diuretic 
and  diaphoretic  actions  are  uncertain. 

Toxic  EFFECTS. — The  corm,  whether  used  green  or  dry, 
the  seed,  any  active  preparation,  and  still  more  notably 
colchicine,  are  in-contact  irritants.  Owing  to  the  active 
principle  being  slightly  soluble  they  have  little  action  on  the 
sound  skin.  When  swallowed,  a  sense  of  acridity  is  produced 
in  the  mouth  and  throat,  and  the  flow  of  saliva  is  increased. 
Passing  into  the  stomach  and  bowels  they  cause  colic, 
tenesmus,  and  diarrhoea,  and  in  carnivora  nausea  and 
vomiting.  Absorption  is  slow,  and  the  effect  on  the  central 
nervous  system  is  not  seen  for  from  one  to  several  hours. 
This  action  consists  in  depression,  with  ah1  the  signs  of 
collapse.  The  circulation  and  respiration  are  only  affected 
as  part  of  the  general  depression.  Movement  is  lessened, 
and  paralysis,  commencing  in  the  hind  limbs,  extends 
forwards.  There  is  some  amount  of  anaesthesia  of  the  skin 
in  the  later  stages  from  paralysis  of  sensory  nerves.  Death 
occurs  from  paralysis  of  respiration. 

A  cow  and  heifer  ate  some  cut  grass  containing  a  consider- 
able amount  of  meadow  saffron.  In  a  few  hours  they  had 
violent  colic,  profuse  and  bloody  diarrhoea,  tenderness  of 
the  abdomen,  coldness  of  the  surface,  and  prostration. 
The  cow  recovered  ;  the  heifer  died  from  irritation  and 
exhaustion  in  three  days.  A  number  of  cows  ate  small 
quantities  of  colchicum,  suffered  from  colic  and  diarrhoea, 
but  recovered  when  treated  with  emollient  drenches  and 
mild  saline  mixtures.  Three  cattle  having  eaten  colchicum 
were  reported  to  have  suffered  from  dulness,  stupor, 
grinding  of  the  teeth,  dilated  pupils,  imperceptible  pulse, 
relaxed  bowels,  cold  extremities,  and  thirst,  but  no  griping 
pains,  or  quickened  breathing.  They  were  successfully 
treated  by  laxatives  and  stimulants. 

Dogs  and  cats  are  more  susceptible  than  horses  or  rumi- 
nants. Two  drachms  of  the  dried  bulb  caused  in  dogs 
vomiting,  bloody  evacuations,  diuresis,  tremors  of  the 
limbs,  depression  of  the  heart  action,  and  death  in  five  hours. 
A  tenth  of  a  grain  of  colchicine  given  to  a  cat  occasioned 
salivation,  vomiting,  purging,  staggering,  extreme  languor, 
colic,  and  death  in  twelve  hours.  Rabbits,  as  well  as  frogs 


AN   IN-CONTACT   IRRITANT  629 

and  other  cold-blooded  animals,  are  stated  to  be  less  sus- 
ceptible to  the  drug,  but  are  very  susceptible  to  an  oxida- 
tion product,  oxydicolchicine.  It  appears  probable  that 
colchicine  is  oxidised  in  the  blood  and  tissues  of  mammals, 
and  then  produces  its  effects.  In  the  frog,  oxydicolchicine 
causes  prolongation  of  muscular  contractions  in  a  similar 
way  to  veratrine. 

As  antidotes  the  stomach  must  be  emptied  ;  full  doses  of 
tannin  form  an  insoluble  compound  with  the  colchicine  ; 
white  of  egg,  oil,  or  mucilage  should  be  freely  given,  and 
stimulants  if  required. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Colchicum  has  little  to  recommend  it 
as  a  therapeutic  agent.  The  fresh  corm  given  in  large  doses 
to  fasting  dogs,  and  its  expulsion  by  vomiting  prevented, 
increased  secretion  of  bile,  and  also  purged  powerfully. 
But  action  on  the  liver  and  gastro-intestinal  membrane  is 
more  safely  effected  by  other  medicines.  Small  doses, 
conjoined  with  alkalies  or  salines,  are  occasionally  given  to 
horses  in  rheumatism  and  influenza,  especially  in  subacute 
cases  in  which  the  inflammation  appears  to  move  from  joint 
to  joint.  Foreign  authorities  prescribe  it  in  dropsy,  hoven, 
and  rheumatism.  Williams  used  it,  conjoined  with  potas- 
sium iodide,  in  pleurisy,  in  rheumatic  pericarditis,  and 
sometimes  in  pneumonia  when  the  kidneys  were  torpid. 
It  is  excreted  in  great  part  by  the  kidneys,  and  when  not 
quickly  removed  by  the  bowels  it  increases,  alike  in  health 
and  disease,  both  the  organic  and  inorganic  constituents  of 
the  urine. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  the  powdered  corm  or  seed  as  a  diuretic  for 
horses,  3ss.  to  3J-  ;  for  cattle,  3J-  to  3ij-  >  f°r  sheep,  grs.  x. 
to  grs.  xxv.  ;  for  dogs  and  pigs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  vi.,  given  with 
salines.  A  convenient  solution  is  made  with  one  part  of 
colchicum,  six  or  eight  of  vinegar,  and  a  little  spirit.  Col- 
chicine dissolved  in  100  parts  of  water  and  glycerin  may  be 
given  hypodermically  or  intratraeheally  in  doses  of  gr.  J 
to  grs.  ij.  to  horses,  and  gr.  y^j  to  ^  to  dogs.  The  tinc- 
ture is  made  with  four  ounces  of  colchicum  seeds  to  the 
pint  of  alcohol  (45  per  cent.). 


630  CAMPHOR 

CAMPHOR 

CAMPHORA.  A  white  crystalline  substance  obtained  from 
Cinnamomum  camphora,  purified  by  sublimation  (B.P.). 
Nat.  Ord. — Laurineae. 

The  camphor  laurel  is  a  tall,  handsome  evergreen,  culti- 
vated in  Japan  and  China,  and  in  many  European  con- 
servatories. Its  wood  and  leaves  evolve  a  characteristic 
odour  when  bruised,  and  yield  about  -^J-^th  of  their  weight 
of  camphor,  which  is  sometimes  extracted  by  dry  distilla- 
tion. 

PROPERTIES. — Camphor  occurs  in  solid,  colourless,  trans- 
parent masses,  of  tough  consistence.  It  has  a  bitter, 
pungent,  cooling  taste,  and  a  characteristic,  aromatic  odour. 
It  floats  on  water,  its  specific  gravity,  varying  with  the 
temperature,  is  about  0*995.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it  volatil- 
ises ;  heated,  it  sublimes  without  residue,  and  burns 
readily  with  a  bright  but  smoky  flame.  It  is  difficult  to 
powder,  unless  when  mixed  with  alcohol,  ether,  or  chloro- 
form. It  dissolves  readily  in  ether,  in  about  its  own  weight 
of  rectified  spirit,  in  one-fourth  part  of  chloroform,  four  parts 
olive  oil,  two  parts  oil  of  turpentine,  eight  times  its  weight 
of  milk,  and  in  700  times  its  weight  of  water.  Camphor 
(C10H160)  is  a  ketone  of  terpene  (C10H16) — the  chief  con- 
stituent of  oil  of  turpentine,  chamomile,  cardamoms,  cloves, 
hops,  juniper,  savin,  and  valerian.  Most  of  these  volatile  oils 
contain  a  small  amount  of  a  crystalline  substance  or  stearop- 
tine  which  is  deposited  on  standing.  The  chief  of  these 
bodies  is  camphor.  Continuously  heated  with  nitric  acid, 
camphor  oxidises,  and  is  converted  into  camphoric  acid 
(C10H1604).  Triturated  with  chloral  hydrate,  menthol, 
phenol,  or  thymol,  it  forms  a  liquid. 

Borneo  camphor  (C10H180)  is  an  alcohol  derived  from  the 
wood  of  Dryobalanops  aromatica,  and  is  distinguished  from 
laurel  camphor  by  its  softness,  friability,  and  opacity,  its 
higher  density,  and  its  somewhat  alliaceous  odour.  From 
Borneo,  Formosa,  and  other  parts  of  China,  fluid  camphor 
oils  are  obtained  from  several  different  trees.  Artificial 
camphor  (C10H16HCL)  is  got  by  the  action  of  hydrochloric 


ANTISEPTIC,    STIMULANT,    AND    ANALGESIC      631 

acid  on  oil  of  turpentine.  Camphora  monobromata  (C10H15 
BrO)  resembles  bromine  rather  than  camphor  in  its  actions, 
is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  bromides,  but  is  not  so 
efficient. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES, — The  camphors  in  large  doses  are 
irritant  and  narcotic.  Medicinal  doses  are  antiseptic, 
stimulant,  expectorant,  anodyne,  and  diaphoretic.  Ex- 
ternally, they  are  occasionally  employed  as  antiseptics, 
parasiticides,  and  to  relieve  itching  in  various  skin  diseases. 

GENERAL  AND  TOXIC  EFFECTS. — The  camphors,  physio- 
logically, are  volatile  oils.  Like  other  bodies  of  the  group 
they  are  topical  irritants,  and  large  doses  stimulate  and 
subsequently  narcotise  the  central  nervous  system,  especially 
the  cerebral  cortex  with  its  motor  areas,  and  similarly,  but 
to  a  much  less  extent,  the  spinal  cord.  They  frequently 
produce  convulsions.  Those  which  contain  the  most 
hydrogen,  as  the  Borneo,  the  monobromata,  as  well  as 
menthol  (C10H200),  are  least  convulsant.  In  fine  powder 
or  solution  they  are  quickly  absorbed  ;  are  oxidised  in  great 
part  into  camphoric  acid,  and  quickly  produce  their  effects 
on  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  The  effect  of  medicinal  doses 
on  the  heart  is  somewhat  uncertain,  but  it  is  generally 
slowed.  Respiration  is  not  much  affected  but  may  be 
quickened  a  little.  There  is,  with  larger  doses,  excitement 
and  hypersesthesia,  and  in  the  dog  and  cat  epileptiform 
convulsions  are  easily  produced,  these  effects  being  due  to 
the  cerebral  stimulation.  Subsequently  there  is  depression, 
inco-ordination  of  movement,  stupor,  and  collapse.  The 
local  action  of  camphor  on  the  stomach  and  intestines  is 
that  of  a  volatile  oil,  namely  carminative,  antispasmodic, 
and  antiseptic.  The  drug  is  excreted  chiefly  by  the  kidneys 
in  combination  with  glycuronic  acid,  also  to  a  slight  extent 
by  the  bronchial  mucous  membrane  and  the  skin.  Moiroud 
records  that  two  ounces  produced  in  horses  convulsive 
movements  and  acceleration  of  the  pulse,  unaccompanied, 
however,  by  fatal  results.  Hertwig  mentions  that  two  to 
four  ounces  given  to  horses  and  cattle,  two  to  four  drachms 
to  sheep,  and  one  to  three  drachms  to  dogs,  accelerate 
respiration  and  pulsation,  communicate  a  camphoraceous 
odour  to  the  breath,  heighten  sensibility,  and  occasionally 


632  CAMPHOR 

induce  convulsions.  Dogs,  besides,  exhibit  imperfect  power 
of  controlling  the  movements  of  their  limbs,  and  when  the 
doses  amount  to  three  or  four  drachms  insensibility  and 
death  ensue.  The  vapour  of  camphor  destroys  fleas,  bugs, 
moths,  and  spiders,  exciting,  enfeebling,  and  stupefying 
them.  It  has  considerable  antiseptic  power.  Koch  found 
that  one  part  to  2500  of  water  hindered  development  of 
anthrax  bacilli. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Camphor  is  used,  especially  in  young 
animals,  as  a  gastric  stimulant  and  antiseptic.  In  diarrhoea 
it  is  given  with  aromatics  and  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  or  with  ether  and  laudanum.  Robertson  prescribed  it 
with  opium  in  enteritis  in  horses.  Many  veterinarians  give 
it  freely  in  catarrhal  cases  presenting  increased  secretion 
of  bronchial  mucus  and  dyspnoea,  conjoining  it  with  salines, 
ammonia  salts,  and  belladonna.  For  chronic  bronchitis  in 
horses,  it  may  be  prescribed  with  squill,  and  in  convalescence 
from  catarrhal  complaints  with  gentian,  ginger,  and  iron. 
For  exhausting  disease,  whether  in  horses  or  cattle,  a  stimu- 
lating draught  is  often  made  with  two  drachms  each  of 
camphor  and  ammonium  carbonate,  and  an  ounce  of  ether, 
given  in  ale  or  cold  gruel.  In  equine  pneumonia,  influenza, 
or  other  disease  associated  with  increasing  prostration, 
camphor  is  of  great  value.  Three  to  five  drachms  of 
25  per  cent,  camphorated  oil  or  ether  may  be  injected  sub- 
cutaneously  every  three  hours.  To  avoid  local  irritation, 
the  second,  third,  and  following  injections  should  be  made 
a  short  distance  from  the  preceding  puncture,  and  not  more 
than  75  minims  should  be  injected  at  one  point.  Sore- 
throat  and  irritable,  spasmodic  cough  are  relieved  by  placing 
on  the  tongue,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours,  or  as 
required,  an  electuary  made  with  equal  parts  of  belladonna 
extract,  borax,  and  camphor,  reduced  to  a  paste  with 
ammonium  acetate  solution,  and  mixed  with  eight  or  ten 
parts  of  honey  or  treacle.  Small  doses  prescribed  with 
belladonna  lessen  urino-genital  irritability,  resulting  from 
cantharides  or  other  causes.  It  does  not,  as  has  been 
popularly  believed,  diminish  the  lacteal  secretion. 

For  dogs,  a  mixture  containing  grs.  v.  each  of  camphor 
and  belladonna  extract,  with  f3J-  of  ammonium  acetate 


A   GASTRIC   STIMULANT  633 

solution,  in  two  ounces  of  water,  is  prescribed  to  relieve 
cough  and  bronchial  irritation.  Camphor  and  sweet  spirit 
of  nitre  are  useful  in  modifying  the  restlessness  and  con- 
vulsions of  chorea. 

Externally,  it  is  applied  either  in  oil,  or  weak  spirituous 
solution,  to  allay  itching  in  chronic  eczema  and  urticaria. 
Mixed  with  oil  or  vaseline,  it  is  used  to  destroy  skin  parasites, 
and  to  prevent  attacks  of  flies.  It  is  a  constituent  of  soap, 
opium,  belladonna,  chloroform,  turpentine,  and  other 
liniments. 

Aqua  Camphorae  is  made  with  70  grains  of  camphor 
dissolved  in  four  drachms  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  and 
added  to  one  gallon  of  water. 

Camphorated  oil  for  hypodermic  use  consists  of  one  part 
of  camphor  in  ten  of  pure  sterilised  olive  oil. 

Compound  liniment  of  Camphor  is  made  with  twenty 
parts  camphor,  forty  strong  solution  of  ammonia,  one  of  oil 
of  lavender,  and  120  of  rectified  spirit. 

Spirit  of  Camphor  consists  of  one  part  camphor  dissolved 
in  nine  parts  alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses,  3J-  to  3Jv.  ;  cattle,  3ij-  to  3vj.  ; 
sheep,  grs.  xxx.  to  3ij-  J  pigs>  grs-  xv-  to  grs.  xlv.  ;  dogs, 
grs.  viii.  to  grs.  xv. ;  and  cats,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  v.  When  used 
for  anodyne  purposes,  it  is  conveniently  made  into  an  emul- 
sion with  eggs,  or  dissolved  in  oil  or  milk.  Subcutaneous 
injections  may  be  made  with  camphor  one  part  dissolved  in 
four  or  ten  parts  of  sterilised  olive  oil,  or  ether.  Of  the 
stronger  solution  horses  may  be  given  fljlxxx.  to  H\clx. ; 
and  of  the  ten  per  cent,  solution,  H\clx  to  Tl\cccxx.  For 
external  use,  camphor  is  dissolved  in  ten  parts  of  alcohol,  in 
diluted  acetic  acid,  rape  oil,  or  oil  of  turpentine,  or  mixed 
with  five  parts  of  lard. 

SANITAS 

Sanitas  occurs  in  the  form  of  oily  and  watery  fluids,  pre- 
pared by  oxidation  of  oil  of  turpentine,  and  containing 
camphoraceous  bodies  and  hydrogen  peroxide. 

A  current  of  air  is  driven  by  an  engine,  for  about  120 
hours,  through  a  series  of  Doulton's  stoneware  receivers, 


634  SANITAS 

surrounded  by  vats  of  water,  maintained  by  steam  at  a 
temperature  of  140°  Fahr.  In  each  receiver  are  placed 
thirty  gallons  of  American,  Russian,  or  Swedish  oil  of 
turpentine,  and  about  double  that  amount  of  water.  The 
oil  gradually  becomes  darker  in  colour,  its  specific  gravity 
and  boiling  point  are  raised,  and  it  acquires  a  balsamic 
odour  resembling  camphor  and  peppermint.  As  the  process 
continues,  the  turpentine  (C10H16)  is  oxidised,  producing 
camphoric  peroxide  (C10H1603),  which  is  gradually  converted 
into  another  antiseptic  camphoric  substance  (C10H1602),  and 
the  soluble  hydrogen  peroxide  which  passes  into  solution 
in  the  water. 

The  several  essential  oils  of  the  terpene  series  (C10H16), 
as  well  as  cymene  (C10H14)  and  menthene  (C10H18),  undergo 
similar  oxidation,  and  give  rise  to  the  same  products.  In 
this  way  pine  forests,  especially  during  sunshine  following 
rain,  render  the  atmosphere  not  only  pleasantly  balsamic 
but  antiseptic,  more  highly  oxygenated,  and  curative  for 
throat  and  lung  complaints.  The  Eucalyptus  globulus  in 
like  manner  pours  forth  these  antiseptic  and  highly  oxy- 
genated volatile  products,  which  are  antidotes  to  malaria, 
and  sometimes,  it  is  said,  even  arrest  the  progress  of  pul- 
monary consumption ;  while,  on  a  smaller  scale,  every 
plant  or  flower  producing  an  essential  oil  exerts  similar 
oxygenating  and  purifying  effects. 

When  the  manufacture  of  Sanitas  is  completed,  then 
floats  on  the  surface  of  the  aqueous  solution  a  yellow-brown 
dense,  oxidised  oil  of  turpentine,  consisting  chiefly  of  cam 
phoric  peroxide,  which  is  stated  to  have  an  oxidising 
strength  equal  to  that  of  a  ten  volume  solution  of  hydroger 
peroxide.  This  Sanitas  oil,  mixed  with  a  suitable  minera 
or  other  basis,  constitutes  a  useful  disinfecting  and  deodoran 
powder.  It  is  introduced  into  various  soaps,  conferring 
disinfectant  properties,  and,  mixed  with  vaseline,  oils,  o 
fats,  forms  serviceable  antiseptic  liniments  and  ointments 
Melted  with  dammar  resin  and  paraffin  wax,  a  mixture  i 
obtained  which  is  used  to  impregnate  muslin,  forming  a: 
antiseptic  gauze.  Disinfectant  desiccants  are  prepared  b; 
admixture  with  chalk  or  starch.  The  watery  solutior 
cleared  by  filtration,  and  known  as  Sanitas  fluid,  consist 


OIL   AND    FLUID  635 

chiefly  of  thymol,  a  proportion  of  the  camphoraceous 
constituents  which  characterise  the  oil,  and  hydrogen 
peroxide. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Sanitas  oil  and  fluid  are  volatile, 
oxidising,  non-poisonous  antiseptics,  disinfectants,  and 
deodorants.  Their  several  constituents  in  various  ways 
attack  and  destroy  organised  ferments,  and  the  lower  forms 
of  vegetable  and  animal  life.  Sanitas  preparations  have  an 
agreeable  aromatic  odour,  are  not  corrosive,  and  do  not 
stain  or  injure  clothing  or  other  textile  fabrics.  Their 
power  of  checking  fermentation  has  led  to  the  administra- 
tion of  the  fluid  to  calves  fed  on  milk,  and  suffering  from 
dyspepsia  or  diarrhoea  ;  an  ounce  of  the  fluid  is  prescribed 
with  six  ounces  of  water,  and  may  be  conjoined  with  spirit, 
ether,  or  chloroform. 

Useful  antiseptic  lotions  for  wounds,  ulcers,  and  bruises 
are  prepared  with  one  part  of  the  fluid,  diluted,  according  to 
circumstances,  with  four  to  ten  parts  of  water.     Ointments 
and  liniments  are  prepared  with  about  the  same  proportions 
of  oils  and  fats.     When  wounds,  for  ten  days  or  longer, 
have  been  treated  with  carbolic  or  other  irritant  dressings, 
granulation   and   skin   growth   often   proceed   more   satis- 
factorily with  the  substitution  of  the  milder  Sanitas.     In 
sore-throat,  catarrh  of  the  sinuses  of  the  head,  aphtha,  and 
foot-and-mouth  complaint,  solutions  and  sprays  are  often 
i  useful,  and  being  devoid  of  irritant  effects,  are  also  service- 
able for  rectal,   uterine,   and  vesical   injections.     Sanitas 
solutions  and  soaps  not   only  cleanse   and  disinfect,  but 
gently  stimulate  the  skin,  abate  itching,  remove  scurf,  and 
;  promote  healing  in  prurigo,  chronic  eczema,  and  similar 
skin   complaints.     Sanitas   fluid,   diluted  with   twenty   to 
fifty  parts  of  tepid  water,  is  serviceable  for  sponging  febrile 
patients,  and  for  disinfecting  animals  affected  with  con- 
1  tagious  disease.     In  canine  practice,  the  fluid  diluted  with 
it  four  to  six  parts  of  water,  is  used  in  canker  of  the  ear, 
|  ulceration  of  the  mouth,  eczema,  and  as  a  uterine  injection 
]  after  parturition.     Sanitas  oil  destroys  the  parasites  of  scab 
|  and  mange,  as  well  as  lice,  fleas,  and  maggots,  and  arrests 
\  the  cryptogamic  growth  of  ringworm.     Even  in  concentrated 
:•  form,  there  is  no  risk  of  its  exciting  undue  irritation,  or 


636  THYMOL 

inducing  from  its  absorption  injurious  constitutional  effects, 
such  as  are  apt  to  follow  the  free  use  of  strong  carbolic 
preparations. 

Sanitas  powder  and  sawdust  are  used  with  good  effect 
for  disinfecting  and  deodorising  stables,  kennels,  cow- 
sheds, and  piggeries.  Sprinkled  upon  the  floors,  they  also 
purify  the  air  of  slaughter-houses,  menageries,  manufactories, 
and  exhibitions  ;  while  on  shipboard  they  destroy  unpleasant 
odours,  and  substitute  their  own  camphoric  aroma.  These 
preparations  are  largely  used  in  hospitals  and  by  medical 
officers  of  health. 

THYMOL 

THYMOL — a  crystalline  substance,  obtained  from  the  vola- 
tile oils  of  Thymus  vulgaris  and  Carum  copticum. 
Purified  by  recrystallisation  from  alcohol  (B.P.). 

Thymus  vulgaris  (Nat.  Ord. — Labiatse)  is  a  bushy  ever- 
green shrub  found  in  dry  situations  throughout  Southern 
Europe.  It  derives  its  aroma  from  an  essential  oil  separable 
into  two  parts — (1)  the  fluid  thymene,  which  is  isomeric 
with  oil  of  turpentine  (C10H16)  ;  and  (2)  the  solid  thymol. 

Thymol  (C10H13OH)  occurs  in  large  oblique  prisms,  with 
a  pungent,  aromatic  taste.  It  requires  for  solution  333 
parts  of  water,  190  of  glycerin,  or  two  of  olive  oil ;  and  is 
freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  fats.  It 
sinks  in  cold  water,  but  heated  to  110°  to  125°  Fahr.,  it 
melts  and  floats  on  the  surface. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Thymol  is  antiseptic,  disinfectant, 
diaphoretic,  diuretic,  and  vermicide.  Large  doses  paralyse 
the  nerve  centres  of  the  cord  and  medulla.  It  has  most  of 
the  characteristic  properties  of  a  volatile  oil.  Brunton 
states  that  its  physiological  actions  place  it  between  oil  of 
turpentine  and  carbolic  acid. 

Solutions  of  one  per  cent,  destroy  bacteria  and  prevent 
reproduction  of  their  spores.  Applied  to  the  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces  it  causes  irritation,  followed  by  anaesthesia.  When 
swallowed  it  is  slowly  absorbed.  Dogs  weighing  20  pounds 
and  rabbits  weighing  7  pounds,  receiving  respectively  60 
and  30  grains  injected  hypodermically,  exhibited  lowered 


MEDICINAL   USES  637 

blood-pressure  and  muscular  weakness,  paralysis  of  respira- 
tion, and  coma  ;  but  the  fatal  effect  of  full  doses  was 
frequently  averted  by  artificial  respiration.  The  respiratory 
mucous  membrane  was  congested,  the  lungs  were  congested 
and  sometimes  consolidated,  the  kidneys  inflamed,  the  urine 
albuminous,  occasionally  bloody.  In  chronic  poisoning 
tissue  metabolism  appears  to  be  impaired,  and  there  is 
fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver,  as  in  phosphorus  poisoning. 

I  It  is  excreted  chiefly  by  the  lungs  and  kidneys,  imparting 
to  the  urine  a  green  colour  by  direct,  a  brown  by  trans- 

:  mitted,  light.  Compared  with  carbolic  acid,  thymol  is  not 
so  irritant,  caustic,  or  poisonous  ;  when  absorbed  it  does 

I  not  cause  preliminary  excitement,  but  from  the  first  para- 
lyses the  nerve  centres  ;  as  an  antiseptic  it  is  stated  to  be 
more  powerful  and  permanent.  Its  high  price  precludes 

|  its  use  as  an  ordinary  antiseptic.     Concentrated  solutions 

;  damage  instruments. 

MEDICINAL    USES. — It    has    been    prescribed    in    vesical 

I  catarrh,  and  also  as  an  intestinal  disinfectant,  horses  taking 
grs.  xxx.  to  3ij-  ;  dogs,  gr.  viii.  to  grs.  xxx.  per  day,  divided 
into  three  doses.  As  a  vermicide  in  strongylosis  of  foals, 
grs.  x.  to  grs.  xv.,  dissolved  in  glycerin  and  alcohol,  sus- 
pended in  milk  or  mucilage,  or  made  into  a  bolus  coated 
with  keratin,  are  given  daily  for  four  or  five  consecutive 
days,  and  followed  by  a  laxative.  But  its  chief  use  is  in 
antiseptic  surgery.  Notwithstanding  its  greater  cost,  it  is 
sometimes  substituted  for  carbolic,  salicylic,  and  boric 
acids.  For  allaying  irritation  and  removing  scales  in  chronic 
eczema  and  lichen,  1  to  2  grains  are  dissolved  in  an  ounce 
of  diluted  spirit,  or  of  potassium  carbonate  solution.  For 
<such  purposes  an  ointment  is  also  used,  made  with  10  to 
40  grains  to  the  ounce  of  vaseline.  As  a  stimulating  anti- 
peptic  in  sore-throat  and  ozsena,  it  is  used  in  the  form  of 
gargle,  spray,  or  inhalation.  It  is  the  active  constituent 
'pf  Volckmann's  antiseptic  fluid,  which,  with  one  part 
jihymol,  contains  20  of  alcohol,  20  of  glycerin,  and  960  of 
ji^ater.  This  solution  prevents  the  development  of  pyogenic 
)rganisms. 


638  TOBACCO 

TOBACCO 

T ABACI  FOLIA.     Tobacco  leaves.     The  dried  leaves  of  Nico- 
tiana  tabacum.     Nat.  Ord. — Solanacese.     (Not  official.) 

Tobacco  derives  its  name  from  tabac,  the  instrument  used 
by  the  American  aborigines  for  smoking  the  leaf,  from  the 
island  of  Tobago,  or  from  the  town  of  Tobasco  in  New  Spain. 
It  appears  to  have  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial 
in  America,  and  is  now  grown  largely  in  the  region  watered 
by  the  Orinoco,  in  the  United  States,  and  in  many  temperate 
and  sub-tropical  countries  of  both  hemispheres.  It  was 
unknown  in  the  Old  World — at  all  events  in  Europe — until 
after  the  discoveries  of  Columbus  ;  and  was  first  introduced 
into  England  by  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1586. 

The  Nicotiana  tabacum,  which  yields  the  Virginian  and 
several  commercial  tobaccos,  is  an  herbaceous  plant,  three 
to  six  feet  in  height,  with  a  branching  fibrous  root,  a  tall 
annual  stem,  funnel-shaped,  rose-coloured  flowers,  and  large, 
moist,  clammy,  brown  leaves,  mottled  with  yellow  spots, 
covered  with  glandular  hairs,  and  distinguished  by  a  strong, 
peculiar,  narcotic  odour,  and  a  nauseous,  bitter,  acrid  taste. 
The  leaves  readily  communicate  their  properties  to  hot 
water  and  alcohol.  The  plant  is  cut  down  in  August,  and 
the  leaves  dried,  twisted,  and  carefully  packed,  with  great 
compression,  in  hogsheads.  For  many  purposes  the  midrib 
is  removed,  and  occasionally  the  leaf  is  fermented,  in  order 
to  remove  albuminoids,  which,  when  smoked,  give  rise  to 
oils  and  unpleasant  products.  Sugar  and  liquorice  are  some- 
times added  to  impart  mellowness  and  pliability. 

Commercial  tobaccos  contain  about  12  per  cent,  of  mois- 
ture, 20  to  25  of  lignin,  and  about  the  same  amount  of 
inorganic  matters,  chiefly  salts  of  potassium  and  calcium. 
The  chief  active  principle  is  nicotine  (C10H14N2) — a  colour- 
less, volatile,  inflammable,  oily  alkaloid,  with  an  acrid 
odour  and  taste.  It  occurs  in  combination  with  malic  and 
citric  acids,  constituting  5  to  7  per  cent,  of  the  dried  leaf. 
It  is  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  the  fixed  and  volatile 
oils.  Tobacco  also  yields,  when  distilled  with  water,  a 
crystalline  volatile  oil — nicotianin,  or  tobacco  camphor — 


TOBACCO   AND    NICOTINE  639 

produced  from  oxidation  of  the  nicotine.  Tobacco  slowly 
burned,  as  when  smoked,  is  decomposed,  and  the  smoke 
contains  volatile  fatty  acids  and  ethers,  traces  of  hydro- 
cyanic acid  and  ammonia,  while  the  nicotine  in  great  part 
is  converted  into  alkaloids  of  the  benzine  series — pyridine 
(C5H5N),  collidine  ((CH3)C5H2N),  picoline  (CH3C5H4N),  and 
lutidine  ((CH3)C5H3N). 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Tobacco  and  nicotine  are  in-contact 
irritants.  They  stimulate  and  then  paralyse  the  spinal 
cord,  the  motor  nerves  of  muscles,  and  the  nerve-cells 
controlling  involuntary  muscles,  and  secreting  glands. 
They  enfeeble  circulation,  cause  trembling,  staggering  gait, 
convulsions,  and  death  from  respiratory  failure.  Tobacco 
is  rarely  prescribed  internally,  but  is  used  externally  as  an 
antiparasitic.  Nicotine  and  Nicotianin  are  antiseptic. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — Strong  solutions  of  tobacco  are  in- 
contact  irritants  of  mucous  and  denuded  skin  surfaces. 
Partly  from  this  topical  irritant  action  and  partly  from 
stimulating  motor  nerves  they  cause  vomiting  in  carnivora. 
Large  doses  in  all  animals  induce  gastro-enteritis  with 
collapse.  The  active  principle  is  quickly  taken  up  from 
absorbing  surfaces.  Dogs  dressed  with  concentrated  decoc- 
tions frequently  suffer  from  salivation,  nausea,  and  vomiting, 
while  human  patients  have  been  poisoned  by  enemata. 

Nicotine  is  somewhat  similar  in  action  to  conine  and  lobel- 
ine,  producing  a  preliminary  stimulation  of  certain  nerve- 
cells  (especially  cells  of  sympathetic  ganglia),  and  of  the 
central  nervous  system,  followed  by  depression  and  paralysis 
of  them.  Thus  by  the  stimulation  and  subsequent  depres- 
sion of  vagus  ganglion  cells,  the  heart  is  first  slower  and 
even  intermittent,  then  quicker.  Similarly,  blood-pressure 
is  briefly  raised,  and  then  lowered  by  stimulation  and 
depression  of  the  ganglion  cells  on  the  course  of  the  vaso- 
constrictor nerves.  In  the  same  manner  the  secretion  of 
saliva,  sweat,  and  bronchial  mucus  is  first  increased  and 
then  lessened.  Peristalsis  is  at  first  (and  briefly)  inhibited 
by  stimulation  of  the  peripheral  splanchnic  ganglion  cells, 
and  then  is  greatly  increased  and  exaggerated  by  their 
paralysis.  By  a  combination  of  local  and  central  action 
respiration  is  at  first  quickened  and  shallow,  later  becoming 


640  TOBACCO   AND    NICOTINE 

somewhat  deeper,  and  then  gradually  failing  both  in  rhythni 
and  depth,  with  the  central  depression. 

The  action  on  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  accounts  for  th( 
preliminary  excitement  and  hyperaesthesia,  the  muscular 
tremors  and  clonic  spasms  and  then  the  subsequent  paralysis. 
Death  occurs  from  paralysis  of  respiration,  the  heart-beats 
continuing  for  some  time  after  breathing  has  stopped. 

TOXIC  EFFECTS  are  produced  in  horses  by  9  ounces  of 
tobacco  ;  in  cattle  by  1  Ib.  ;  in  sheep  by  1  ounce  ;  in  dogs 
by  1  to  2  drachms.  The  poisonous  dose  of  nicotine  for  horses 
and  cattle  is  5  to  6  minims,  for  dogs  1  to  3  minims.  One- 
tenth  part  of  these  doses  used  hypodermically  is  dangerous 
(Frohner  and  Kaufmann).  Hertwig  gave  horses  half  an 
ounce  to  an  ounce  of  the  powdered  leaves,  with  the  effect 
of  lowering  the  pulse  three  to  ten  beats  per  minute,  and 
rendering  it  irregular  and  intermittent ;  while  a  repetition 
of  such  doses  increased  evacuation  both  of  faeces  and  urine 
Large  doses,  especially  intravenously  injected,  accelerated 
the  pulse,  increased  the  action  of  the  bowels  and  kidneys 
and  caused  irritability  and  restlessness.  A  healthy  middle- 
aged  cow  received  two  ounces  dissolved  in  water,  in  dividec 
doses,  but  given  within  two  and  a  half  hours.  The  tempera 
ture  of  the  skin  was  heightened  :  the  pulse  raised  froir 
65  to  70  ;  the  breathing  quickened  and  somewhat  oppressed 
the  pupil  dilated,  while  perspiration  was  abundant.  Nexl 
day  the  animal  continued  dull,  but  by  the  third  day  shf 
was  perfectly  well.  An  ox  consumed  about  four  pounds  o: 
tobacco  leaves,  and  speedily  became  very  restive,  grounc 
his  teeth  and  groaned,  lay  with  outstretched  limbs  and  dis 
tended  rumen,  passed  quantities  of  thin  foetid  faeces,  anc 
died  in  eleven  hours  in  convulsions.  The  leaves  wer< 
found  in  the  alimentary  canal,  and  the  mucous  membrane 
especially  of  the  fourth  stomach,  was  red  and  eroded 
particularly  where  in  contact  with  the  tobacco.  Hertwig 
further  mentions  that  goats  are  similarly  affected  by  on< 
or  two  ounces,  and  generally  die  in  about  ten  hours. 

Orfila  administered  to  a  dog  five  and  a  half  drachm: 
powdered  tobacco  (rappee)  ensuring  its  retention  by  liga 
ture  of  the  oesophagus.  There  ensued  violent  efforts  t< 
vomit,  nausea,  purging,  tremors  of  the  extremities,  giddi 


MOTOR   PARALYSANTS    AND    PARASITICIDES       641 

ness,  accelerated  respiration,  quickened  pulse,  convulsions, 
stupor  interrupted  by  spasms,  and  dependent  on  imperfect 
oxygenation  of  the  blood,  and  in  nine  hours  death.  A 
decoction  containing  half  a  drachm,  injected  into  the 
rectum  of  a  dog,  produced  similar  symptoms,  but  was  not 
fatal.  Two  and  a  half  drachms,  applied  to  a  wound, 
destroyed  a  dog  in  an  hour.  The  pupils  are  contracted, 
and  in  fatal  cases  are  insensible  to  light.  A  single  drop 
of  nicotine  destroys  small  dogs  and  rabbits  in  five  minutes, 
producing  convulsions  and  general  paralysis. 

Post-mortem  discloses  appearances  of  asphyxia  ;  and  in 
cases  where  the  crude  drug  has  been  swallowed,  and  has  not 
been  immediately  fatal,  the  gastro-intestinal  tract  exhibits 
evidences  of  irritation. 

The  treatment  of  poisoning,  when  the  crude  drug  has 
been  swallowed,  consists  in  the  use  of  the  stomach-pump  or 
emetics.  Tannin  renders  nicotine  insoluble.  Keeping  the 
patient  warm,  and  the  cautious  administration  of  stimulants, 
antagonise  nausea,  depression,  and  collapse  ;  while  artificial 
respiration,  and  the  careful  hypodermic  injection  of  strych- 
nine or  atropine,  overcome  the  tendency  to  death  by 
asphyxia. 

Tobacco  is  allied  to  several  other  motor  depressors  of 
the  Solanacese,  notably  to  dulcamara  and  belladonna  ;  but 
it  does  not  produce  that  peculiar  disturbance  of  the  loco- 
motor  centres,  and  consequent  irregular  movements,  which 
characterise  belladonna,  while  it  increases,  instead  of  dimin- 
ishing, cutaneous  and  other  secretions,  and  contracts  instead 
of  dilating  the  pupil.  It  resembles  lobelia  or  Indian  tobacco 
—the  dried  flowering  herb  of  Lobelia  inflata,  which  is  some- 
times prescribed  for  the  relief  of  spasmodic  asthma  in  dogs 
as  well  as  in  human  patients.  Tobacco  is  more  limited 
in  its  paralysant  effects  than  hemlock  or  prussic  acid. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Tobacco  is  now  seldom  administered 
internally.  There  are  many  much  better  emetics  than  the 
quid  of  tobacco  sometimes  given  to  the  dog,  and  numerous 
more  effectual  remedies  for  intestinal  worms.  Tobacco 
smoke  enemas  were  formerly  used  to  relieve  the  spasms  of 
colic  ;  but  chloroform,  chloral  hydrate,  opium,  and  other 
anodynes  are  more  effectual.  A  one  or  two  per  cent. 

2s 


642  CATECHU 

decoction,  used  as  an  enema,  brings  away  worms  lodged  in 
the  rectum.  An  infusion  made  with  four  ounces  black 
tobacco  and  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  strained  and  cooled, 
has  been  used  successfully  as  an  antidote  in  strychnine 
poisoning. 

Externally,  it  is  used  to  kill  the  acari  of  mange  and  scab, 
and  also  lice,  fleas,  and  ticks,  but  it  does  not  effectually 
destroy  the  ova  of  these  parasites.  Strong  solutions,  liber- 
ally applied,  are  apt  to  cause  nausea,  trembling,  spasms, 
and  sometimes  death,  but  there  is  no  danger  in  the  careful 
use  of  decoctions  made  with  thirty  or  sixty  parts  of  water. 
For  such  purposes  the  leaves  are  boiled  for  half  an  hour  with 
a  limited  quantity  of  water,  and  the  decoction  diluted  as 
required.  For  sheep  dips  and  washes  two  to  five  per  cent, 
solutions  are  used,  their  efficacy  being  increased  by  addition 
of  soft  soap,  potash,  tar  oils,  and  occasionally  arsenic  or 
corrosive  sublimate.  Unless,  however,  the  refuse  juice  of 
the  manufactory  can  be  procured,  tobacco  is  too  costly  for 
sheep  dips.  Law's  sheep  dip  is  made  with  tobacco,  16  Ibs., 
oil  of  tar  3  pints,  soda  ash  20  Ibs.,  soft  soap  4  Ibs.,  water  50 
gallons.  Macerate  the  tobacco  in  three  successive  portions 
of  water  and  add  the  other  agents  to  the  fluid. 


CATECHU 

PALE  CATECHU.  Catechu  pallidum.  An  extract  of  the 
leaves  and  young  shoots  of  Uncaria  gambier  (B.P.). 
Nat.  Ord. — Rubiaceae. 

BLACK  OB  BROWN  CATECHU.  Catechu  nigrum.  The  aque- 
ous extract  of  the  wood  of  Acacia  catechu,  of  Acacia 
suma,  of  other  Leguminosse,  and  of  plants  of  other 
natural  orders.  (U.S.P.)  Not  official  in  B.P. 

The  Uncaria  gambier,  producing  the  pale  catechu  (cate, 
a  tree  ;  chu,  juice),  is  a  stout  climbing  shrub,  inhabiting  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  cultivated  for  its 
astringent  juice.  A  decoction  made  of  the  leaves  and  young 
shoots  is  evaporated,  worked  into  red-brown,  earthy-looking 
masses  or  cubes,  with  surfaces  about  an  inch  square. 

The  black  or  brown  catechu,  chiefly  brought  from  Bengal 


ACTIONS   AND   USES  643 

and  Burmah,  is  derived  from  several  trees,  largely  from 
the  Acacia  catechu,  a  native  of  India  and  Africa.  The 
Acacia  suma,  a  large  tree  growing  in  Bengal,  Burmah,  and 
Southern  India,  has  a  white  bark  used  for  tanning,  and  red 
heart-wood,  from  which  catechu  is  also  made.  The  wood  of 
these  and  of  other  trees  is  cut  into  chips  and  boiled  with 
Avater,  the  decoction  concentrated  either  by  fire  or  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  and  the  extract  cut  or  moulded  into  square  cakes 
or  masses. 

The  pale  and  black  catechus  are  very  similar  in  com- 
position and  properties  ;  are  porous  and  opaque  ;  brittle, 
breaking  with  a  granular  fracture  ;  under  the  microscope 
exhibit  minute,  needle-b'ke  crystals  ;  are  without  odour, 
but  have  a  sweet  astringent  taste.  They  are  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  ether,  partially  soluble  in  cold  water,  entirely 
dissolved  by  boiling  water,  with  which  they  form  red-brown 
solutions.  They  consist  of  about  40  per  cent,  of  catechu- 
tannic  acid,  which  is  soluble  in  cold  water  ;  and  of  catechin 
or  catechuic  acid  (C13H1205),  a  modification  of  tannic  acid, 
which  deposits  in  acicular  crystals  from  boiling  watery 
solutions  of  catechu,  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether. 
They  further  contain  the  yellow  colouring  matter  quercitin. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Catechu  is  astringent,  acting  by 
contact  only.  It  forms  insoluble  compounds  with  albumin 
and  gelatin,  and,  like  other  tannin-containing  substances,  is 
used  in  making  leather.  It  is  less  astringent  than  oak  bark 
or  galls,  but  more  astringent  than  kino,  the  inspissated  juice 
obtained  from  incisions  made  in  the  trunk  of  Pterocarpus 
marsupium  ;  than  rhatany,  the  dried  root  of  Krameria 
triandra  or  of  K.  argentea  ;  than  logwood,  the  sliced  heart- 
wood  of  Hsematoxylon  campechianum  ;  or  than  bearberry 
or  uva-ursi  leaves. 

Catechu  is  administered  to  the  several  domestic  animals 
for  the  arrest  of  chronic  catarrhal  discharges  and  haemor- 
rhage, especially  from  the  throat  and  alimentary  canal. 
The  insoluble  catechin  beneficially  exerts  its  astringency  on 
the  relaxed,  over-secreting  surfaces  alike  of  the  small  and 
large  intestines.  In  persistent  diarrhoea  and  in  dysentery 
it  is  conjoined  with  aromatics  to  allay  flatulence  ;  with 
opium  to  relieve  irritability  and  spasm  ;  with  alkalies, 


644  GALLS 

magnesia,  or  chalk,  to  counteract  acidity.  A  convenient 
prescription  for  such  cases  consists  of  three  ounces  each  of 
catechu,  prepared  chalk,  and  ginger,  and  six  drachms  of 
opium,  made,  as  is  most  suitable,  into  either  mass  or  draught. 
This  will  make  eight  doses  for  a  horse,  six  for  a  cow,  and 
eight  or  ten  for  a  calf  or  sheep.  For  the  horse  the  dose  is 
given  in  bolus  ;  for  the  ruminant,  suspended  in  starch  gruel. 
Catechu  is  occasionally  applied  to  sluggish  wounds  and 
ulcers,  to  excoriations  on  the  udder  of  cattle,  and  for  the 
several  purposes  of  a  vegetable  astringent. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses,  3ij-  to  §3-5  f°r  cattle,  3iy-  to 
§ij.  ;  for  sheep  and  swine,  3*-  to  3ij-  '•>  ai*d  for  dogs,  grs.  v. 
to  grs.  Ix.  These  doses  are  administered  three  or  four  times 
a  day,  with  sufficient  mucilage  or  gruel  to  cover  their 
astringent  taste.  An  infusion  is  readily  prepared  for  veter- 
inary purposes  by  pouring  boiling  water  over  coarsely- 
powdered  catechu,  digesting  by  the  fire  for  an  hour,  and 
straining.  Flavouring  ingredients  may  be  added  as  re- 
quired. The  B.P.  orders  the  tincture  to  be  made  with  cate- 
chu, in  coarse  powder,  four  ounces  ;  cinnamon  bark  bruised, 
one  ounce  ;  alcohol  (60  per  cent.),  one  pint.  Compound 
powder  of  catechu  is  composed  of  catechu,  4  ounces  ;  kino, 
2  ounces  ;  krameria  root,  2  ounces  ;  cinnamon,  1  ounce  ; 
and  nutmeg,  1  ounce.  All  powdered  and  mixed.  For 
external  purposes  the  powder,  infusion,  and  an  ointment 
are  used. 

GALLS 

GALLA.  Oak  galls.  Excrescences  on  Quercus  infectoria 
resulting  from  the  puncture  and  deposition  of  an  egg  or 
eggs  of  Cynips  Gallse  tinctoriae  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord.— 
Cupuliferse. 

Home-grown  galls  from  the  common  oak  (Quercus  robur) 
are  in  some  seasons  abundant  throughout  the  southern  and 
midland  counties  of  England,  but  seldom  contain  more 
than  half  the  tannic  acid  found  in  the  foreign. 

The  best  commercial  variety,  known  as  Levant  galls,  is 
imported  from  Syria,  Smyrna,  and  Constantinople  ;  the 
light,  hollow  Chinese,  Japanese,  or  East  Indian  galls,  are 


TANNIC   AND    GALLIC    ACIDS  645 

yielded  by  the  Rhus  semialata  ;  large  Mecca  galls,  called 
Dead  Sea  apples,  are  imported  from  Bussorah. 

Galls  vary  from  the  size  of  a  bean  to  that  of  a  hazel-nut, 
are  round,  hard,  and  studded  with  tubercles  ;  of  a  bluish- 
grey  colour  externally,  and  yellow  within.  An  inferior 
variety,  from  which  the  larva  has  escaped,  are  smoother,  of 
lighter  colour,  lower  density,  and  less  astringency.  Galls 
are  easily  reduced  to  a  yellow-grey  powder,  devoid  of  odour, 
but  having  an  intensely  astringent  taste.  The  active 
principles  are  dissolved  by  forty  parts  of  boiling  water  and 
still  less  of  diluted  alcohol.  Ferric  salts,  added  to  a  watery 
solution,  slowly  precipitate  the  dark-blue  or  black  iron 
tannate,  the  basis  of  writing  ink.  An  aqueous  solution  of 
gelatin  throws  down  a  grey  flocculent  precipitate  of  tanno- 
gelatin.  These  reactions,  and  other  important  properties, 
depend  on  the  presence  of  tannin  or  tannic  acid,  which, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  galls,  ranges  from  15  to  70 
per  cent.,  and  is  associated  with  about  3  per  cent,  of  gallic 
acid. 

TANNIC  ACID,  or  tannin  (C14H1009.2H20),  is  the  compound 
to  which  oak  bark,  galls,  logwood,  and  many  vegetable 
astringents  owe  their  properties.  The  tannic  acid  from  these 
several  sources  has,  however,  somewhat  different  charac- 
teristics, and  generally  receives  such  special  designations  as 
gallo-tannic,  cincho-tannic,  catechu-tannic  acids.  Gallo- 
tannic  acid  is  prepared  by  softening  powdered  galls  by 
keeping  them  for  two  days  in  a  damp  place,  digesting  them 
for  several  hours  simultaneously  with  water,  which  dissolves 
the  tannic  acid,  and  with  ether,  which  dissolves  colouring 
matter  and  gallic  acid.  The  mixture,  filtered  and  allowed 
to  stand,  forms  into  two  layers,  and  the  lower,  carefully 
evaporated,  yields  tannic  acid.  It  occurs  in  pale  yellow 
masses,  or  thin  glistening  scales  ;  has  a  strongly  astringent 
taste  and  an  acid  reaction  ;  is  readily  soluble  in  water, 
dilute  alcohol,  and  slowly  in  glycerin ;  very  sparingly 
soluble  in  ether. 

GALLIC  Aero,  or  tri-hydroxy-benzoic  acid  (C6H2(OH)3, 
C02H,H20),  may  be  prepared  by  the  action  of  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid  on  tannic  acid  or  powdered  galls.  It  occurs  in 
acicular  prisms,  or  silky  needles,  which  are  colourless  or 


646  TANNIC   ACID    AND    GALLS 

pale  fawn.  It  requires  for  solution  about  one  hundred  parts 
of  cold  water,  three  of  boiling  water,  and  twelve  of  glycerin  ; 
but  is  more  soluble  than  tannic  acid  in  alcohol  and  ether. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Galls  and  tannic  acid  differ  only  in 
the  degree  of  their  action.     They  are  astringent  and  anti-  ! 
septic.     Galls  have  about  one  half  the  activity  of  tannic  acid. 
Gallic  acid  does  not  coagulate  either  gelatin  or  albumin,  j 
and  it   cannot   be   considered  an   astringent.     It  has   no 
medicinal  properties. 

Tannic  acid  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  group  which 
includes  galls,  oak  bark,  catechu,  logwood,  kino,  and 
rhatany.  It  has  little  effect  on  the  unbroken  skin  ;  but  on 
abraded,  atonic,  and  hypersecreting  skin  and  mucous 
surfaces  it  coagulates  albumin,  causes  dryness  and  tanning, 
with  some  contraction  of  the  soft  textures.  But,  unlike 
salts  of  lead,  silver,  or  other  mineral  astringents,  it  does  not 
contract  capillary  vessels.  The  precipitate  of  albumin  acts 
as  a  protective,  and  diluted  solutions  hence  relieve  irritation. 
It  coagulates  blood  and  arrests  bleeding.  In  the  mouth  it 
precipitates  albumin  on  and  in  the  superficial  layers  of  the 
epithelium,  and  so  causes  dryness  and  roughness.  In  the 
stomach  it  again  precipitates  proteids  forming  tannate  of 
albumin,  which  is  slowly  digested,  setting  free  the  tannic 
acid  again,  thus  allowing  the  action  on  the  mucous  membrane 
to  continue  both  in  the  stomach  and  small  intestine.  Pepsin 
and  peptones  in  acid  solution  are  not  affected  by  tannic 
acid.  In  excess,  especially  when  the  stomach  is  empty, 
tannic  acid  causes  irritation,  with  vomiting  and  even  diarrhoea 
in  small  animals.  In  moderate  doses,  the  protective  coat 
of  albumin  and  the  lessening  of  glandular  secretion,  bring 
about  firmness  of  the  faeces  and  constipation.  The  drug 
has  some  antiseptic  action,  lessens  fermentation,  and  renders 
the  faeces  less  offensive.  It  is  slowly  and  partially  absorbed, 
as  gallic  acid  or  as  an  alkaline  tannate,  but  when  thus 
neutralised  it  has  very  little  astringent  or  haemostatic  power. 
It  is  excreted  as  gallic  acid,  or  as  some  oxidised  product 
thereof. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Tannic  acid  and  galls,  in  powder, 
solution,  or  spray,  are  applied  in  stomatitis,  and  relaxed 
conditions  of  the  pharynx  and  nasal  passages.  In  diarrhoea 


MEDICINAL   USES  647 

and  dysentery  the  slowly  dissolving  catechus  and  kino  are 
sometimes  preferred  to  tannic  acid,  as  they  reach  the 
intestines  and  exert  their  in-contact  effects  before  they  are 
neutralised.  They  are  frequently  prescribed  with  chalk, 
acids,  aromatics,  and  opium,  and  given  either  in  bolus  or 
mucilage.  For  arrest  of  internal  haemorrhage,  neither 
tannic  nor  gallic  acid  is  so  effectual  as  ergot,  ferric-chloride, 
or  lead  acetate  and  opium.  Stockman's  investigations 
show  that  gallic  acid,  even  in  full  doses,  has  no  special 
general  astringent  action.  Both  tannic  and  gallic  acids 
are  used  as  antidotes  in  poisoning  by  alkaloids  ;  but  in 
combating  metallic  poisoning  they  are  not  so  serviceable 
as  other  chemical  antidotes,  and  as  demulcents. 

Externally,  tannic  acid  is  used  with  glycerin  and  water  in 
the  weeping  stages  of  eczema  ;  as  an  astringent  wash  with 
opium  in  prolapsus  of  the  uterus  or  rectum  ;  while  it  also 
checks  the  discharge  and  allays  the  irritability  of  otorrhcea, 
which  is  common  in  dogs.  Tannic  acid  and  antipyrine,  ten 
parts  of  each,  with  100  of  alcohol,  form  an  excellent  applica- 
tion for  soft,  ulcerating,  bleeding  surfaces.  For  piles  in  dogs, 
tannic  acid  is  used  in  substance,  or  as  an  ointment,  opium 
being  added  if  there  is  much  irritability  ;  and  such  applica- 
tions are  often  advantageously  alternated  with  calomel 
ointment.  Tannic  acid  mixed  with  boric  ointment  and 
sometimes  with  opium  is  useful  for  burns.  For  nasal 
catarrh  it  may  be  used  mixed  with  starch,  or  iodoform,  as 
an  insufflation. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  tannic  acid  horses  take  grs.  Ixxx.  to  3ij-  J 
cattle,  3iy-  >  sheep  and  large  pigs,  grs.  xxx.  to  39 •  ;  dogs 
and  cats,  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  x.  Powdered  galls  are  used  in  about 
double  these  doses.  Glycerin  of  tannic  acid,  made  by 
stirring  one  part  of  acid  with  five  of  glycerin,  is  a  soothing 
antiseptic  astringent,  used  diluted  with  water  as  required. 
Gall  and  Opium  ointment  is  made  with  37  grains  powdered 
galls,  15  grains  opium,  and  148  grains  of  benzoated  lard, 
or  with  vaseline.  A  styptic  colloid  may  be  prepared  with 
one  of  tannin  and  eight  of  alcohol,  mixed  with  four  of 
collodion. 

Pyrogallie  acid  is  an  astringent,  and  caustic,  recom- 
mended in  cases  of  psoriasis  and  ringworm,  and  for 


648  CHRYSAROBIN 

tanning  and  shrivelling  carcinomatous  growths.  Jarisch's 
ointment  for  psoriasis  consists  of  60  grains  pyrogallic  acid 
to  1  ounce  of  lard. 

Tannalbin,  a  dried  albuminate  of  tannin,  has  been  much 
used  in  the  treatment  of  diarrhoea  and  dysentery  in  young 
animals.  It  is  a  light  brownish  powder,  without  odour 
or  taste,  insoluble  in  water  and  unaffected  by  the  gastric 
juice.  In  the  intestine  it  is  slowly  dissolved,  exerting  an 
astringent-disinfectant  action  on  the  mucous  membrane. 
It  contains  about  50  per  cent,  of  tannin.  Doses, — horses 
and  cattle,  3J-  to  ^iv. ;  foals  and  calves,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xl. ; 
three  times  daily,  in  gruel,  milk,  or  electuary.  Tanni- 
gen  (di-acetyl-tannin),  prepared  by  the  action  of  acetic 
anhydride  on  tannin,  dissolved  in  glacial  acetic  acid,  is  a 
yellowish-grey  powder,  odourless  and  tasteless,  insoluble 
in  water,  freely  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  passes  through  the 
stomach  unchanged  and  acts  as  an  intestinal  astringent. 
Recommended  as  a  remedy  for  parasitic  intestinal  catarrh 
in  foals.  Doses, — grs.  xx.  to  3J->  in  boiled  milk  or  linseed 
tea. 


CHRYSAROBIN 

ARAKOBA.  Crude  Chrysarobin.  Goa  powder.  A  substance 
found  in  cavities  in  the  trunk  of  Andira  araroba,  dried 
and  powdered,  and  imported  from  Brazil.  Nat.  Ord.— 
Leguminosae  (B.P.). 

Chrysarobin,  obtained  from  Araroba  by  extracting  with 
hot  chloroform,  evaporating  and  powdering,  occurs  as  a 
crystalline,  brownish-yellow  powder,  insoluble  in  water, 
but  soluble  in  chloroform,  and  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol. 
By  oxidation  it  yields  chrysophanie  acid,  C10H803,  which  is 
a  constituent  of  rhubarb,  stains  yellow,  and  is  less  irritant 
than  chrysarobin. 

Both  chrysarobin  and  chrysophanie  acid  are  irritant  and 
parasiticide,  are  seldom  given  internally,  but  are  applied, 
usually  in  the  form  of  a  2  to  5  per  cent,  ointment,  in  the 
second  squamous  stages  of  eczema,  and  in  psoriasis  and 
ringworm.  Given  by  the  mouth,  they  are  gastro-intestinal 


,„ 


BENZOIN  649 


irritants,  causing  vomiting  and  purgation,  and  also  nephritis 
and  albuminuria  by  the  excretion  of  the  small  amount 
absorbed. 

BENZOIN 

BENZOINUM.  A  balsamic  resin  obtained  from  Styrax 
benzoin  and  probably  from  other  species  of  Styrax 
(B.P.).  Nat.  Ord.— Styracese. 

The  styrax  benzoin  abounds  in  Siam,  Sumatra,  and 
Borneo.  Incisions  are  made  into  the  bark,  when  the  thick, 
white,  resinous  juice  exudes,  and  concretes  in  tears,  which 
are  subsequently  made  into  larger  masses,  and  imported  in 
wooden  cases.  The  colourless  or  reddish  tears  are  imbedded 
in  an  amber-brown  transparent  resin.  Inferior  qualities 
are  dark-brown  or  nearly  black,  and  devoid  of  amygdaloid 
structure. 

Benzoin  is  brittle  and  easily  pulverised,  softens  readily 
when  warmed,  and  when  further  heated  yields  fumes  of 
benzoic  acid.  It  is  slightly  heavier  than  water  ;  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  in  solution  of  potassium  hydroxide.  Besides 
traces  of  volatile  oil,  benzoin  contains  about  80  per  cent, 
of  three  resins,  distinguished  by  differences  of  solubility, 
and  from  14  to  20  of  the  acrid,  crystalline,  benzoic  acid, 
(C6H5C02H).  Some  samples  contain  as  much  as  10  per 
cent,  of  the  allied  cinnamic  acid. 

Benzoic  acid  is  obtained  from  benzoin  by  sublimation. 
It  may  also  be  obtained  from  toluene,  from  hippuric  acid, 
and  from  other  organic  compounds  (B.P.).  It  occurs  in 
light,  feathery  crystals,  which  are  soluble  in  400  parts 
of  cold  or  twelve  parts  of  boiling  water,  in  three  parts 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  five  parts  glycerin,  seven  of  chloro- 
form, and  in  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils  ;  also  in  solution 
of  the  alkalies  and  of  calcium  hydroxide  forming  benzoates. 
Ammonii  benzoas  is  a  crystalline  salt  produced  by  neutral- 
ising benzoic  acid  with  solution  of  ammonia.  Soluble  in 
six  parts  of  water,  twenty-two  of  rectified  spirit,  and  in 
eight  of  glycerin.  Sodii  benzoas,  obtained  by  neutralising 
benzoic  acid  with  sodium  carbonate,  is  soluble  in  two  parts 
cold  water,  and  in  twenty-four  of  rectified  spirit. 


650          BENZOIN— BENZOIC    ACID— BENZOATES 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Benzoin,  benzole  acid,  and  its  salts 
are  very  similar  in  action  to  salicylic  acid.  They  are  stimu- 
lant, expectorant,  diuretic,  antiseptic,  and  antipyretic. 
Benzoin,  although  less  frequently  employed  now  than 
formerly  in  the  treatment  of  disease  of  the  air  passages, 
is  still  useful  as  an  antiseptic  expectorant  in  bronchitis 
and  especially  in  chronic  catarrh  of  aged  dogs.  It  may  be 
administered  by  the  mouth  or  added  to  the  steam-kettle 
and  used  as  an  inhalation.  It  is  excreted  mainly  in  the 
urine,  part  of  the  benzoic  acid  being  converted  in  the  kidneys 
into  hippuric  acid.  Freely  applied  to  recent  bleeding 
wounds,  it  forms  an  antiseptic  coagulum  and  serves  the 
purpose  of  a  temporary  styptic  dressing. 

Benzoin  is  extensively  used  in  the  form  of  Friar's  balsam, 
or  its  pharmaceutical  imitation,  tinctura  benzoin!  composita, 
which  is  thus  prepared  : — Take  of  benzoin,  2  ounces,  storax, 
1J  ounces,  balsam  of  tolu,  }  ounce,  socotrine  aloes,  160 
grains,  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  16  ounces  :  macerate  for 
two  days,  filter,  and  add  sufficient  alcohol  to  produce  one 
pint.  This  tincture  is  an  excellent  stimulant  and  antiseptic 
for  wounds,  simple  ulcers,  and  various  skin  complaints  in 
all  classes  of  patients. 

Benzoated  lard  is  made  with  210  grains  of  benzoin  to 
each  pound  of  lard. 

Benzoic  acid  is  an  intestinal  antiseptic,  lowers  abnormal 
temperature,  promotes  the  elimination  of  incompletely 
oxidised  matters,  increasing  the  amount  of  nitrogen  excreted, 
renders  alkaline  urine  acid  and  disinfects  the  urinary  tract. 
It  is  used  in  the  treatment  of  influenza  and  similar  con- 
ditions, and  as  an  antiseptic  diuretic  in  cystitis.  W. 
Kutherford  found  that  twenty  grains  increased  the  biliary 
secretion  in  dogs.  It  is  as  effectual  as  carbolic  acid  in 
arresting  the  action  of  enzymes  and  destroying  bacteria. 
It  is  eliminated  chiefly  by  the  skin  and  kidneys  ;  in  the 
latter,  uniting  with  glycocoll,  it  is  excreted  as  hippuric 
acid. 

Ammonium  and  Sodium  benzoates  are  less  irritating  and 
more  soluble  than  the  acid,  and  they  are  sometimes  substi- 
tuted for  salicylate  of  soda  in  the  treatment  of  articular 
rheumatism.  Commended  as  a  remedy  for  joint  disease 


STYBAX — TOLU   AND    PERU    BALSAMS  651 

in  foals,  sodium  benzoate  abates  the  fever,  and  reduces 
the  swelling  of  the  limbs  in  strangles  and  pneumonia. 
According  to  W.  Rutherford,  it  is  a  powerful  hepatic 
stimulant.  It  is  excreted  in  the  urine  as  a  soluble  hippurate. 
A  two  per  cent,  solution  is  a  good  preservative  for  scalpels, 
forceps,  needles,  etc.,  in  daily  use.  Instruments  may  be 
kept  in  the  solution  for  months  without  oxidising. 

DOSES,  etc. — of  benzoin  for  horses  and  cattle,  ^iv.  or 
more  ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x.  ;  in  bolus  or  electuary. 
Benzoic  acid,  horses  and  cattle,  grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  Ixxv.  ; 
dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  viii.,  in  bolus,  pill,  or  drench.  Hypo- 
dermieally,  horses  may  be  given  grs.  vi.  benzoic  acid  dis- 
solved in  two  drachms  of  a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol 
and  water.  Intratraeheally,  two  drachms  to  half  an  ounce 
of  a  one  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  may  be  used.  Sodium 
benzoate  is  prescribed  in  considerably  larger  doses,  and 
generally  in  drench. 

Styrax  or  Prepared  Storax,  a  balsam  obtained  from  the 
trunk  of  Liquidambar  orientalis,  and  purified  by  solution 
in  alcohol,  filtration  and  evaporation.  Contains  styrol, 
cinnamic  acid,  styracin  and  various  resins.  Storax  is  a 
constituent  of  the  compound  tincture  of  benzoin,  and  is 
occasionally  employed  as  a  mild  stimulant,  expectorant 
and  parasiticide.  For  mange,  lice,  or  fleas  in  dogs,  it  is 
used  mixed  with  an  equal  part  of  sweet  oil. 

Balsam  of  Tolu. — The  product  of  the  Myroxylon  toluifera, 
contains  a  volatile  oil,  various  resins,  benzoic  and  cinnamic 
acids.  Soluble  in  alcohol,  benzol  and  chloroform.  It  is 
stimulant  and  expectorant.  Doses  for  dogs  and  cats,  H\x. 
to  3J-  per  day. 

Balsam  of  Peru,  obtained  from  Myroxylon  Pereirae, 
contains  about  60  per  cent,  of  a  volatile  oil,  various  resins 
and  cinnamic  and  benzoic  acids.  It  is  insoluble  in  water 
and  olive  oil ;  soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  chloroform.  It  is 
an  expectorant  and  parasiticide.  The  volatile  oil  is  toxic 
to  the  acari  of  mange  for  which  a  dressing  is  made  with  one 
part  Balsam  of  Peru  and  eight  of  lard.  Doses  for  horses 
and  cattle,  3iij-  *°  §]"•  5  dogs  and  cats,  fl\v.  to  H\xv.  ;  in 
pills,  capsules,  or  in  emulsion. 


652  BARLEY 

MARSH   MALLOW   ROOT 

ALTHAEA  RADIX.     Dried  root  of  Althaea  officinalis.     Nat. 
Ord.— Malvaceae.     (U.S.P).     Not  official  in  B.P. 

The  Malvaceae  are  rich  in  mucilage,  and  several  yield 
tenacious  fibres,  from  which  cordage  is  obtained.  The 
species  Gossypium  have  their  seeds  surrounded  by  delicate, 
flattened,  twisted  hairs,  which  constitute  raw  cotton,  and 
the  seeds  by  expression  yield  the  bland  cotton  seed  oil 
often  substituted  for  olive  oil.  The  marsh  mallow  grows 
both  in  this  country  and  on  the  Continent,  generally  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  rivers  and  salt  marshes.  Mucilage 
is  yielded  by  most  parts  of  the  plant,  notably  by  the  two 
and  three  year  old  roots,  which  contain  about  35  per  cent, 
each  of  mucin  and  starch,  and  a  little  uncrystallisable  sugar. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Marsh,  and  also  common  mallow 
roots,  are  digested  with  boiling  water,  and  the  mucilage 
thus  extracted,  which  resembles  that  of  linseed,  is  used 
as  a  demulcent.  Of  the  fluid  extract  of  the  bark  of  Gos- 
sypium root,  horses  and  cattle  may  be  given  3JV-  *°  §J-  J 
dogs,  n\xxx.  to  3J- 

BARLEY 

HORDEUM.      Pearl  Barley.      Malt.      Yeast.      Nat.  Ord.— 
Graminaceae. 

Barley  (Hordeum  distichon)  is  used  as  food  for  most  of 
the  domesticated  animals  ;  and,  when  stripped  of  its  outer 
husk,  is  recognised  as  pearl  barley.  Ground  to  meal,  it  is 
used  for  making  poultices  and  infusions.  Good  barley- 
meal  contains  68  per  cent,  of  starch,  14  glutin  and  albumin, 
2  fatty  matter,  2  saline  matter,  and  14  water.  When 
moistened  and  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  about  100° 
Fahr.,  barley  germinates,  the  starch  in  great  part  being 
converted  into  dextrin  and  sugar,  and,  if  the  process  be 
arrested  by  drying,  malt  is  formed.  Decoctum  Hordei,  or 
barley  water,  may  be  made  by  boiling  one  part  of  washed 
pearl-barley  with  15  parts  water  for  twenty  minutes,  ard 
straining.  It  is  nutrient  and  demulcent. 


MALT    EXTRACTS  653 

Malt — a  sweet,  mucilaginous  substance,  which  is  more 
easily  digested,  but  weight  for  weight  is  rather  less  nutritive 
than  barley — forms  a  palatable  and  digestible  article  of 
diet  for  sick  or  convalescent  horses,  and  is  used  for  making 
poultices  and  demulcent  laxative  drinks.  Barley-water, 
infusions  of  malt,  and  soft  mashes  prove  especially  service- 
able in  febrile  cases,  both  in  horses  and  cattle.  Malt 
extracts  are  occasionally  prescribed  for  dyspeptic  calves 
and  foals,  and  for  sick  horses,  and  when  well  prepared  are 
rich  in  diastase,  and  hence  useful  in  aiding  digestion  of 
starch. 

When  a  solution  of  malt  is  fermented,  as  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  beer,  ale,  or  porter,  there  rises  to  the  surface  of  the 
liquor  a  yellow-brown  frothy  scum,  known  as  yeast  or 
barm,  readily  putrefying  when  moist,  but  when  carefully 
dried  remaining  for  a  long  time  unchanged,  and  owing 
its  reproductive  properties,  and  its  characteristic  power  of 
converting  cane  into  grape  sugar,  and  thence  into  alcohol, 
to  the  presence  of  ovoid,  confervoid  cells  of  Torula  cere- 
visise,  the  yeast  plant.  Yeast  is  occasionally  used  as  a 
purgative,  especially  for  cattle,  and  is  given  in  quantities 
of  about  a  pint.  Fresh  or  dried  yeast,  dissolved  in  tepid 
water  and  injected  into  the  vagina,  has  been  successfully 
used  as  a  remedy  for  sterility  in  cows.  Antiseptic  and 
deodorising  poultices  are  made  by  stirring  together  one 
part  each  of  boiling  water  and  yeast  with  two  parts  of 
bran  or  linseed  meal,  and  allowing  the  mixture  to  stand 
near  a  fire  until  it  rises,  when  it  is  fit  to  use. 

Nuclein,  an  important  constituent  of  animal  and  vegetable 
cells,  is  obtained  from  yeast,  and  also  from  spleen  pulp,  blood, 
yolk  of  egg,  milk,  etc.  The  germicidal  power  of  the  blood 
serum  is  believed  to  be  due  to  certain  phosphorised  proteids 
which  also  exist  in  nuclein.  It  is  a  body  of  indefinite  com- 
position, containing  nucleinic  acid  and  proteid  matter  rich 
in  phosphorus.  Administered,  nuclein  increases  the  number 
of  white  corpuscles  in  the  blood,  and  acts  as  a  powerful 
germicide.  It  has  been  employed,  with  excellent  results, 
in  the  treatment  of  pneumonia,  pleurisy,  strangles,  influenza, 
and  purpura  hsemorrhagica.  Liquor  Nucleinicus  (Squire  & 
Sons),  a  solution  of  sodium  nucleinate  of  a  strength  of  about 


654  GUM   ACACIA — TRAGACANTH 

5  per  cent.  ;  or  nuclein  solution  (Parke,  Davis,  and  Co.), 
containing  5  per  cent,  of  nucleinic  acid,  may  be  given  hypo- 
dermically  to  horses,  in  doses  of  3iJss->  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  physiological  salt  solution. 


GUM   ACACIA-TRAGACANTH 

ACACIJE  GUMMI.  A  gummy  exudation  from  the  stem  and 
branches  of  Acacia  Senegal,  and  of  other  species  of 
Acacia  (B.P.). 

TBAGACANTHA.  Tragacanth.  A  gummy  exudation  ob- 
tained by  incision  from  Astragalus  gummifer,  and  some 
other  species  of  Astragalus  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — Legu- 
minosae. 

Gum  is  obtained  from  many  plants,  notably  from  various 
species  of  Acacia.  These  are  stunted,  withered-looking 
trees,  occurring  in  tropical  countries,  most  prolific  when 
old  and  stunted,  and  during  dry,  hot  seasons.  In  June  and 
July,  from  natural  cracks  or  artificial  incisions  in  the  bark, 
a  viscid  juice  exudes,  and  concretes  into  round  masses  or 
tears  varying  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  walnut,  brittle,  usually 
shining,  colourless,  yellow  or  brown,  odourless,  and  of  a 
bland,  sweet  taste.  Gum  dissolves  in  water,  forming  an 
adhesive,  viscid  fluid  or  mucilage. 

Gum  acacia,  or  gum  arabic  is  chiefly  collected  in  Kor- 
dofan,  in  Eastern  Africa,  and  forwarded  from  Alexandria. 
When  imported,  it  is  picked  and  sorted,  usually  into  three 
different  qualities,  distinguished  by  the  size,  colour,  and 
transparency  of  the  tears.  It  is  soluble  in  about  its  own 
weight  alike  of  hot  and  cold  water,  is  insoluble  in  and 
incompatible  with  alcohol,  ether,  and  oils.  Boiled  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  it  is  converted  into  gum  sugar  ;  oxi- 
dised by  nitric  acid,  it  is  converted  into  mucic  acid.  It 
consists  of  arabin,  or  arabic  acid,  which  occurs  in  gum  as 
arabate  of  calcium,  magnesium,  and  potassium. 

Gum  Senegal  is  similar  to  gum  arabic,  but  less  brittle, 
and  requires  four  or  five  parts  of  water  to  dissolve  it.  The 
East  Indian  gums  are  generally  dark-coloured,  more  difficult 
of  solution,  and  less  valuable.  The  gums  of  Australia  and 


OLIVE    OIL  655 

the  Cape,  now  imported  in  considerable  quantity,  are  also 
inferior  to  gum  arabic. 

Tragaeanth  is  collected  in  Asia  Minor,  mostly  exported 
from  Smyrna,  and  occurs  in  thin,  semi-transparent,  tough, 
horny,  white-grey  or  yellow  lamellae  or  plates,  and  marked 
with  arched  or  concentric  ridges.  It  is  tasteless  and  odour- 
less .  Although  readily  soluble  in  boiling  water,  it  is  sparingly 
soluble  in  cold  water,  which  swells  it  into  a  jelly  containing 
starch,  as  is  indicated  by  the  iodine  test.  Tragaeanth  con- 
tains a  neutral  gum,  bassorin,  which,  gelatin-like,  swells  up, 
is  not  dissolved  either  by  hot  or  cold  water,  but  is  soluble 
in  alcohol. 

British  gum  or  dextrin  (C6H1005),  much  used  in  calico 
printing,  is  made  by  treating  starch  with  dilute  nitric  acid, 
drying  and  heating  it  to  about  240°  Fahr. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Gums  are  the  least  nutritive  of  the 
carbo-hydrates  ;  when  swallowed,  they  are  dissolved  by  the 
alimentary  secretions,  and  in  part  converted  into  sugar. 
They  are  occasionally  prescribed  for  ensheathing  the  mucous 
surfaces  in  catarrh  and  diarrhoea,  and  as  demulcent  injec- 
tions in  inflammation  of  the  bowels  and  bladder,  but  for 
veterinary  purposes  are  usually  superseded  by  well-boiled 
linseed  or  starch  gruels.  For  making  emulsions,  electuaries, 
and  boluses,  gums  have  the  disadvantage  of  speedily  drying 
and  hardening.  They  are  frequently  used  to  suspend 
powders  such  as  the  salts  of  bismuth,  and  also  to  form 
emulsions  with  volatile  and  fixed  oils. 

DOSES,  etc. — Gums  may  be  taken  almost  ad  libitum. 
Horses  and  cattle  may  have  §ij.  to  giij.  ;  foals,  calves,  and 
sheep,  §i.  ;  and  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xl.  An  ensheathing 
mucilage  is  made  with  one  part  gum  to  six  of  water. 


OLIVE   OIL 

OLEUM  OLIV.E.     The  oil  expressed  from  the  ripe  fruit  of 
Olea  Europaea  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Oleaceae. 

Several  varieties  of  the  evergreen  Olea  Europaea  grow 
abundantly  in  the  countries  bordering  the  Levant  and 
Mediterranean.  From  the  stem  a  resinous  juice  once  used 


656  OLIVE    OIL 

in  medicine  can  be  got ;  the  leaves  are  bitter,  astringent,  and 
tonic  ;  the  olives  are  oval,  succulent,  purple  drupes,  about 
the  size  of  damsons,  and  containing  a  single  seed.  The  ripe 
pericarp  yields  about  70  per  cent,  of  oil,  of  which  the  finest, 
imported  from  Provence  and  Florence,  is  obtained  by 
moderate  pressure  of  the  freshly-gathered  fruit.  Inferior 
qualities  are  got  from  stale  or  damaged  fruit,  or  by  extra 
pressure  of  the  pulp. 

PROPERTIES. — Olive  oil  is  one  of  the  fixed,  fatty,  or  ex- 
pressed oils  which  produce  on  paper  or  linen  a  greasy  stain, 
not  removed  by  heat,  and  are  glycerides  of  an  acid  radicle, 
oleic,  palmitic,  or  stearic  acid,  and  the  basic  glyceryl. 
Olive  oil  contains  about  72  per  cent,  of  olein  or  tri-olein, 
C3H5(C18H3302)3,  together  with  about  28  of  palmitin  and 
allied  fatty  matters.  It  is  of  the  consistence  of  syrup, 
unctuous,  transparent,  odourless,  and  of  a  bland  taste. 
When  pure  it  is  pale  greenish-yellow  ;  when  impure,  yellow 
or  brown.  Specific  gravity  0-914  to  0'919.  At  50°  Fahr. 
it  is  liable  to  become  of  a  pasty  consistence  ;  and  at  32° 
Fahr.  to  form  a  solid  granular  mass.  It  is  not  miscible  with 
water,  is  scarcely  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  dissolves  in  one 
and  a  half  parts  of  ether.  It  is  a  capital  solvent  for  cantha- 
ridin,  yellow  phosphorus,  atropine,  and  morphine.  Ex- 
posed to  air,  it  oxidises,  thickens,  and  slowly  becomes  rancid, 
but  does  not  dry  up.  It  is  often  adulterated  with  purified 
cotton-seed  oil,  in  fact  this  cheaper  product  is  probably 
often  sold  as  olive  oil. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Olive  oil  is  nutrient,  laxative,  and 
emollient.  Like  other  bland  oils,  small  quantities  are  easily 
digested  and  assimilated,  aid  cell  development,  and  by  oxi- 
dation support  animal  heat.  Larger  quantities,  such  as  one 
to  two  pints  for  horses  and  cattle,  and  two  to  three  ounces 
for  dogs,  are  laxative.  An  ounce  each  of  olive  oil  and  castor 
oil  form  a  mild  laxative  for  the  dog.  Like  other  fluid  fats, 
when  injected  into  the  veins,  it  fatally  obstructs  capillary 
circulation.  Half  an  ounce  injected  into  the  jugular  speedily 
destroys  a  dog.  As  a  demulcent  and  emollient,  it  is  used  in 
poisoning  by  irritants  and  corrosives  ;  it  antagonises  the 
action  of  alkalies  by  forming  soaps,  and  retards  solution 
and  absorption  of  arsenic.  Olive  oil,  in  small  doses,  is 


LINSEED  657 

occasionally  given  to  horses  and  other  animals  to  soothe  the 
irritable  mucous  membrane  in  chronic  catarrh  and  bron- 
chitis, and  in  cases  of  gallstone  and  biliary  colic  on  account 
of  its  demulcent  action  in  the  duodenum,  so  indirectly 
lessening  the  irritation  in  the  bile  duct.  Not  drying  or 
readily  becoming  rancid,  it  is  a  soothing  protective  for 
irritable  or  abraded  surfaces,  but  for  such  purposes  the 
cheaper  rape  oil,  lard,  or  vaseline,  is  usually  substituted. 
Sterilised  olive  oil  is  employed  in  hypodermic  injection  of 
camphor. 

LINSEED 

LINUM.  Flax  or  Lint  Seeds.  The  dried  ripe  seeds  of 
Linum  usitatissimum  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — Linacese. 

LINUM  CONTUSUM.  Crushed  linseed.  Linseed  reduced  to 
a  coarse  powder  (B.P.). 

LINSEED  OIL.  Oleum  Lini.  The  oil  expressed  from  linseed 
at  ordinary  temperatures  (B.P.). 

LINSEED  CAKE.     The  residue  left  after  expression  of  the  oil. 

LINSEED  MEAL.     Farina  Lini. 

The  Linum  usitatissimum,  or  common  flax,  cultivated  in 
Britain  and  other  European  countries,  yields  several  im- 
portant articles.  The  stem  affords  lint  and  tow  ;  the  seeds, 
crushed,  and  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure,  yield  linseed 
oil ;  the  residual  cake  is  a  valuable  feeding  stuff,  and  when 
reduced  to  powder  constitutes  linseed  meal. 

The  fibrous  stem  is  utilised  by  steeping  in  water,  generally 
used  hot ;  starch  and  cellulose  are  got  rid  of  by  scutching  ; 
the  fibres  are  hackled  and  carded — the  shorter,  coarser 
portions  forming  tow  ;  the  finer,  when  bleached,  are  made 
into  linen.  Soft,  loosely  woven  linen,  when  scarified,  and 
the  cut  fibres  scraped  into  gauzy  down,  constitutes  surgeons' 
lint.  Both  lint  and  tow,  as  well  as  jute  (the  prepared  fibre 
of  hemp),  are  employed  as  protectives  for  wounds.  When 
saturated  with  hot  or  cold  water  they  prove  cleanly  sub- 
stitutes for  poultices.  For  cleansing  wounds  they  are  pre- 
ferable to  sponges,  which  are  apt  to  retain  and  distribute 
septic  germs,  while  the  rag,  lint,  or  tow  is  thrown  away 
after  use.  These  fibrous  materials,  saturated  with  carbolic 

2T 


658  LINSEED    OIL 

or  other  antiseptic  solutions,  are  used  for  antiseptic  dressings. 
Oakum,  consisting  of  detached  fibres  of  old  ropes,  when 
treated  with  Stockholm  tar,  is  also  a  cheap  antiseptic 
dressing. 

Lint  seeds  are  about  two  lines  long,  smooth,  and  shining, 
of  a  brown  colour  and  oval  shape,  flattened  laterally,  and 
pointed  at  one  extremity.  They  are  inodorous,  but  have 
an  oily,  mucilaginous  taste.  They  consist  of  about  20  per 
cent,  of  mucilage,  wholly  present  in  the  envelope  of  the 
seed,  and  hence  only  properly  extracted  by  prolonged 
steeping  or  slow  boiling  ;  20  of  albuminoids,  a  little  sugar, 
25  to  30  of  oil,  contained  in  the  albumin  and  embryo  ; 
5  to  6  of  mineral  matters,  chiefly  phosphates,  mostly  stored 
in  the  husks  ;  5  to  8  of  fibre,  and  8  to  10  of  water.  Crushed 
linseed  should  yield  not  less  than  30  per  cent,  of  oil  when 
exhausted  by  carbon  bisulphide.  The  seeds,  ground  and 
pressed  without  the  aid  of  heat,  produce  about  25  per 
cent,  of  oil  of  the  best  quality  ;  steam  heat  extracts  25  to 
35  per  cent.  The  residual  linseed  cake,  or  oilcake,  con- 
tains 10  to  13  per  cent,  of  oil. 

Linseed  oil  is  viscid,  has  a  pale-yellow  colour,  a  faint 
but  distinct  odour,  and  a  bland  taste.  Specific  gravity 
0*930  to  0*940.  It  consists  largely  of  olein,  or  of  a  variety 
recognised  as  linolein.  Although  it  does  not  solidify  until 
cooled  to  —15°  or  —20°  Fahr.,  at  ordinary  temperatures 
it  oxidises  and  becomes  viscous,  hence  receiving  the  title 
of  a  drying  oil.  This  drying  property  is  much  increased 
by  boiling,  or  heating  it  with  litharge  or  black  oxide  of 
manganese.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  ten  parts 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  in  one  and  a  half  of  ether,  and  in 
oil  of  turpentine.  Boiled  with  alkaline  solutions  it  forms 
soaps.  Mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  lime  water  it  forms 
Garron  oil,  a  useful  dressing  for  burns  and  scalds.  Exposed 
for  some  time  to  a  high  temperature  it  becomes  a  dark, 
tenacious  mass,  which,  when  mixed  with  lamp-black  con- 
stitutes printers'  ink.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with 
rapeseed  oil,  but  is  more  commonly  of  inferior  quality  from 
rancidity,  from  preparation  at  a  high  temperature,  or  from 
presence  of  impurities. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Linseed  and  linseed  cakes  are  valu- 


NUTRIENT,    MUCILAGINOUS    DEMULCENT        659 

able  feeding  stuffs  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and,  in  restricted 
amount,  for  horses.  As  fat  producers  they  represent  about 
two  and  a  half  times  the  value  of  starch  or  sugar.  They  are 
emulsified  mainly  by  the  pancreatic  and  biliary  fluids  ;  they 
"are  absorbed  chiefly  by  the  lacteals,  and  their  combustion 
develops  heat  and  force.  In  moderate  amount  they  favour 
assimilation  alike  of  carbohydrates  and  proteids,  with  which 
they  are  generally  given. 

Well-boiled  linseed  gruel,  or  crushed  linseed  cake  digested 
in  hot  water,  is  a  palatable,  digestible  nutrient  for  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep,  not  only  in  health,  but  notably  in  catarrhal 
and  other  inflammatory  attacks,  in  tuberculosis,  rheu- 
matism, chronic  skin  complaints,  and  during  convalescence 
from  reducing  disorders.  In  such  cases  it  proves  both  food 
and  medicine.  In  febrile  cases  many  horses  will  sip  cold 
linseed  tea  when  they  will  scarcely  eat  or  drink  anything 
else.  Where  the  patient  is  exhausted,  the  linseed  tea  is  given 
with  milk,  eggs,  or  beef-tea,  or  with  alcoholic  or  other 
stimulants.  Horses  that  are  bad  feeders,  with  unthrifty 
coats,  and  horses  affected  with  roaring  or  thick  wind,  are 
usually  much  benefited,  especially  while  living  mostly  on 
oats  and  hay,  by  about  a  pound  daily  of  broken  linseed 
cake.  For  healthy  hunters  and  carriage  horses  the  con- 
tinued use  of  linseed  cake  proves,  however,  too  fattening 
and  often  causes  itching.  Young  herbivora  reared  on  skim 
milk  frequently  have  linseed  gruel  mixed  with  it  to  furnish 
requisite  fatty  matters,  and  also  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  tough,  indigestible  curd.  Linseed  gruel,  or  a  few  ounces 
of  crushed  cake  given  daily  to  calves  or  lambs,  as  soon  as 
they  will  eat  it,  not  only  economically  favours  growth  and 
early  maturity,  but  is  tolerably  effectual  in  warding  off 
attacks  of  diarrhoaa,  dysentery,  and  anaemia. 

A  mucilaginous,  demulcent  decoction,  made  with  about 
one  part  of  steeped  seed  to  fifteen  or  twenty  parts  boiling 
water,  is  useful  in  irritable  conditions  of  the  throat,  respir- 
atory passages,  bowels,  kidneys,  and  bladder  ;  in  poisoning 
with  irritants  and  corrosives  ;  and  as  a  convenient  vehicle 
for  the  administration  of  nauseous  or  acrid  medicines. 

Crushed  linseed  makes  good  poultices,  especially  when 
mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  bran  or  oatmeal ;  but  the 


660  LINSEED 

bruised  linseed  cake  is  cheaper,  less  apt  to  become  rancid, 
and  equally  effectual  in  retaining  heat  and  moisture.  The 
common  mass  employed  for  making  up  balls  and  pills 
usually  consists  of  equal  quantities  of  linseed  meal  and 
treacle. 

LINSEED  OIL  has  been  used  dietetically  ;  but  neither  for 
cattle  nor  sheep  does  it  serve  so  well  as  properly  prepared 
linseed  or  linseed  cake.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  being 
too  laxative,  and  it  increases  rather  than  diminishes  the 
quantity  of  ordinary  food  consumed.  As  an  adjuvant  feed- 
ing stuff  for  animals  in  health,  I  have  found  it  inferior  to 
linseed  cake,  beans,  or  oats.  One  to  two  ounces  repeated 
daily  are,  however,  often  beneficial,  in  sore-throat  and 
bronchitis  in  horses,  and  especially  for  subjects  that  will 
not  take  linseed  gruel  or  mashes. 

Linseed  oil,  in  quantity  too  large  to  be  digested,  acts  as 
a  cathartic  ;  it  is  also  emollient.  It  closely  resembles  rape- 
seed,  almond,  and  other  fixed  oils  ;  but  is  scarcely  so  actively 
cathartic  as  castor  oil. 

As  a  laxative  it  usually  produces  tolerably  full  and 
softened  evacuations,  without  nausea,  griping,  or  super- 
purgation.  It  is  prescribed  for  young  and  delicate  horses, 
and  pregnant  mares,  and  for  all  subjects  in  influenza,  pur- 
pura,  and  other  debilitating  disorders  ;  in  diarrhoea,  hernia, 
and  irritable  states  of  the  intestine,  as  well  as  in  overloaded, 
torpid  bowels,  where  aloes  and  other  active  purgatives, 
especially  if  repeated,  might  cause  dangerous  symptoms. 
It  is  serviceable  in  warding  off  attacks  of  lymphan- 
gitis, haemoglobinuria,  cedema  and  itching  of  the  limbs, 
which  are  liable  to  occur  when  hard-worked  horses  have 
several  days'  rest.  In  the  treatment  of  colic  it  is  generally 
combined  with  a  stimulant  and  anodyne.  A  draught  in 
common  use  consists  of  one  pint  of  linseed  oil  with  an  ounce 
each  of  ether  and  laudanum,  both  being  doubled  in  acute 
cases  and  in  large  horses.  In  colic,  aloes,  however,  generally 
acts  better  than  linseed  oil ;  but  for  laxative  enemas  the 
oil  is  preferable. 

Two  or  three  ounces  of  linseed  oil,  or  of  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  linseed  and  olive  oils,  given  daily  in  mash, 
often  suffice,  with  the  use  of  enemata,  to  maintain  the  bowels 


LINSEED    OIL   LAXATIVE    AND    EMOLLIENT      661 

of  horses  in  a  sufficiently  relaxed  state  throughout  catarrhal 
and  other  febrile  attacks.  This  treatment  is  also  specially 
suitable  in  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder,  when 
it  is 'desirable  to  rest  these  organs,  and  promote  excretion 
by  the  bowels  and  skin.  An  ounce  or  two  of  oil  combined 
with  lime-water  given  daily  to  broken- winded  subjects 
often  advantageously  relieves  the  distressing  breathing. 

In  cattle  and  canine  practice  linseed  oil  is  much  used  as 
a  purgative,  especially  for  young  and  weakly  patients,  in 
advanced  pregnancy,  in  gastro-intestinal  derangements,  in 
irritant  poisoning,  where  saline  or  other  active  purgatives 
have  been  given,  and  their  repetition  is  inexpedient,  and  as 
a  convenient  menstruum  for  the  administration  of  croton 
oil  and  oil  of  turpentine.  For  calves  and  lambs  it  is  milder 
and  safer  than  salts.  For  dogs,  especially  when  young, 
when  the  digestive  organs  are  in  an  irritable  state,  and 
exhausting  disease  has  reduced  strength,  it  is  a  suitable 
laxative,  and  more  effectual  when  mixed  with  an  equal 
amount  of  castor  oil.  As  a  lubricant  and  emollient  linseed 
oil  is  useful  in  choking  ;  mixed  with  well-boiled  starch 
gruel,  and  injected  into  the  rectum,  it  allays  irritation  ; 
softening  the  hard,  cracked,  or  scaly  skin,  it  is  applied, 
with  an  alkaline  solution,  in  psoriasis,  impetigo,  and  eczema. 
Its  soothing  effects  are  increased  by  admixture  with  lead 
acetate  solution.  For  emollient  dressings,  to  be  used  for 
a  considerable  time,  vaseline  and  benzoated  almond,  or 
cocoa-nut  oil  are,  however,  preferable,  as  they  are  not 
drying  or  prone  to  rancidity.  The  drying  properties,  pos- 
sessed in  common  with  poppy  and  cod-liver  oils,  render 
linseed  oil  less  suitable  than  lard,  or  olive,  almond,  rape, 
or  colza  oil,  for  making  ointments  and  liniments.  Friction 
with  oil  often  reduces  swollen  joints  and  bursse.  Flannel, 
soaked  in  hot  linseed  oil,  is  sometimes  applied  for  the  relief 
of  rheumatism. 

DOSES,  etc. — As  a  cathartic,  horses  take  Oss.  to  Oj.  ; 
cattle,  Oj.  to  Oij. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  f  gvi.  to  f  §x. ;  dogs,  f  §i. 
to  f  §ij. ;  cats,  f3i.  to  3JV- ;  administered  shaken  up  with 
linseed  gruel,  mucilage,  milk,  treacle,  lime-water,  or  spirit 
and  water.  For  horses  or  cattle  it  is  sometimes  mixed  with 
a  well-made  bran  mash. 


662  STARCH 


LIQUORICE   ROOT 

GLYCYKRHIZJE  RADIX.  The  peeled  root  and  peeled  sub- 
terranean stem  of  Glycyrrhiza  glabra  and  other  species 
(B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — Leguminosse. 


: 


The  perennial  herbaceous  plants  yielding  liquorice  gro 
in  the  temperate  countries  of  Continental  Europe.  The! 
roots  and  underground  stems  arrive  at  perfection  about  the 
third  year,  and  produce  a  yellow  powder  having  a  sweet 
taste,  and  soluble  in  water,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  in  alcohol. 
Besides  asparagin,  gum,  starch,  sugar,  malic  acid,  and  a 
resinous  oil,  to  which  it  owes  its  sub-acrid  taste,  liquorice 
contains  about  6  per  cent,  of  a  sweet,  yellow  glucoside, 
termed  glyeyrrhizin.  The  natural  juice  or  watery  infusion,  | 
concentrated  until  it  becomes  solid,  forms  the  extract  or 
black  sugar. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Liquorice  resembles  sugar  and 
treacle  in  its  dietetic  and  medicinal  uses.  Powdered,  it  is 
occasionally  used  as  a  demulcent  in  irritation  of  the  pul- 
monary mucous  membrane,  for  making  up  boluses,  electu-  | 
aries,  and  covering  the  disagreeable  taste  and  odour  of 
various  drugs.  The  laxative  compound  liquorice  powder, 
composed  of  senna,  liquorice  root,  fennel,  sulphur,  and  sugar, 
is  sometimes  prescribed  for  calves,  lambs,  and  dogs.  The 
dose  is  3J-  to  ^iv. 

STARCH 

AMYLUM.     The  starch  procured  from  the  grains  of  common  \ 
wheat,  Triticum  sativum  ;  maize,  Zea  mays  ;  and  rice, 
Oryza  sativa  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Graminaceae. 

Starch  is  an  important  member  of  that  dietetic  series  of  i 
carbo-hydrates,  including  gums  and  sugars,  which  contains 
at  least  six  carbon  atoms  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the 
proportion  to  form  water.     Starch  is  largely  present  in  the 
cereal  grains,  in  the  stems  of  many  plants,  and  in  tubers, ; 
being  stored  in  the  seeds  and  tubers  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  young  plants.     Wheat  flour  contains  about  70  per  cent. 


A   NUTRITIVE    CARBO-HYDRATE  663 

of  carbo-hydrates,  chiefly  starch,  which  receives  the  special 
title  of  amylum,  10  of  proteids,  with  water,  and  ash.  Oat- 
meal contains  63  of  starch  and  about  12*6  of  proteids,  with 
traces  of  a  bitter  amorphous  alkaloid  ;  barley,  64  starch, 
12  proteids  ;  rice,  83  starch,  5  proteids  ;  potatoes,  21  starch, 
2*  8  proteids.  From  any  of  these  sources  pure  starch  is 
got  by  fine  division  of  the  grain  or  root ;  sometimes  facili- 
tating separation  of  other  plant  constituents  by  fermenting  ; 
washing  the  starch  granules  from  fibrous  matters,  straining, 
and  drying.  The  white  starch  used  for  medicinal  and 
dietetic  purposes  is  dried  in  powder  or  granules.  The 
blue  preferred  for  the  laundry  is  in  blocks,  splits  as  it 
dries  into  columnar  masses,  is  coloured  by  addition  of  a 
little  indigo,  and  generally  contains  about  18  per  cent, 
of  water. 

Arrowroot  is  the  starch  of  the  Maranta  arundinacea ; 
sago,  the  granular  starch  from  the  sago  palm  ;  tous-les- 
mois,  the  large  ovular  granules  from  the  rhizomes  of  several 
species  of  Canna  ;  tapioca  or  cassava  is  prepared  from  the 
expressed  juice  of  the  roots  of  Manihot  utilissima.  Corn 
flour  or  Oswego  is  the  flour  of  Indian  corn  deprived  of 
gluten  by  a  weak  solution  of  soda. 

Starch  consists  of  round  or  oval  granules  comprising  a 
cell- wall  enclosing  concentric  layers  of  granulose.  The  large 
grains  from  potatoes  are  about  g^^th  of  an  inch  in  their 
long  diameter,  the  small  rounded  grains  of  rice  measure 
aDTTo^1  °^  an  inch.  Starch  grains  from  various  sources  differ 
in  appearance  when  examined  under  the  microscope. 
Wheat  starch  presents  a  mixture  of  large  and  small  granules, 
which  are  lenticular  in  form,  and  marked  with  faint  con- 
centric striae  surrounding  a  nearly  central  hilum.  The 
maize  granules  are  more  uniform  in  size,  frequently  poly- 
gonal, smaller  than  those  of  wheat,  having  a  very  distinct 
hilum,  but  without  evident  concentric  striae.  Rice  granules 
are  extremely  minute,  and  nearly  uniform  in  size,  polygonal, 
the  hilum  small  and  without  striae  (B.P.). 

Starch  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  has  the  specific  gravity 
1*5,  and  hence  is  deposited  when  mixed  with  water.  The 
cell-wall  consisting  of  cellulose  and  the  contained  granulose 
are  isomeric,  having  the  formula  usually  given  as  (C6H1005)x. 


664  STARCH 

When  mixed  with  water  above  120°  .Fahr.,  the  starch  grains 
burst ;  the  granulose,  escaping,  occupies  twenty  to  thirty 
times  its  previous  volume,  and  forms  the  viscid  gelatinous 
mucilage  used  by  the  laundress.  A  solution  of  starch  when 
cold  gives  the  characteristic  blue  compound  with  solution 
of  iodine.  Starch,  when  boiled  with  diluted  sulphuric  or 
nitric  acid,  or  heated,  is  converted  into  the  isomeric  but 
more  soluble  dextrin  or  British  gum,  one  variety  of  which 
is  coloured  red  by  iodine.  With  further  action  of  a  weak 
acid  and  heat,  dextrin  takes  up  water  and  is  converted  into 
maltose  (C^H^On.HaO),  and  eventually  into  dextrose 
(C6H1206). 

When  starch  foods  are  eaten  the  salivary  and  intestinal 
ferments  or  enzymes  gradually  resolve  the  granules,  and 
quickly  convert  the  starch  through  several  forms  of  dextrin 
into  maltose,  and  eventually  into  dextrose.  These  changes 
are  also  readily  produced  by  mixing  starch  paste  with 
crushed  malt,  the  diastase  of  which  develops  the  fermenta- 
tive changes.  Animal  starch,  or  glycogen  (C6H1005)x., 
present  in  the  liver,  in  blood,  and  in  muscle,  exhibits  most 
of  the  characters  of  vegetable  starch. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Starch  foods  are  rapidly  digested, 
especially  when  cooking  or  fermentation  has  cracked  the 
starch  cells,  or  when  they  have  been  thoroughly  insalivated. 
Like  other  such  proximate  principles,  pure  starch  cannot, 
however,  alone  support  life  for  any  lengthened  period.  A 
properly  balanced  dietary  for  horses  or  cattle  should  contain 
one  part  of  proteids  and  five  to  eight  parts  of  starch  or 
other  carbo-hydrates.  Active  exertion,  as  in  the  case  of 
hard-worked  horses,  or  abnormal  secretion,  as  of  heavily- 
milking  cows,  causes  great  expenditure  of  albuminoids, 
which  must  be  replaced  by  the  food.  Growing  animals,  in 
order  to  build  up  their  tissues,  require  relatively  larger 
supplies  of  albuminoids  than  suffice  for  adults.  The  starches 
— mostly  converted  into  sugar — are  consumed  in  the  body 
more  quickly  and  fully  than  fats.  During  their  oxidation 
they  are  the  great  source  of  animal  heat,  especially  in  herbi- 
vora.  They  prevent  wasteful  consumption  of  the  more 
costly  albuminoids  and  fats.  Under  favourable  condi- 
tions, carbo-hydrates,  in  excess,  are  also  directly  concerned 


SUGAR  665 

in  the  formation  of  fat,  and  Pasteur  states  that  they 
furnish  glycerin — the  basis  of  neutral  fats.  For  nutritive 
purposes  seventeen  parts  (Voit)  to  twenty-three  parts 
(Rubner)  of  carbo-hydrates  are  equivalent  to  ten  parts 
of  fat. 

As  a  demulcent  and  emollient,  starch  mucilage  protects 
and  softens  irritable  surfaces.  In  diarrhoea  and  dysentery 
it  is  used  about  the  consistence  of  cream,  at  the  temperature 
of  100°  Fahr.,  either  alone  or  with  laudanum,  sugar  of  lead, 
or  other  astringent,  and  is  given  both  by  the  mouth  and 
rectum.  It  is  an  antidote  to  excessive  doses  of  iodine. 
Dry  starch  readily  absorbs  water,  and  hence  is  a  desiccant 
for  wounds,  forming  a  protective  covering.  Mixed  with 
equal  parts  of  zinc  oxide,  it  dries  and  soothes  the  weeping 
earlier  stages  of  eczema.  Conjoined  with  carbolic  acid,  or 
boric  acid  and  iodoform,  it  forms  a  convenient  desiccant 
antiseptic.  One  part  of  starch,  heated  with  five  of  glycerin 
and  three  of  water,  make  a  soothing  demulcent.  Starch  is 
used  for  mixing  and  subdividing  medicines,  and  as  a  vehicle 
for  their  administration.  Dextrin  and  starch  are  employed 
to  stiffen  bandages  for  fractures  and  other  surgical  pur- 
poses. A  mixture  of  dextrin  100  parts,  water  50,  spirit 
of  camphor  50,  is  used  for  adhesive  plasters. 

SUGAR 

Sugar  exists  in  many  plants  ;  is  prepared  in  France  and 
Germany  from  white  beet,  in  Asia  from  various  palms, 
and  in  America  from  sugar  maple  (Sorghum  saccharatum), 
and  maize.  The  sugar  used  in  this  country  is  chiefly  got 
from  the  sugar-cane  (Saccharum  officinarum),  which  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  has  a  perennial 
root,  and  a  jointed  annual  stem  six  to  twelve  feet  high. 
These  canes  are  crushed  between  heavy  rollers  ;  the  pale 
green  expressed  juice,  which  contains  nearly  twenty  per  cent, 
of  sugar,  is  mixed  with  a  little  slaked  lime  to  neutralise 
acids  and  precipitate  albuminoids,  and  concentrated  in 
shallow  vacuum  pans  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  140° 
Fahr.  ;  the  coagulating  albumin,  entangling  impurities,  is 
skimmed  off  ;  the  syrup  is  cooled  in  wooden  vats,  and  dried 


666  SUGARS 

in  the  sun,  yellow  dark-brown  crystals  of  raw  sugar  are 
formed,  and  there  drains  away  a  variable  quantity  of 
brown  uncrystallised  molasses.  A  hundredweight  of  raw 
sugar  yields  about  80  pounds  refined  sugar  and  16  pounds 
treacle. 

There  are  two  classes  of  sugars — (1)  the  Sucroses  or  Sac- 
charoses, which,  when  dry,  have  the  formula  C12H22On, 
and  (2)  the  Hexoses,  with  the  formula  C6H1206. 

Sucrose,  saccharose,  or  cane  sugar  (C12H22On),  like  sulphur 
and  arsenious  acid,  has  an  amorphous  and  a  crystalline 
form,  its  crystals  are  monoclinic  prisms  ;  specific  gravity 
1/606  ;  it  phosphoresces  in  the  dark,  and  is  dextro-rotatory. 
It  is  hydroscopic,  soluble  in  one-third  of  its  weight  of  water 
at  60°  Fahr.,  but  insoluble  in  absolute  alcohol.  A  strong 
solution,  evaporated  and  heated  to  320°  Fahr.,  fuses,  and 
the  vitreous  mass  can  be  moulded  into  barley-sugar. 
Between  356°  and  374°  Fahr.  sucrose  parts  with  two 
molecules  of  water,  loses  its  sweet  taste,  acquires  a  dark 
colour,  and  becomes  caramel,  which  is  used  by  confectioners 
and  distillers  as  a  colouring  agent. 

Sucrose  in  plants  is  gradually  built  up  from  the  simpler 
hexoses  (C6H1206),  and,  conversely,  when  acted  on  by  dilute 
acids  or  by  ferments,  such  as  diastase  or  yeast,  it  is  again 
converted  into  glucose  and  fructose.  Sucrose  undergoes 
this  change  before  it  yields  alcohol. 

Maltose  (C12H22011.H20)  is  prepared  by  grinding  starch 
with  water,  warming  it  until  it  gelatinises,  and  heating  with 
crushed  malt,  the  diastase  of  which  sets  up  fermentation, 
causing  three  molecules  of  starch  to  appropriate  one  of 
water,  and  yield  one  molecule  of  maltose  and  one  of  dextrin. 
Maltose  is  also  formed  during  the  digestion  of  starch  by  the 
ferments  of  the  salivary,  intestinal,  and  pancreatic  juices. 
It  is  soluble  and  readily  fermented. 

Lactose,  or  milk  sugar  (C12H22011?H20),  is  prepared  by 
evaporating  whey  to  a  syrup,  and  crystallising.  It  occurs 
in  translucent,  greyish-white,  hard  cylindrical  masses  of 
rhombic  prisms.  It  is  gritty,  and,  being  less  soluble,  is  not 
so  sweet  as  the  vegetable  sugars.  It  is  not  directly  fer- 
mentable. Lactose  is  a  very  active  diuretic,  but  in  practice 
milk  or  whey  is  preferred. 


NUTRITIVE,  LAXATIVE,  DEMULCENT,  ANTISEPTIC     667 

Glucose,  dextrose,  or  grape  sugar  (C6H12O6),  is  the  variety 
present  in  grapes  and  other  fruit,  and  in  honey.  It  is 
obtained  by  boiling  cane  sugar,  or  acting  upon  it  with 
alcoholic  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid,  is  formed  when 
starch  is  boiled  with  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid, 
and  is  the  variety  occurring  in  blood  and  urine.  It  is 
produced  when  glucosides,  such  as  salicin,  amygdalin,  digi- 
talin,  etc.,  are  boiled  with  diluted  acid.  It  is  neither  so 
sweet  nor  so  soluble  as  sucrose,  crystallises  in  six-sided 
scales,  is  not  charred  by  sulphuric  acid,  but  forms  with  it 
sulphosaccharic  acid.  It  produces  a  readily  crystallisable 
compound  with  common  salt. 

Laevulose,  also  termed  fructose,  is  isomeric  with  dextrose, 
and  is  associated  with  it  in  most  fruits.  These  two  sugars 
are  distinguished  by  the  manner  in  which  they  turn  a 
ray  of  polarised  light ;  dextrose  to  the  right,  laevulose  to 
the  left.  Laevulose  is  sweeter  than  dextrose,  and  less 
fermentable. 

Molasses,  treacle,  theriaca,  or  sacchari  faex,  is  the  un- 
crystallised,  fermentable,  syrupy  residue  from  the  prepara- 
tion and  refining  of  sugar.  It  has  a  brown  colour,  a  pleasant 
sweet  taste,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1-4.  Molasses  is 
the  drainings  from  the  raw  sugar  ;  treacle  the  darker, 
thicker  residue  from  the  moulding  process. 

Honey  or  mel,  the  saccharine  secretion  deposited  in  the 
honeycomb  by  the  hive  bee,  when  first  collected  is  yellow, 
translucent,  and  viscid,  and  consists  of  variable  proportions 
of  sucrose  and  laevulose.  The  popular  household  expec- 
torant oxymel  is  made  of  eight  parts  of  honey,  liquefied 
by  heat,  and  mixed  with  one  part  each  of  acetic  acid  and 
water. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — The  sugars  are  members  of  the 
carbo-hydrate  series  of  dietetic  substances,  are  digestible  and 
nutritive  ;  their  important  function  in  all  the  higher  animals 
is  the  support  of  animal  heat ;  they  moreover  economise 
the  proteids  and  fats,  and  directly  contribute  to  the  deposits 
of  fat.  They  are  laxatives,  demulcents,  and  antiseptics,  and 
used  pharmaceutically  as  excipients.  One  or  two  pounds 
given  to  horses  or  cattle,  eight  to  twelve  ounces  to  sheep  or 
dogs,  eight  to  ten  drachms  to  poultry,  increase  the  amount 


668  SUGAR 

and  fluidity  of  the  faeces,  and  usually  also  augment  secretion 
of  urine.  As  a  demulcent  sugar  is  used  in  the  dry  stages  of 
common  catarrh,  in  poisoning  with  salts  of  mercury  and 
copper,  and  as  a  domestic  remedy  for  wounds,  and  for 
removing  specks  from  the  cornea.  Its  antiseptic  properties 
recommend  it  for  preserving  many  vegetable  and  some  soft 
animal  substances,  and  for  making  up  various  medicines. 
It  increases  the  solubility  of  calcium  salts  and  retards 
oxidation  of  ferrous  compounds.  The  syrupus  of  the  B.P. 
used  for  flavouring,  preserving,  and  suspending  medicines, 
is  made  by  dissolving,  with  the  aid  of  heat,  five  pounds 
refined  sugar  in  two  pints  distilled  water,  and  adding  after 
cooling,  sufficient  water  to  make  the  weight  of  the  product 
7J  Ibs.  Specific  gravity  1-330. 

Molasses  and  treacle  are  often  substituted  for  sugar. 
They  are  palatable,  digestible,  laxative  articles  of  diet, 
useful  for  sick  and  convalescent  animals.  They  are  con- 
venient auxiliary  purgatives,  and  valuable  for  hastening 
the  action,  preventing  the  nausea,  and  covering  the  disagree- 
able flavour  of  active  cathartics.  When  full  doses  of  physic 
have  been  given,  and  their  repetition  is  inexpedient,  large 
and  repeated  doses  of  treacle  encourage  the  action  of  the 
purgative,  especially  in  cattle  and  sheep.  As  a  soothing 
antiseptic  gargle  for  horses,  three  or  four  ounces  of  treacle 
and  an  ounce  of  borax  or  of  potassium  nitrate  or  chlorate 
are  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  a  few  ounces  slowly 
administered  every  hour  or  two.  When  cough  is  trouble- 
some an  ounce  of  belladonna  extract  may  be  added.  Treacle 
is  a  convenient  antiseptic  excipient  for  electuaries  and  also 
for  ball  masses,  imparting  a  proper  consistence,  and  prevent- 
ing their  becoming  dry,  hard,  or  mouldy.  The  common 
mass,  so  largely  used  as  an  excipient,  is  made  by  thoroughly 
mixing  with  gentle  heat  equal  weights  of  treacle  and  linseed 
meal. 

DOSES,  etc. — Of  sugar  and  treacle,  as  laxatives,  horses  and 
cattle  take  Ib.  i.  ;  sheep,  §v.  or  §vi.  ;  pigs,  gij.  to  §vi. ; 
dogs,  gi.  to  §ij.,  administered  with  aromatics  and  salines, 
usually  dissolved  in  water,  milk,  or  gruel,  or  mixed  with  a 
mash. 


CAKTHABIDES  669 


CANTHARIDBS 

CANTHABIS.  Blistering  or  Spanish  Fly.  The  dried  beetle 
T — Cantharis  vesicatoria.  Class — Insecta.  Order — 
Coleoptera. 

Cantharides  flies  are  found  in  most  parts  of  Southern 
Europe,  Germany,  and  Russia,  and  occasionally  along  the 
south  coast  of  England.  They  settle  on  such  trees  and 
shrubs  as  the  olive,  lilac,  privet,  ash,  elder,  honeysuckle,  and 
rose.  During  May  and  June,  after  nightfall  or  before  dawn, 
the  collectors,  with  their  faces  protected  by  masks  and  their 
hands  by  gloves,  shake  or  beat  the  insects  from  the  trees 
on  which  they  feed,  kill  them  by  exposure  to  the  fumes  of 
oil  of  turpentine,  or  by  immersion  in  boiling  water  or  vinegar, 
and  quickly  dry  them  in  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat.  The 
flies  used  in  this  country  were  formerly  brought  from  Spain 
(and  hence  their  vernacular  name  of  Spanish  flies),  but  are 
now  chiefly  imported  from  Hungary,  St.  Petersburg,  and 
Messina,  usually  packed  in  barrels  or  cases  containing  from 
100  to  200  Ibs. 

PROPERTIES,  etc. — The  insect  is  from  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  to  an  inch  long,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  broad,  with 
two  long  elytra  or  wing-sheaths  of  a  shining  coppery-green 
colour,  under  which  are  two  thin,  brownish,  gauze-like, 
membranous  wings.  The  body,  especially  along  its  under 
surface,  is  covered  with  grey- white  hairs  ;  the  head  is  large  ; 
the  antennae  or  horns  are  black  and  thread-like.  The  insect, 
which  lives  eight  to  ten  days,  deposits  its  larvae  in  the  earth, 
leaving  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
Powdered  cantharides  has  a  resinous,  acrid  taste,  and  a 
disagreeable,  penetrating,  foetid  odour.  It  is  freely  soluble 
in  boiling  water,  alcohol,  ether,  acetic  acid,  and  fixed  and 
volatile  oils.  The  active  principle  being  volatile,  no 
cantharides  preparation  should  be  heated  beyond  200° 
Fahr.  Its  distinguishing  tests  are  its  vesicant  action,  and 
the  brilliant  green  appearance  of  the  wing-sheaths. 

Cantharides,  besides  animal  matters,  acetic  and  uric  acids, 
contains  a  bland  oil,  a  foetid,  acrid,  volatile  oil,  and  about 
2  per  cent,  of  a  fatty  cry stalli sable  principle  cantharidin 


670  CANTHARIDES 

(C10H1204),  which  is  confined  to  the  soft  parts  of  the  body, 
and  is  present  particularly  in  the  blood  and  female  sexual 
organs.  It  is  slowly  deposited,  when  an  alcoholic  solution 
of  cantharides  is  concentrated.  When  pure,  it  crystallises 
in  colourless  scales  or  prisms,  melts  at  482°  Fahr.,  is  insoluble 
in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol,  acetic  acid,  ether,  chloro- 
form, and  oils  ;  T^  of  a  grain  suffices  to  blister. 

IMPURITIES. — As  the  powdered  cantharides  sold  in  the 
shops  sometimes  contains  euphorbium  and  various  cheap 
irritants,  it  is  advised  that  the  flies  be  purchased  entire. 
Other  insects  are  sometimes  mixed  with  them.  The  species 
of  mylabris  sold  as  Chinese  blistering  flies  have  two  orange- 
coloured  bands  and  spots  on  the  wing-covers.  Activity 
is  sometimes  impaired  by  damp,  long-keeping,  and  attacks 
of  mites,  moths,  and  beetles — parasitic  attacks  which  are 
prevented  by  keeping  the  fresh  flies  in  closely-stoppered 
bottles,  with  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid,  or  a  few  grains  of 
camphor  or  ammonium  carbonate. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Cantharides  is  an  irritant,  and  pro- 
duces its  effects  on  any  part  with  which  the  free  cantharidin 
is  brought  into  contact.  Applied  externally,  it  stimulates 
and  vesicates,  and  is  used  as  a  counter-irritant.  When 
swallowed  it  irritates  the  digestive  mucous  membrane  ; 
large  doses  produce  gastro-enteritis.  The  active  cantharidin 
is  absorbed,  and  in  the  blood  forms  a  non-irritant  albu- 
minoid, but  in  the  kidneys  is  again  liberated,  developing 
its  characteristic  irritation — small  doses  stimulating  the 
urino-genital  tract,  causing  diuresis;  and  in  some  animals 
increased  sexual  desire ;  full  doses  inducing  nephritis, 
cystitis,  strangury,  and  haematuria. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS. — According  to  the  strength  of  the 
preparation,  or  the  period  during  which  it  is  applied, 
cantharides  produces  redness,  vesication,  or  sloughing  of 
the  skin  or  mucous  surfaces.  An  ordinary  vesicant  dressing 
causes  congestion,  elevation  of  local  temperature,  and, 
usually  within  three  to  twelve  hours,  formation  of  blisters, 
which,  after  a  variable  but  generally  short  time,  burst, 
and  discharge  a  yellow,  serous  fluid,  which  dries  into 
scurfy  cicatrices.  When  freely  or  continuously  used,  the 
deeper-seated  skin  tissues  are  inflamed,  and  ulceration, 


AN   IRRITANT   POISON  671 

and  sloughing  with  suppuration  ensue.  When  the  true 
skin  has  thus  been  seriously  inflamed,  the  hair  bulbs  are 
injured  ;  the  hair  is  removed,  and  permanent  baldness  and 
blemishing  may  result.  As  a  vesicant  it  is  most  powerful 
on  horses  and  dogs,  and  less  powerful  on  cattle,  swine,  and 
poultry. 

TOXIC  EFFECTS. — Orfila  found  that  '  three  drachms  of  the 
tincture,  with  eight  grains  of  powder  suspended  in  it,  caused 
the  death  of  a  dog  in  twenty-four  hours,  if  retained  in  the 
stomach  by  a  ligature  on  the  gullet,  insensibility  being  the 
chief  symptom  ;  and  that  forty  grains  of  the  powder  killed 
another  dog  in  four  hours  and  a  half,  although  he  was 
allowed  to  vomit.  When  administered  by  the  stomach, 
that  organ  was  found  much  inflamed  after  death  ;  and  if 
given  in  the  form  of  powder,  fragments  of  the  poison  were 
generally  discernible.  When  applied  to  a  wound,  the 
powder  excites  surrounding  inflammation  ;  and  a  drachm 
will,  in  this  way,  prove  fatal  in  thirty-two  hours,  without 
any  constitutional  symptom  except  languor  '  (Christison). 
An  ounce  of  powdered  cantharides  administered  to  a  horse 
caused  death  in  eighteen  hours.  In  most  cases  the  pulse 
becomes  small  and  frequent,  respiration  quick  and  dyspnoeic, 
there  is  restlessness  and  excitement,  followed  by  coma  and 
collapse. 

The  treatment  of  the  gastro-intestinal  or  urinary  irritation 
consists  in  the  free  use  of  mucilaginous  drinks  with  opiates. 
Oils  and  fats  are  inadmissible  on  account  of  their  favouring 
solution  of  any  unabsorbed  poison.  When  constitutional 
irritation  has  resulted  from  absorption  of  the  cantharidin 
from  a  blistered  surface,  this  should  be  dressed  with  soothing 
remedies. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — Small,  repeated  doses  are  occasionally 
prescribed  in  chronic  nasal  catarrh.  In  such  cases  Robertson 
gave  it  with  copaiba.  It  is  sometimes  serviceable  in 
chronic  cystitis  ;  while  giving  tone  to  the  bladder,  small 
doses  prevent  involuntary  escape  of  urine.  In  some  parts 
of  Germany  it  is  given  to  cows  which  are  tardy  in  coming  to 
service  ;  but  its  aphrodisiac  effects  on  either  sex  are  un- 
certain, and  seldom  produced  except  by  dangerously  large 
doses.  When  administered  for  some  time,  small  vesicles 


672  CANTHARIDES 

sometimes  appear  on  the  skin,  depending  on  the  excretion 
of  cantharidin  cutaneously. 

EXTERNAL  APPLICATIONS. — Cantharides,  in  small  amount 
and  diluted,  stimulates  the  capillaries  and  trophic  nerves  of 
the  part  to  which  it  is  applied,  and  thus  increases  the  blood 
supply  and  functional  activity  of  the  skin  and  hair  bulbs. 
It  hence  induces  a  healthier  condition  of  the  dermis  in 
some  chronic  scaly  diseases,  and  promotes  growth  of  hair  ; 
ulcers  and  tardily-healing  wounds  are  stimulated,  and  their 
repair  encouraged.  Inflammatory  products  are  liquefied  and 
absorbed — an  effect  familiarly  illustrated  by  the  action  of  a 
blister  on  the  swelling  remaining  around  a  bruise,  or  on  the 
fulness  and  thickening  resulting  from  a  strain.  The  bene- 
ficial effects  of  a  cantharides  blister  in  arresting  inflam- 
mation and  removing  effusion  were  often  exhibited  when 
blood-letting  was  the  rule,  and  phlebitis  of  the  jugular  vein 
of  the  horse  was  not  infrequent.  Blistering  ointment,  well 
rubbed  in  along  the  course  of  the  vessel,  removed  the  tense, 
corded,  inflammatory  swelling. 

Cantharides  blister  is  usefully  applied  in  cases  of  open 
joint  or  bursa,  where  the  wound  is  small,  to  prevent  escape 
of  synovia.  It  is  also  applied  in  umbilical  hernia  in  foals 
and  calves  ;  and  while  the  consecutive  swelling  mechanically 
prevents  the  descent  of  the  intestine,  the  opening  in  the 
abdominal  wall  is  gradually  obliterated.  Similar  effects 
are  sometimes  obtained  by  moistening  the  adjacent  skin 
with  sulphuric  acid. 

Cantharides  is  much  used  as  a  counter-irritant.  The 
external  irritation  reflexly  relieves  tension,  inflammation, 
and  pain  of  adjacent  or  deep-seated  parts.  Blisters  applied 
experimentally  to  the  chest  or  loins  of  dogs  and  rabbits, 
while  producing  external  congestion,  cause  anaemia  of  the 
pleura  and  lungs,  or  of  the  deeper-seated  muscles  of  the 
back.  In  pleuritic  and  other  cases  a  blister  notably  modifies 
morbid  action,  and  relieves  painful  tension  ;  the  temperature 
is  reduced  2°  to  3°  Fahr.,  and  the  pulse  ten  beats  per  minute. 
Some  prefer  cantharides  to  mustard,  believing  it  to  cause 
less  irritation  and  pain,  and  to  produce  more  permanent 
curative  effects.  Others,  however,  maintain  that  can- 
tharides and  other  blisters  unnecessarily  irritate  most 


USES    AS    A   COUNTER-IRRITANT  673 


horses,  and,  in  acute  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs, 
are  neither  so  certain  nor  so  satisfactory  as  hot  fomen- 
tations. 

In  many  cases  of  catarrh  and  sore-throat,  heat  and  mois- 
ture are  certainly  more  effectual  than  blisters  ;  but  tedious, 
irritable  conditions  of  the  larynx,  inducing  coughing,  are 
often  relieved  by  a  cantharides  dressing.  In  the  outset  of 
roaring,  counter-irritation  is  often  useful.  In  acute  bron- 
chitis, when  mainly  affecting  the  larger  tubes,  it  is  serviceable 
in  conjunction  with  inhalation  of  steam,  and  after  stuping 
the  parts  with  hot  water.  But  many  think  favourably  of 
fly  blisters  in  cases  where  considerable  exudation  blocks 
the  smaller  tubes.  Their  efficacy  is  seldom  so  obvious  in 
pneumonia,  especially  when  involving  a  considerable  area. 
In  pleurodynia  and  most  stages  of  pleurisy,  cantharides 
is  specially  useful ;  in  the  earlier  stages  it  moderates  acute 
inflammation,  while  later  it  checks  or  removes  effusion. 
It  is  the  counter-irritant  usually  applied  in  inflammation 
of  the  pericardium.  Although  occasionally  used,  it  is 
never  of  much  value,  in  either  colic  or  enteritis.  In  periton- 
itis it  is  seldom  so  effectual  as  in  pleurisy,  but  was  advised 
by  Robertson  in  chronic  cases.  Where  acute  inflammation 
extends  over  a  considerable  area  of  tKe  peritoneum,  it  is 
desirable  that  the  blister  be  applied  some  little  distance  to 
the  side  of  and  not  directly  over  the  closely  underlying 
inflamed  spot.  Cases  of  paralysis  in  cows  depending  upon 
parturient  apoplexy  are  usually  benefited  by  moderate 
counter-irritation,  maintained  for  a  week  or  ten  days. 
In  rheumatism,  in  all  patients,  advantage  frequently  results 
from  a  fly  blister  which  is  maintained  active  by  repeated 
application. 

Irritation  and  inflammation  of  joints,  bursse,  ligaments, 
tendons,  and  bones  are  combated,  and  effused  products 
removed  by  blisters  properly  used.  When  external  surfaces 
or  comparatively  superficial  textures  are  to  be  directly 
stimulated,  the  cantharides  application  must  be  mild,  and 
not  too  long  applied.  When  deeper-seated  parts  are  to  be 
acted  on,  more  powerful  preparations  are  needful,  and  their 
effects  may  be  maintained  by  repetition.  It  is  seldom 
advisable  to  apply  cantharides  directly  to  any  part  which 


674  CANTHARIDES 

is  hot,  tender,  or  inflamed.  In  applying  blisters  to  inflamed 
joints  or  bursse,  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  place  them, 
not  immediately  upon,  but  somewhat  above  or  below,  the 
affected  spot.  Where  continued  effects  are  desired,  mercury 
biniodide  ointment  is  alternated  with  cantharides,  or  sub- 
stituted for  it,  or  the  actual  cautery  is  used  instead  of 
blisters. 

Owing  to  its  liability  to  become  absorbed  and  irritate  the 
kidneys,  it  is  an  unsuitable  counter-irritant  in  inflammation 
of  the  urinary  organs.  In  common  with  all  other  causes 
of  irritation,  it  must  be  avoided  in  tetanus.  Unless  on  a 
very  limited  surface,  and  freely  diluted,  cantharides  must 
not  be  used  in  weakly,  exhausted  subjects.  In  dogs,  special 
caution  is  required,  as  they  are  apt  to  rub  the  blistered 
parts.  Cantharides  sometimes  acts  with  unexpected  violence 
on  the  skin  of  well-bred  horses,  and  for  such  subjects  strong 
blisters  are  not  advisable,  and  their  application  over  a  con- 
siderable surface  should  be  avoided.  No  horse  should  have 
all  four  legs  blistered  at  one  time.  In  some  excitable 
subjects  even  a  moderate  blister  causes  much  constitutional 
disturbance. 

DOSES,  etc. — For  horses,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  xx.  ;  for  cattle, 
grs.  xxx.  to  3J-  ;  for  sheep  and  swine,  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  viij.  ; 
for  dogs,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  ij.,  repeated  once  or  twice  a  day, 
usually  given  with  aromatics  and  bitters,  in  the  form  of 
bolus  or  tincture  ;  administration  suspended  if  urinary 
irritation  or  any  untoward  effects  occur. 

Cantharides  is  used  externally  in  the  form  of  powder 
tincture,  vinegar,  ointment,  liniment,  and  plaster. 

Powdered  cantharides  is  principally  used  for  maintaining 
irritation,  and  for  scattering  over  mustard  poultices  and 
other  stimulant  applications  to  increase  their  activity. 

Tinctures  of  cantharides  are  made  of  varying  strength. 
The  B.P.  tincture  (1  in  80),  and  other  alcoholic  prepara- 
tions, used  in  human  medicine  are  too  weak  for  most 
veterinary  purposes.  One  ounce  of  coarsely-powdered 
flies,  macerated  for  seven  days  with  fifteen  or  twenty  ounces 
of  alcohol,  60  per  cent.,  forms  a  useful  tincture  of  medium 
strength.  The  activity  is  augmented  by  addition  of  liquor 
ammoniae,  or  oil  of  turpentine.  The  tinctures  in  common 


PHARMACEUTICAL   PREPARATIONS  675 

use  act  speedily,  but  their  effects  are  less  powerful  and  per- 
manent than  those  of  the  ointments.  Though  producing 
considerable  irritation,  they  seldom  cause  blistering,  unless 
applied  repeatedly  at  short  intervals.  In  using  them,  it 
is  not  essential  that  the  hair  be  removed,  nor  even  that  the 
animal  be  kept  idle.  They  may  be  applied  repeatedly  to 
the  same  spot  without  fear  of  blemishing. 

Vinegar  of  cantharides  made  with  one  part  of  powdered 
flies  and  ten  of  acetic  acid  forms  a  prompt  counter-irritant. 
The  B.P.  Acetum  Cantharidis  is  prepared  with  two  parts 
cantharides,  and  10  parts  each  of  glacial  acetic  acid  and 
water. 

Ointments  of  cantharides  are  much  used.  Their  olea- 
ginous constituents  ensure  solution  of  the  cantharidin,  and 
render  them  easy  of  application.  Many  contain  a  number 
of  ingredients,  but  the  simplest  are  usually  the  best.  A 
useful  ointment  of  medium  strength  consists  of  one  part  of 
powdered  cantharides  to  six  of  benzoated  lard,  palm  oil, 
or  vaseline.  A  stronger  ointment  is  made  with  one  ounce 
each  of  mercury  bmiodide  and  cantharides,  and  eight 
ounces  of  vaseline  or  benzoated  lard.  Such  an  ointment, 
when  well  made  and  applied  with  smart  friction,  acts 
effectually.  Another  excellent  ointment  is  made  with  one 
part  each  of  powdered  cantharides,  Venice  turpentine,  and 
resin,  with  four  parts  of  vaseline,  palm  oil,  or  lard.  The 
powdered  flies  are  digested  with  the  oily  matters  in  a 
covered  vessel,  over  a  slow  fire  or  a  water-bath,  for  twelve 
hours,  and  the  vessel  placed  in  boiling  water  for  fifteen 
minutes  ;  any  wax  or  resinous  matters  used  to  give  con- 
sistence are  then  melted  and  stirred  in,  any  volatile  flavour- 
ing oil  added,  and  the  mixture,  if  required,  strained  through 
muslin. 

French,  German,  and  Belgian  practitioners  frequently, 
however,  add  other  irritants  to  their  cantharides  blisters. 
Degive  states  that  numerous  experiments  convince  him 
that  the  best  vesicant  is  made  of  ten  to  fifteen  parts  each 
of  cantharides  and  corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in  one 
hundred  parts  of  vaseline.  The  part  is  prepared  by  clipping 
the  hair,  and  washing  with  soap  and  water.  The  ointment 
is  rubbed  in  for  ten  minutes,  and,  if  needful,  six  hours  later 


676  CANTHARIDES 

the  surface  may  be  simply  anointed.  Swelling  and  vesicles 
appear  usually  within  a  few  hours  ;  the  vesicles  are  as  large 
as  pigeons'  eggs  ;  but  by  the  second  day  inflammation 
subsides,  and  blemishing  does  not  occur. 

In  cattle  practice,  counter-irritation  is  generally  produced 
with  mustard  paste  or  blister,  but  some  powder,  or  strong 
ointment,  of  cantharides,  mixed  with  the  mustard,  greatly 
increases  its  effects.  For  dogs,  a  convenient  ointment  is 
made  with  an  ounce  each  of  powdered  cantharides  and  oil 
of  turpentine,  and  twelve  to  twenty  ounces  of  lard. 

To  ensure  full  vesication,  the  hair  should  be  removed, 
the  skin  washed  with  soap  and  water  and  dried,  and  the 
ointment  then  well  rubbed  in.  The  extent  of  surface  to 
be  covered  must  obviously  depend  upon  the  nature,  seat, 
and  extent  of  the  malady.  To  prevent  the  blister,  when 
liberally  applied,  from  spreading  beyond  the  desired  limits, 
the  blistered  area  may  be  surrounded  with  an  edging  of 
resin  ointment.  The  blister,  while  acting,  often  causes 
considerable  irritation,  and  the  animal,  if  permitted,  will 
rub  or  bite  the  blistered  part.  In  the  horse  this  should  be 
prevented  by  securing  the  head  to  the  rack,  putting  on  a 
cradle,  or,  when  required,  tying  up  the  tail ;  in  the  dog,  by 
the  use  of  the  muzzle.  On  the  next,  second,  or  third  day, 
the  blistered  part  should  be  dressed  with  zinc  oxide  oint- 
ment, oil,  lard,  vaseline,  or  Carron  oil.  If  sufficient  effect 
has  not  been  produced,  a  little  more  of  the  blister  may  then 
be  applied. 

Liniments  of  cantharides  are  merely  liquefied  ointments, 
and,  in  respect  of  activity,  usually  occupy  a  place  between 
ointments  and  tinctures.  They  generally  consist  of  one  pai 
of  cantharides  and  six  to  ten  parts  of  rape  or  linseed  oil. 
Oil  of  turpentine  is  sometimes  added.  The  B.P.  Liquor 
epispasticus  is  made  with  ten  of  cantharides  and  twenty  of 
acetic  ether. 

Plasters  of  cantharides  are  made  in  the  same  manner 
ointments,  but  rendered  more  strongly  adhesive  by  th( 
addition  of  yellow  wax,  soap  plaster,  and  resin  or  pitch. 
To  prevent  displacement  they  are  usually  applied  in  th< 
melted  state,  immediately  covered  by  a  little  tow  or  teasec 
lint,  and  enveloped  in  a  suitable  bandage. 


COD-LIVER   OIL  677 

COD-LIVER    OIL 

OLEUM  MORRHILE.  Oleum  Jecoris  Aselli.  The  oil  ex- 
tracted from  the  fresh  liver  of  the  cod,  Gadus  morrhua, 
by  the  application  of  a  temperature  not  exceeding 
180°  Fahr.  ;  and  from  which  solid  fat  has  been  separated 
by  filtration  at  about  23°  Fahr.  (B.P.) 

The  chief  supplies  of  cod-liver  oil  come  from  Newfound- 
land. An  oil  called  candle-oil,  prized  by  the  Indians  as  a 
tonic,  and  used  along  the  Pacific  coasts,  is  obtained  from 
the  oslachan  or  boulican,  which  inhabits  the  waters  of 
British  Columbia  and  Vancouver's  Island.  Good  samples 
of  cod-liver  oil  have  a  pale  yellow  colour,  and  an  oily,  fishy 
taste,  which  becomes,  howe'ver,  less  obvious  to  those 
accustomed  to  take  it.  The  dark  colour  and  nauseous 
flavour  of  indifferent  specimens  result  from  exposure  to 
high  temperatures,  or  from  the  oil  being  extracted  from 
stale,  putrid  livers.  Specific  gravity,  0'920  to  0'930  ;  ether 
dissolves  it  readily  ;  cold  alcohol  dissolves  2  to  3  per  cent.  ; 
hot  alcohol,  3  to  7  per  cent.  It  consists  of  olein  (85  per 
cent.),  varying  proportions  of  palmitin,  myristin,  and  stearin  ; 
traces  of  four  volatile  and  two  fixed  alkaloids,  morrhuic 
acid,  with  biliary  and  other  organic  bodies  containing  traces 
of  phosphorus,  iodine,  bromine,  and  chlorine.  A  drop  of 
sulphuric  acid,  added  to  a  few  drops  of  cod-liver  oil  in  a 
porcelain  cup,  develops  a  violet  colour,  which  passes  to 
yellow  or  brown-red,  depends  upon  the  presence  of  biliary 
matters,  and  indicates  the  source,  but  not  the  purity  or 
goodness  of  the  oil. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Cod-liver  oil  is  nutrient,  tonic,  and 
alterative.  Like  other  fixed  oils,  large  doses  cause  nausea, 
derangement  of  the  bowels,  and  purgation.  For  lubricant 
purposes,  vegetable  and  mineral  oils  are  more  convenient 
and  less  liable  to  rancidity. 

In  experiments  with  cod-liver  oil,  made  by  an  Essex 
agriculturist,  on  pigs,  sheep,  and  cattle,  twenty  pigs,  separ- 
ated from  a  lot  of  three  hundred,  averaging  from  five  to 
fifteen  stones,  received  two  ounces  of  oil  daily,  with  as 
much  meal  as  they  cleared  up.  The  rest  of  the  lot  were 


678  COD-LIVER   OIL 

treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  but  got  no  oil.  Those 
receiving  the  oil  are  stated  to  have  consumed  less  food, 
and  when  killed  '  weighed  the  heaviest  and  made  the  most 
money  in  the  London  market,  the  fat  being  firm  and  white. 
When  the  daily  allowance  of  oil  was  increased  to  four  ounces 
per  day,  the  fat  became  yellow,  and  the  flesh  acquired  a 
fishy  taste.'  For  small  pigs,  an  ounce  daily  was  found  the 
most  economical  quantity.  An  ounce  given  daily  to  sheep 
improved  the  quality  both  of  the  fat  and  flesh  ;  while 
cattle  receiving  about  half  a  pint  daily  are  stated  to  have 
eaten  less  food,  and  paid  better,  than  when  treated  in  the 
usual  way.  The  oil,  it  is  mentioned,  cost  from  2s.  8d.  to 
3s.  per  gallon,  and  in  some  comparative  experiments  it  is 
said  to  have  proved  superior  to  sperm  oil.  These  experi- 
ments confirm  the  recognised*  fact  that  oleaginous  materials 
are  essential  to  speedy  and  economical  fattening  ;  they  do 
not,  however,  establish  the  individual  superiority  of  cod- 
liver  oil.  In  healthy  animals  equally  satisfactory  results 
would  probably  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  linseed,  lard, 
rape,  or  other  mild  fixed  oil. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — The  biliary  constituents  of  cod-liver 
oil  facilitate  its  emulsion  and  digestion.  Experiments 
show  that  admixture  of  a  little  bile  hastens  absorption  of 
any  bland  oil  included  in  a  loop  of  intestine.  Cod-liver  oil 
is  also  very  readily  oxidised.  This  ready  absorption  and 
assimilation  render  it  specially  useful  not  only  for  children, 
but  for  young  animals,  in  cases  of  malnutrition  and  con- 
valescence from  exhausting  disease.  Added  to  skim  milk, 
in  quantities  of  three  to  four  ounces  per  gallon,  it  is  very 
useful  as  a  food  for  calves  in  place  of  new  milk.  Although 
it  has  no  specific  action  on  any  particular  organ,  it  im- 
proves general  nutrition.  Two-ounce  doses,  given  twice 
daily,  usually  benefit  delicate  horses,  thriving  badly  after 
strangles  and  influenza.  '  In  chronic  catarrh  and  bron- 
chitis, it  appears  to  furnish  suitable  material  for  the  forma- 
tion of  mucous  cells  and  the  repair  of  the  inflamed  mucous 
membrane '  (Brunton).  Like  other  oils,  it  materially 
relieves  horses  suffering  from  broken  wind.  It  helps 
recovery  of  cattle  reduced  by  diarrhoea,  anaemia,  or  rheu- 
matism, but  for  many  such  cases  in  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep, 


LARD  679 

linseed  or  linseed  cake  is  preferred.  For  dogs  and  cats 
it  is  useful  in  protracted  cases  of  distemper,  eczema,  and 
other  inveterate  skin  diseases  ;  in  epilepsy,  chorea,  rickets, 
and  in  chronic  rheumatism,  especially  that  variety  known 
as  kennel  lameness,  and  depending  upon  bad  feeding,  faulty 
nutrition,  and  damp  quarters. 

DOSES,  etc. — Horses  take  fgij.  ;  cattle,  fgij.  to  fgiv.  ; 
sheep,  about  f  §j.  ;  pigs,  f3iv-  to  f  §i.  ;  dogs,  f3i-  to  i^iv.  ; 
cats,  about  f3i.  The  doses  may  be  repeated  twice  daily, 
and  persevered  with,  if  required,  for  weeks  ;  but  if  diarrhoea 
result,  they  must  be  reduced  or  discontinued  for  a  day  or 
two.  To  remove  disagreeable  flavour,  and  prevent  nausea 
or  vomiting,  it  is  given  mixed  with  eggs  in  milk,  as  an 
emulsion  with  mucilage,  or  in  gruel,  conjoined  with  some 
aromatic,  malt  extract,  or  with  ether,  and  is  best  digested 
along  with  or  immediately  after  other  food. 


LARD 

ADEPS.     ADEPS  PBEPARATUS.     Axunge.     The  purified  fat 
of  the  hog — Sus  Scrofa. 

To  prepare  purified  lard,  the  fat  from  the  hog's  internal 
organs  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  triturated  in  a  stone  mortar, 
washed  with  cold  water,  drained,  melted  over  a  slow  fire, 
strained  through  flannel  or  coarse  cheese-cloth  ;  is  kept 
stirred  in  a  steam-heated  pan  at  about  130°  Fahr.  until 
it  is  clear  and  free  from  water,  strained  again  through 
flannel,  and  preserved  in  casks,  pots,  or  bladders.  When 
pure,  it  is  white  or  yellowish-white,  granular,  neutral  to 
litmus  without  rancid  odour,  but  with  a  sweet  taste.  It 
melts  at  about  100°  Fahr.,  forming  a  clear,  transparent 
fluid,  which  is  a  good  solvent  for  wax  and  resin,  and  when 
boiled  with  alkalies  forms  soaps.  Like  other  fats  and  oils, 
lard  is  insoluble  in  water,  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  but 
perfectly  soluble  in  ether.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it  becomes 
rancid,  and  in  this  state  is  unfit  for  emollient  purposes. 
It  contains  about  62  per  cent,  of  olein  and  38  of  palmitin 
and  stearin.  Distilled  water,  in  which  purified  lard  has 
been  boiled,  when  cooled  and  filtered,  gives  no  precipitate 


680  LARD    AND    ANIMAL   FATS 

with  silver  nitrate,  indicating  absence  of  common  salt ; 
and  no  blue  coloration  with  iodine  solution,  proving  freedom 
from  starch,  of  which  about  20  per  cent,  is  found  in  some 
inferior  samples  ;  10  per  cent,  of  water  is  sometimes  in- 
corporated ;  alum  and  lime  are  occasionally  added  to  secure 
whiteness  and  increase  weight ;  while  many  brands  of 
American  lard  are  largely  mixed  with  cotton-seed  oil. 

Benzoated  lard,  preferable  on  account  of  its  agreeable 
odour  and  diminished  liability  to  rancidity,  is  made  by 
melting  one  pound  of  purified  lard  over  a  water-bath, 
stirring  in  two  hundred  and  ten  grains  of  benzoin  and  after- 
wards straining.  Suet — the  fat  around  the  kidneys  of 
sheep  or  oxen — differs  from  lard  chiefly  in  being  firmer, 
harder,  and  more  difficult  to  melt.  Horse  fat  is  more  easily 
melted,  but  firmer  than  that  of  swine.  Goose  grease,  much 
used  as  a  popular  remedy  for  sprains  and  bruises,  is  more 
fluid,  from  its  greater  percentage  of  olein. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Fats  and  mild  fixed  oils,  when  given 
without  other  food,  are  inadequate  to  support  life  ;  thus, 
dogs,  receiving  only  butter  and  olive  oil,  with  distilled  water 
to  drink,  died  in  about  thirty-six  days.  In  a  well-regulated 
system  of  diet,  fats  serve,  however,  important  purposes  ; 
along  with  albuminoids  they  form  cells  ;  they  build  up  the 
nervous  structures,  so  largely  composed  of  fatty  matters  ; 
are  consumed  in  the  body  for  the  evolution  of  nervous, 
muscular,  or  digestive  force,  and  for  the  support  of  animal 
heat,  or,  if  in  excess  of  these  constant  requirements,  are 
stored  away,  investing  and  protecting  internal  organs. 
Fats  are  emulsified  by  the  alkaline  intestinal  secretions, 
more  thoroughly  dissolved  by  the  bile,  and  absorbed  mainly 
through  the  lac  teals.  Although  small  doses  are  easily 
assimilated,  large  quantities  disorder  digestion  and  cause 
diarrhoea. 

Hog's  lard  is  occasionally  used  as  an  internal  demulcent, 
as  an  antidote  for  poisoning  with  alkalies,  and  as  a  laxative 
clyster.  It  is  applied  as  a  lubricant  in  exploration  of  the 
rectum  or  uterus,  and  in  cases  of  difficult  parturition.  In 
reducing  enlarged  joints  or  bursse  by  vigorous  rubbing, 
the  hand  is  occasionally  moistened  with  lard  to  prevent 
undue  skin  irritation.  When  the  skin  is  congested,  inflamed, 


ADRENALIN  681 

thickened,  or  indurated,  the  sebaceous  and  sudoriparous 
glands  being  impaired,  the  application  of  bland  oil,  lard,  or 
vaseline  usefully  replaces  the  deficient  natural  oil,  and 
protects  abraded  surfaces  from  the  action  of  air  or  of  acrid 
discharges.  Most  animal  and  vegetable  fats,  freely  used, 
and  remaining  long  in  contact  with  the  warm  skin,  oxidise 
and  become  rancid  and  irritating.  Such  results  are  retarded 
by  addition  of  a  little  benzoin,  and  are  obviated  by  the 
substitution  of  the  mineral  vaseline.  Lard  is  occasionally 
employed  as  a  dressing  in  mange  and  scab,  but  is  ineffectual 
in  destroying  the  acari. 

Adeps  Lanse  or  wool-fat,  the  purified  cholesterin-fat  of 
sheep's  wool ;  and  Adeps  Lanae  Hydrosus,  hydrous  wool- 
fat  or  '  Lanoline,'  promote  the  absorption  of  remedies 
applied  to  the  skin.  The  official  hydrous  wool-fat  is  pre- 
pared by  melting  seven  ounces  of  wool-fat  and  adding  three 
ounces  of  distilled  water.  It  is  stable,  unirritating,  not 
rancid,  and  accordingly  makes  a  good  protecting  lubricant. 
It  mixes  readily  with  other  fats  and  oils,  with  starch, 
bismuth,  zinc  oxide,  creolin,  iodine,  salicylic  acid  and  many 
other  antiseptics,  and  more  water  may  be  added  without 
affecting  its  use  as  a  basis  for  ointments  and  liniments. 
For  stock  ointments  a  good  combination  consists  of  sixty- 
five  parts  hydrous  wool-fat,  thirty  of  liquid  paraffin,  and 
five  of  ceresin  (hard  white  paraffin).  Adeps  Induratus,  or 
lard  deprived  of  a  portion  of  its  oil  by  pressure,  is  employed 
as  a  substitute  for  ordinary  lard  in  hot  climates  (B.P.). 


ADRENALIN 

ADRENALIN  (C9H13N03)  is  the  active  principle  discovered 
by  Takamine  in  the  medulla  of  the  suprarenal  gland. 
SUPRARENIN,  a  synthetic  preparation  having  similar 
properties  to  the  animal  product  is  also  employed  in 
medicine. 

Adrenalin  occurs  as  a  white  crystalline  powder,  with  a 
faintly  bitter  taste  ;  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether  ;  slightly 
soluble  in  cold  water,  more  soluble  in  hot  water,  and  readily 
dissolved  by  dilute  acids.  It  is  very  stable  in  the  dry  state, 


682  ADRENALIN 

and  keeps  well  in  weak  acidulated  solution,  but  neutral 
solutions  slowly  undergo  alteration.  Adrenalin  chloride 
solution  (1 : 1000),  containing  one  part  adrenalin  chloride  and 
five  parts  chloretone  in  a  thousand  parts  of  normal  salt 
solution,  is  generally  used  in  veterinary  practice.  This 
preparation  should  be  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles,  in  a 
cool,  dry  place,  as  exposure  to  air  and  light,  by  inducing 
oxidation,  gradually  destroys  its  value. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Solution  of  adrenalin  chloride  has 
little  or  no  action  on  the  unbroken  skin.  When  applied 
to  abraded  surfaces  or  mucous  membranes,  or  when  injected 
subcutaneously,  it  causes  local  constriction  of  the  arterioles 
and  capillaries,  with  the  result  that  the  part  becomes  pale 
and  bloodless. 

Internally,  when  injected  intravenously,  even  in  minute 
doses,  it  causes  a  general  constriction  of  the  smaller  blood- 
vessels throughout  the  body,  with  the  exception  of  those 
of  the  lungs  and  brain.  This  action  is  believed  to  be  due 
partly  to  the  excitation  of  the  sympathetic  nerves  of  the 
part,  and  partly  to  direct  action  on  the  muscle  fibres  in  the 
walls  of  the  vessels.  Adrenalin  also  slows  and  strengthens 
the  heart's  action,  and  causes  an  extremely  rapid  rise  of 
blood-pressure,  much  in  the  same  way  as  does  digitalis. 
This  rise  of  blood-pressure  is  chiefly  due  to  the  action  of 
the  drug  in  stimulating  the  sympathetic  vaso-constrictor 
nerves,  in  constricting  the  muscular  coats  of  the  peripheral 
arterioles,  and  to  its  tonic  effects  on  the  heart  muscle, 
strengthening  the  systole.  A  very  small  amount  injected 
intravenously  will  increase  the  blood-pressure  immediately, 
but  its  action  is  very  transient,  and  the  dose  requires  to 
be  repeated  at  short  intervals.  On  the  other  hand,  little 
or  no  systemic  effect  is  to  be  expected  from  its  administra- 
tion orally  or  per  rectum,  as  it  becomes  quickly  oxidised 
in  the  tissues.  Besides  its  effects  on  the  circulatory  appar- 
atus, adrenalin  affects  several  other  forms  of  involuntary 
(unstriated)  muscle.  Thus,  intestinal  and  stomach  move- 
ments are  inhibited,  whilst  the  ureters,  vesiculse  seminales, 
uterus  and  vagina  all  show  contractions.  Again,  the  pupil 
of  the  eye  is  dilated,  the  membrana  nictitans  is  retracted, 
and  the  eyeball  protruded.  All  these  effects  can  be  ob- 


MEDICINAL   USES  683 

tained  experimentally  by  stimulation  of  sympathetic  nerves, 
and  it  is  by  such  a  stimulation  that  the  action  of  adrenalin 
can  be  best  explained.  Even  its  action  on  the  heart  is 
in  line  with  this  theory,  for  although  it  slows  the  heart 
when  given  intravenously,  this  is  due  to  the  rapid  rise  of 
blood-pressure.  In  an  isolated  heart,  or  with  divided  vagi, 
the  first  effect  of  adrenalin  is  to  quicken  the  heart  by 
sympathetic  stimulation. 

TOXIC  EFFECTS. — Excessive  doses  cause  vomiting  in  dogs, 
muscular  tremors,  rapid  breathing,  paralysis  of  hind  ex- 
tremities, dyspnoea,  with  failing  respiration,  congestion, 
with  visceral  oedema  and  haemorrhage,  and  serous  effusion. 

MEDICINAL  USES. — In  veterinary  practice  adrenalin, 
though  sometimes  administered  in  systemic  disease,  is 
mainly  employed  as  a  local  haemostatic  in  minor  opera- 
tions. Injected  hypodermically,  it  renders  the  part  ischaemic 
and  the  operation  comparatively  bloodless.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  it  will  not  constrict  the  larger 
vessels,  but,  by  the  absence  of  blood,  these  are  more  easily 
detected  and  ligatured,  before  being  severed.  For  surgical 
purposes  adrenalin  is  usually  combined  with  a  local  anaes- 
thetic such  as  cocaine,  eucaine,  or  stovaine.  Adrenalin 
intensifies  the  action  of  the  anaesthetic  and  limits  its  toxic 
effects,  for  by  constricting  the  arterioles  of  the  part,  the 
entrance  of  the  anaesthetic  into  the  general  circulation  is 
retarded  or  prevented,  and  its  physiological  action  localised 
and  concentrated. 

In  red- water  in  cattle  and  haemoglobinuria  in  horses,  Zehl 
has  obtained  successful  results  from  the  use  of  a  1 : 10,000 
solution,  in  doses  of  five  to  eight  fluid  drachms  injected 
hypodermically.  He  has  also  found  this  solution  beneficial 
in  laminitis,  in  which  he  injected  80  minims  inside  and  out- 
side each  fore  fetlock.  In  haemoglobinuria,  Budd  gave  one 
drachm  of  adrenalin  chloride  solution  (1:1000)  in  three  ounces 
of  water,  and  repeated  this  dose  every  three  hours  ;  recovery 
followed.  Its  use  has  been  suggested  in  purpura  haemor- 
rhagica  to  diminish  extravasation.  Adrenalin  is  of  un- 
doubted value  as  a  haemostatic  in  haemorrhage,  but  it  must 
be  brought  in  contact  with  the  bleeding  part.  It  is  indicated 
in  bleeding  from  the  nose,  stomach,  bowels,  uterus,  vagina, 


684  GELATIN 

urethra,  etc.  In  conjunctivitis,  iritis,  and  other  inflam- 
matory conditions  of  the  eye,  solution  of  adrenalin  chloride 
( 1 : 10,000)  is  very  beneficial  in  controlling  congestion,  reducing 
tension  and  relieving  photophobia.  In  laryngitis,  especially 
in  the  dog,  adrenalin  solution,  applied  as  a  fine  spray, 
relieves  the  congestion  and  diminishes  oadema  and  irritation. 
In  cases  of  shock  and  collapse,  intravenous  injections 
should  be  used.  For  this  purpose  moderate  doses  of  adrenalin 
chloride  solution  (1  :  1000),  diluted  with  at  least  twenty 
volumes  of  normal  salt  solution  (pure  sodium  chloride 
grs.  80  in  20  ounces  of  boiled  water),  may  be  injected  re- 
peatedly at  short  intervals.  Crile  observed  that  adrenalin 
acted  upon  the  blood-vessels  after  the  circulation  had  ceased, 
and  after  experimentally  asphyxiating  an  animal,  practised 
artificial  respiration,  and  at  the  same  time  administered 
adrenalin  in  saline  solution  into  the  jugular  vein.  By  this 
method  animals  apparently  dead,  for  various  periods  up 
to  fifteen  minutes,  were  restored  to  conscious  life.  Adrenalin 
injected  intravenously  into  the  femoral  or  other  superficial 
vein  should  be  valuable  in  chloroform  intoxication,  and  in 
cases  of  sudden  heart  failure,  and  collapse  from  shock. 

DOSES,  etc. — Adrenalin  chloride  solution  (1  :  1000)  by  the 
mouth,  horses  and  cattle,  3J-  to  3JV-  5  dogs,  Tf\v.  to  Tl\lx.  ; 
cats,  ll\i.  to  Tf\v.  Hypodermieally,  half  the  above  doses 
may  be  given.  Intravenously  (1 : 10,000  solution),  horses  and 
cattle,  ll\xv.  to  fl\xxx.  ;  dogs,  ll\ij.  to  H\viii.  These  doses 
may  be  increased  in  certain  cases,  but  as  the  maximum 
doses,  which  may  be  administered  without  danger  to  the 
domestic  animals,  are  undetermined,  caution  should  be 
exercised  in  prescribing  adrenalin. 


GELATIN 

GELATINUM. — The  air-dried  product  of  the  action  of  boiling 
water  on  such  animal  tissues  as  skin,  tendons,  ligaments, 
and  bones  (B.P.). 

Gelatin  is  made  from  damaged  hides  and  skins,  and  their 
parings  ;  also  from  bones,  limed,  cleaned,  and  boiled,  to 
remove  fatty  matters,  and  then  crushed  and  steamed  in  a 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  685 

partial  vacuum.  Glue,  a  coarse  variety  of  gelatin,  is  made 
from  similar  materials,  less  carefully  purified  ;  size  is  an 
inferior,  weaker  variety  of  glue  ;  isinglass,  a  natural  colour- 
less gelatin,  is  prepared  from  the  air-bladder  of  the  sturgeon, 
and  various  species  of  Acipenser  ;  ehondrin  is  the  gelatinous 
matter  extracted  from  cartilage  ;  ossein,  the  title  given  to 
that  obtained  from  bones.  Gelatin,  when  dried,  is  hard  and 
tough  ;  varies  in  colour  according  to  its  purity  ;  forms  a 
viscid,  tremulous  mass,  even  when  one  per  cent,  is  dissolved 
in  water  and  allowed  to  cool ;  and  is  precipitated  from 
watery  solutions  by  tannic  acid.  Gelatin  is  insoluble  in 
alcohol,  and  ether.  It  dissolves  in  acetic  acid. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES.— Gelatin,  although  a  product  of  the 
disintegration  of  albuminoid  tissues,  does  not  build  up  the 
albuminoid  or  even  the  gelatinous  tissues ;  but  being 
tolerably  easily  digested,  it  appears  to  economise  the  more 
valuable  albuminoids.  Men,  dogs,  and  even  horses,  re- 
covering from  exhausting  diseases,  in  which  disintegration 
and  excretion  of  proteids  is  great,  exhibit  the  dietetic 
value  of  gelatin  when  it  is  given  as  soup,  with  fats  or 
carbo-hydrates.  As  a  demulcent  it  has  the  disadvantage  of 
becoming  hard  and  dry,  and  hence  is  not  very  suitable  as 
a  permanent  sheathing  for  irritable  surfaces.  Gelatinised 
serum,  consisting  of  fifty  parts  sterilised  gelatin,  ten  parts 
calcium  chloride,  and  a  thousand  parts  of  water,  is  used  as  a 
local  haemostatic  ;  and  for  internal  haemorrhage  a  solution 
of  eighty  grains  white  gelatin,  in  seven  to  nine  ounces  of 
sterilised  sodium  chloride  solution  (7  per  1000),  may  be  em- 
ployed hypodermically  in  doses  of  §ij.  to  gviij.  for  horses  ; 
and  3ij-  to  §j.  for  dogs. 

Glue,  mixed  with  an  antiseptic,  is  employed  for  securing 
the  broken  horns  of  cattle,  and  occasionally  for  making 
adhesive  plasters.  For  closing  wounds,  where  sutures 
cannot  be  used,  two  pieces  of  stout  cloth  are  cut  so  as  to 
leave  a  number  of  tails  with  uncut  margins  of  several  inches, 
and  are  smeared  with  melted  glue,  usually  mixed  with  pitch, 
and  applied,  one  on  either  side  of  the  wound,  with  the  uncut 
margins  towards  each  other.  When  the  plaster  is  dry, 
the  uncut  margins  are  sewed  together,  while,  to  prevent 
displacement  from  movement  of  the  skin,  narrow  strips  of 


GLYCERIN 

calico  moistened  with  glue  are  applied  in  various  directions 
over  the  injured  spot.  Such  plasters  are  sometimes  useful 
in  keeping  sutured  wounds  in  position,  giving  support,  and 
preventing  annoyance  by  flies.  They  are  sometimes  effectual 
in  the  treatment  of  umbilical  hernia  in  calves  and  foals. 

Gelatin  solutions  make  useful  temporary  protectives  for 
limited  abraded  surfaces  ;  hold  well  for  a  day  or  more  if 
applied  dry  ;  are  readily  washed  off  with  hot  water,  without 
irritating  the  skin,  and  can  be  medicated  with  antiseptics, 
stimulants,  or  analgesics.  Prick's  wound  gelatin  is  made 
with  gelatin  soaked  in  sufficient  one  per  cent,  sublimate 
solution  to  cover  it ;  after  it  has  become  soft  it  is  dissolved 
by  heat,  and  glycerin  equal  in  quantity  to  the  tenth  part 
of  the  dry  gelatin  is  added.  It  is  warmed  before  use  and 
applied  with  a  brush  or  a  pledget  of  cotton.  The  familiar 
court  sticking  plaster  consists  of  a  strong  solution  of  isinglass 
painted  over  thin  silk.  In  pharmacy  gelatin  is  used  for 
clarifying  or  fining  ;  as  a  neat  and  cleanly  capsule  for  pills 
and  boluses  ;  and  along  with  glycerin  forms  lamellae  or 
thin  discs  for  enveloping  the  alkaloids  and  other  active 
principles  used  for  eye  cases  and  hypodermic  injections. 


GLYCERIN 

GLYCERINUM,  or  Glycerol,  is  a  trihydric  alcohol,  C3H5(OH)3, 
associated  with  a  small  percentage  of  water  ;  it  is 
obtained  by  the  interaction  of  alkalies,  or  of  superheated 

t        steam,  with  fats  and  fixed  oils  (B.P.). 

Glycerin  was  discovered  in  1789,  by  Scheele,  as  a  product 
in  the  manufacture  of  lead  plaster  ;  it  occurs  in  small 
amount  during  the  fermentation  of  sugar,  and  as  a  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  stearin  candles. 

PROPERTIES. — It  is  a  clear,  colourless,  syrupy  liquid, 
devoid  of  odour,  sweet  to  the  taste,  oily  to  the  touch,  with 
a  specific  gravity  of  1*260.  It  has  a  strong  affinity  for 
water,  and  is  freely  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  Insoluble 
in  ether,  chloroform,  and  fixed  oils.  It  dissolves  most 
substances  which  are  soluble  in  water,  as  well  as  metallic 
oxides,  and  alkaloids.  It  burns  with  a  luminous  flame3 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  687 

giving  off  irritating  vapours  of  acrolein.  Cautiously  added 
to  a  mixture  of  equal  measures  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids 
it  produces  nitro-glycerin — C3H5(N03)3. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Glycerin  undiluted  irritates  the 
mucous  membranes,  and  even  the  skin  by  abstracting 
water.  Hence  its  laxative  effect,  whether  when  swallowed 
or  used  as  an  enema.  Dogs  are  purged  by  1 J  ounces.  Large 
doses  are  toxic  in  animals,  causing  restlessness,  quickened 
pulse,  and  respiration,  and  later  tremors  and  convulsions, 
ending  in  coma  and  death  by  paralysis  of  respiration. 
They  break  down  the  red  globules  and  cause  haemoglobinuria. 
especially  if  injected  subcutaneously.  Externally,  it  is 
antiseptic,  and  destroys  fleas  and  other  skin  parasites. 
Mixed  with  water,  starch,  or  other  bland  materials,  it  is 
demulcent  and  emollient.  It  is  the  basis  of  the  emollient, 
antiseptic,  and  astringent  group  of  glycerina.  It  is  a 
solvent  for  fixed  alkalies,  for  alkaloids  and  their  salts, 
vegetable  acids,  iodine,  bromine,  salicin,  etc.,  a  frequent 
constituent  of  ointments  and  lotions,  and  a  convenient  men- 
struum for  the  administration  of  nauseous  medicines. 

It  is  absorbed  fairly  rapidly  from  the  intestine  and  is 
oxidised  in  the  tissues,  but  is  of  little  value  as  a  nutrient. 
Small  doses  are  eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  larger  by  the 
bowels,  producing  slight  laxative  effects,  increased  by  com- 
bination with  castor  oil.  As  a  laxative  enema  it  is  not  more 
effectual  than  oil,  or  soap  and  water  ;  indeed,  Friedberger 
states  that  it  has  no  effect  on  dogs.  Given  shortly  before 
meals  it  has  been  prescribed  to  check  undue  gastric  fermen- 
tation, acidity,  and  flatulence,  both  in  calves  and  dogs. 
It  neither  evaporates,  nor  becomes  rancid,  and  is  readily 
miscible  with  water,  spirit,  oils,  and  other  drugs,  forming 
with  them  emollient,  antiseptic,  or  astringent  dressings,  used 
to  soften,  supple,  or  soothe  dry,  rough,  scurfy,  or  irritated 
skin  surfaces.  It  is  the  basis  of  many  applications  for 
blisters  and  burns,  for  cracked  heels,  and  various  forms 
and  stages  of  eczema.  Doses, — horses  and  cattle,  §j.  to 
gij.  ;  dogs,  3ss.  to  3j. 

Glycerin  of  starch  is  made  by  stirring  and  heating  gently 
one  of  starch,  one  and  a  half  of  water,  and  six  and  a  half  of 
glycerin,  and  is  used  for  aphthous  and  other  eruptions  about 


688  SOAPS 

the  mouth,  nostrils  and  udder,  and  as  a  soothing  dressing 
for  erythema  and  the  early  weeping  stages  of  eczema, 
especially  in  dogs.  The  glyeerina  of  carbolic  and  tannic 
acids  are  prepared  with  one  part  of  the  acid  and  five  of 
glycerin.  Glycerin  of  alum  is  made  with  one  of  alum,  three 
of  distilled  water,  and  six  of  glycerin.  Similar  antiseptic 
and  astringent  preparations  are  made  with  glycerin  and 
borax,  and  also  with  glycerin  and  acetate  and  oxide  of  lead, 
and  water  to  effect  thorough  solution.  A  handy  antiseptic 
and  astringent  application  is  extemporised  by  mixing  equal 
parts  of  glycerin  and  Goulard's  Extract.  It  is  diluted  as 
required,  and  used  for  erythematous  and  eczematous  con- 
ditions of  the  skin.  Boro-glyeeride,  prepared  by  heating 
ninety-two  parts  glycerin  and  sixty-two  boric  acid,  and  used 
diluted  with  twenty  to  forty  parts  water,  is  an  effectual 
non-poisonous  antiseptic,  useful  for  relaxed  conditions  of 
the  throat,  as  a  dressing  for  wounds,  for  the  preservation  of 
food,  and  as  a  vehicle  for  applying  carbolic  acid,  iodine, 
iodoform,  and  belladonna. 

For  various  itching,  erythematous,  and  eczematous 
diseases,  a  soothing,  drying  protective  is  prepared  by  mixing, 
with  the  aid  of  gentle  heat,  three  parts  each  of  glycerin, 
gelatin,  and  water,  with  one  of  zinc  oxide  ;  and  with  such  a 
mixture  may  be  incorporated,  as  required,  creosote,  carbolic 
acid,  resorcin,  naphthol,  or  dermatol. 


SOAPS 

SODIUM  OR  HARD  SOAP.     Sapo  durus.     Sodium  Oleate. 
POTASSIUM  OR  SOFT  SOAP.     Sapo  mollis.     Potassium  Oleate. 
CURD  SOAP.     Sapo  animalis.     Sodium  Stearate,  with  about 
30  per  cent,  of  water.     (B.P.) 

Soaps  consist  of  alkali  salts  of  higher  fatty  acids.  Hard 
soaps  are  made  by  boiling  palm  or  cocoanut  oil  or  tallow 
with  sodium  hydroxide  or  carbonate,  when  the  alkali  unites 
with  the  fatty  acids,  displacing  the  basic  glyceryl.  Common 
salt  added  to  the  gelatinous  boiling  ley  separates  the  soap 
in  flakes,  which  are  collected,  run  into  moulds,  and  dried. 
Such  soaps  are  a  mixture  of  sodium  stearate,  with  about 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  689 

one-third  of  oleate,  and  thirty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  water. 
To  make  yellow  soap,  the  ley,  while  being  concentrated, 
is  treated  with  considerable  quantities  of  resin.  Many 
soaps  are  now  made  with  a  large  percentage  of  silicates. 
Mottled  and  marbled  soaps  owe  their  colour  to  the  presence 
of  a  little  iron.  Glycerin  soap,  prepared  by  heating  the  soap 
ley  with  water  for  two  or  three  hours  at  400°  Fahr.,  contains 
a  mixture  of  soap  and  glycerin.  The  costly  Castile  and  some 
Pharmacopoeia  soaps  are  made  with  purified  animal  fat, 
or  olive  oil,  and  sodium  or  potassium  hydroxide.  Soft  or 
potash  soaps  are  made  by  boiling  seal  or  whale  oil  with 
potassium  hydroxide  or  carbonate,  and  gradually  evaporat- 
ing to  the  required  consistence.  Soaps  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses are  now  made  superfatted,  neutral,  or  alkaline,  in 
cake  and  powder,  with  admixture  of  carbolic  acid,  creolin, 
resorcin,  sulphur,  menthol,  eucalyptus,  balsams,  camphor, 
sanitas,  etc. 

Soaps  have  an  alkaline,  acrid  taste,  dissolve  readily  in 
water  and  spirit,  but  should  not  impart  an  oily  stain  to 
paper.  When  heated,  they  fuse,  swell  up,  and  leave 
charcoal  and  carbonate  of  their  alkali.  Calcium  and 
magnesium  salts,  such  as  occur  in  hard  waters,  decompose 
soap ;  the  fatty  acids  form  insoluble  flakes  of  stearate  and 
oleate  of  calcium  and  magnesium  ;  soap  is  hence  used  as  a 
test  for  the  hardness  of  water. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Soaps  contain  some  free  alkali,  and 
hence  are  slightly  irritant.  They  are  mildly  laxative, 
diuretic,  emetic,  and  antacid.  They  form  convenient 
adjuncts  to  more  active  laxatives  or  diuretics,  and  are 
serviceable  additions  to  laxative  clysters.  Externally, 
they  are  used  as  stimulants,  detergents,  and  lubricants, 
and  in  pharmacy  as  excipients. 

Soap  and  warm  water  are  in  everyday  use  for  cleansing 
the  skin,  removing  scurf,  neutralising  acrid  fatty  matters, 
keeping  open  the  orifices  of  sebaceous  glands,  promoting 
growth  of  hair,  as  well  as  preparing  the  skin  for  operations, 
blisters,  and  parasiticides.  When  erythema  is  produced 
by  badly-fitting  harness  or  other  causes,  irritation  is  abated 
by  rubbing  the  parts  with  a  neutral  soap,  and  subsequently 
dressing  with  vaseline,  or  sugar  of  lead  lotion,  or  with 

2x 


690  KERATIN 

'  Sanitas  '  or  other  soothing  antiseptic  powder.  Gently 
rubbed  over  slight  burns  or  scalds,  soap  prevents  access 
of  air  and  relieves  irritation.  In  chronic  eczema,  soft 
soap,  from  its  lubricant  and  alkaline  properties,  is  often 
useful.  For  such  cases  a  convenient  dressing  is  made 
with  equal  parts  soft  soap  and  glycerin,  half  a  part  of 
zinc  oxide,  and  six  or  eight  parts  water.  For  eczema  and 
other  itching  skin  diseases,  M'Call  Anderson  prescribed 
equal  parts  of  soft  soap,  oil  of  cade,  and  rectified  spirit. 
As  a  stimulant  for  bruises  and  strains,  or  for  producing 
counter-irritation  in  sore-throat,  six  ounces  of  hard  soap, 
cut  into  small  pieces,  are  macerated  with  six  fluid  ounces 
of  dilute  liquor  ammonise  and  one  pint  each  of  alcohol 
(60  per  cent.),  and  linseed  oil ;  two  or  three  ounces  of 
camphor  are  sometimes  added.  Soap  and  water  is  much 
used  for  clysters.  As  internal  antacids,  soaps  are  less 
effectual  than  alkaline  carbonates  or  bicarbonates,  but  are 
occasionally  administered  in  poisoning  by  acids  and  metallic 
salts.  Soap  and  water  causes  emesis  in  dogs.  Soaps  are 
used  as  excipients  for  boluses,  and  as  constituents  of  lini- 
ments and  plasters. 

KERATIN 

A  mucilaginous  solution  which,  when  dry,  is  a  yellow  gum- 
like  substance,  insoluble  in  gastric  juice,  but  soluble 
in  the  intestinal  juices,  and  used  for  coating  boluses 
or  pills  which  are  required  to  pass  through  the 
stomach  unchanged,  and  to  undergo  solution  in  the 
intestines. 

Keratin  is  prepared  by  digesting  horn-turnings  with  acidi- 
fied pepsin  solution,  so  long  as  they  yield  any  soluble 
matters.  The  residue  is  then  digested  in  solution  of  am- 
monia or  acetic  acid,  and  evaporated.  Keratin  requires 
to  be  redissolved  before  use.  The  ammonia  solution  is 
generally  used,  but  the  acetic  acid  solution  is  suitable  for 
those  drugs  which  might  be  decomposed  by  ammonia. 
The  medicines,  made  into  bolus  in  the  usual  way,  are 
generally  thinly  covered  with  cacao  butter,  and  then 


PEPSIN  691 

coated  twice  with  keratin.     This  method  of  dispensing  is 
useful — 

(1)  For  drugs  which  irritate  the  gastric  mucous  membrane 
— such  as  anthelmintics,  arsenic,  creosote,  salicylic  acid, 
phosphorus,  and  the  more  soluble  iron  salts. 

(2)  For   such    substances    as    impair    digestion   in    the 
stomach  by  precipitating  pepsin  and  peptones — e.g.,  tannic 
acid,  alum,  lead  acetate,  silver  nitrate,  corrosive  sublimate, 
etc. 

(3)  For  such  substances  as  are  rendered  inert  by  the 
gastric  juice,  or  are  undesirably  acted  upon  by  it — e.g., 
alkalies,  soaps,  bile,  silver  nitrate,  iodides,  intestinal  anti- 
septics, etc. 

(4)  For  medicines  which  it  is  desired  to  introduce  into 
the    bowel  in   as  concentrated    a   form   as  possible — e.g., 
kousso,  male  fern  extract,  santonin,  bile,  alkalies,  and  silver 
nitrate,  lead  acetate,  or  tannin,  when  their  local  action  is 
sought  to  be  applied  in  ulceration  or  haemorrhage  of  the 
intestines  (Brunton). 

On  pills  and  boluses  for  monogastric  animals,  a  coating 
of  fresh  mutton  fat  will  be  found  more  convenient  than 
keratin  solution,  and  quite  as  serviceable. 


PEPSIN 

PEPSINUM.  An  enzyme  obtained  from  the  mucous  lining 
of  the  fresh  and  healthy  stomach  of  the  pig,  sheep, 
or  calf.  It  should  dissolve  2500  times  its  weight  of 
hard-boiled  white  of  eggs  (B.P.). 

Pepsin  is  prepared  by  several  processes.  The  stomach  is 
digested  in  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the 
pepsin  thus  extracted  is  precipitated  by  sodium  chloride. 
More  commonly  the  mucous  surface  is  cleansed,  slightly 
washed,  the  surface  scraped  with  a  blunt  knife,  and  the 
viscid  pulp  thus  obtained  dried  at  a  temperature  not  ex- 
ceeding 100°  Fahr.  Pepsin  occurs  as  a  light  yellowish 
brown  or  white  powder  or  in  grains  or  scales,  having  a 
faint  odour  and  a  saline  taste.  Soluble  in  water  and  in 
100  parts  of  rectified  spirit. 


692  ICHTHYOL 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Pepsin  dissolves  proteids  and  con-j 
verts  them  into  peptones,  but  does  not  affect  fats  or  carbo- 
hydrates. Its  therapeutic  value  is  hence  limited  to  young 
herbivora  while  receiving  milk,  and  to  dogs  living  chiefly 
on  animal  food.  In  such  patients  it  is  given  along  with 
or  immediately  after  meals.  When  gastric  secretion  in 
the  domestic  animals  is  at  fault,  it  is  more  probably  from 
deficiency  of  the  acid  than  the  pepsin,  and  such  a  condition 
is  appropriately  treated  by  diluted  hydrochloric  acid, 
administered  with  or  after  meals. 

Pepsin  is  sometimes  used  to  dissolve  fatty  and  malignant 
tumours,  into  which  it  is  injected  mixed  with  a  few  drops 
of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  B.P.  Liquor  Panereatis,  con- 
taining the  digestive  principles  of  the  fresh  pancreas  of  the 
pig,  is  sometimes  given  instead  of  pepsin. 

DOSES,  etc. — Foals,  calves,  and  dogs  take  of  pepsin,  grs.  x. 
to  3J-j  usually  given  in  water  with  a  few  drops  of  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  pepsin  wines  and  essences  seldom  con- 
tain much  of  the  ferment.  The  glycerin  of  pepsin  contains 
five  grains  of  pepsin  in  each  drachm,  with  a  small  pro- 
portion of  hydrochloric  acid. 

Papain,  a  vegetable  pepsin,  is  obtained  from  the  unripe 
fruit  and  leaves  of  the  Papaw  (Carica  papaya),  a  plant 
found  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  It  is  a  tasteless, 
greyish- white  amorphous  powder ;  soluble  in  glycerin. 
While  the  animal  pepsin  acts  only  in  acid  solutions,  the 
vegetable  papain  is  equally  effectual  in  acid,  neutral,  and 
alkaline  solutions.  A  five  per  cent,  solution  is  stated  to 
dissolve  false  membranes,  and  a  ten  per  cent,  solution  has 
been  employed  to  destroy  small  malignant  growths.  Doses, 
foals,  calves,  and  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  xii. 

ICHTHYOL 

Ichthyol  (Ammoniumsulphoichthyolate)  is  a  reddish- 
brown,  tarry  liquid,  obtained  from  a  Tyrolese  bituminous 
shale — the  fossil  remains  of  decomposed  aquatic  animals, 
by  distillation,  and  by  treating  the  product  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  ammonia.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  glycerin,  alcohol, 
benzol,  and  fixed  oils.  Purified,  it  yields  a  clear  oil  with 


SPERMACETI  693 

a  strong  empyreumatic  smell.  It  is  antiseptic,  causes 
contraction  of  the  vessels  when  locally  applied,  and  is  a 
parasiticide.  Its  properties  ally  it  to  the  phenols.  It  has 
been  used  by  French  and  German  veterinarians  for  the 
destruction  of  the  parasites  of  scab  and  mange  ;  and  as  a 
stimulant  and  resolvent  for  swollen  joints,  strains,  and  con- 
tusions. For  such  purposes  one  part  is  dissolved  in  ten  of 
oil  or  lanoline,  and  rubbed  in  daily  for  several  days.  Ich- 
thyol  liniment  is  made  with  ten  parts  dissolved  in  thirty 
parts  each  of  alcohol,  ether,  and  distilled  water.  Thiol  is  a 
synthetic  preparation  of  hydrocarbons  obtained  in  a  similar 
manner  to  ichthyol,  for  which,  in  the  treatment  of  skin  dis- 
eases, it  is  sometimes  substituted.  Thiol  occurs  in  powder 
I  and  in  liquid,  and  is  employed  in  the  form  of  ointment  (con- 
taining 10  to  50  per  cent.),  and  of  dusting  powder  with 
starch  or  other  desiccant.  The  powder  is  soluble  in  water 
and  in  alcohol.  Tumenol  (sulphotumenolic  acid)  is  obtained 
from  mineral  oils  by  treating  the  unsaturated  hydrocarbons 
with  sulphuric  acid  and  sodium  chloride.  The  resulting 
i  tumenol-sulphonic  acid  on  being  further  treated  yields 
tumenol-sulphone  or  tumenol  oil,  from  which  is  prepared 
the  pharmaceutical  powder.  Tumenol  is  dark,  odourless, 
j  slightly  bitter,  and  soluble  in  water.  In  pruritus,  eczema, 
and  other  skin  diseases  it  is  employed  in  the  forms  of  oint- 
ment, dusting  powder,  and  lotion  (5  to  10  per  cent.).  The 
solution  may  be  made  with  water,  glycerin,  or  alcohol 
(Coblentz). 

SPERMACETI 

CETACETJM.  A  concrete,  fatty  substance  obtained,  mixed 
with  oil,  from  the  head  of  the  sperm  whale  (Physeter 
macro-cephalus).  It  is  separated  from  the  oil  by  filtra- 
tion and  pressure,  and  afterwards  purified  (B.P.). 

Spermaceti  is  found  in  the  cells  of  the  large  quadrangular 
head  of  the  sperm  whale,  which  inhabits  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  Oceans.  It  is  extracted  by  openings  made  through 
the  skull,  and  occasionally  by  boiling  the  cellular  and 
adipose  tissues.  When  purified,  it  is  a  translucent,  pearly- 
white,  crystalline  fat,  tasteless,  odourless,  tough,  and  diffi- 


694  WAX 

cult  to  powder,  unless  moistened  with  a  few  drops  of  recti- 
fied spirit.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  sparingly  soluble  in 
cold  alcohol,  readily  soluble  in  hot  alcohol,  chloroform, 
and  oils,  and  melts  at  114°  to  122°  Fahr.  With  a 
little  sperm  oil,  it  consists  of  cetyl  palmitate,  which,  unlike 
ordinary  fats,  is  saponified  with  some  difficulty,  does  not 
yield  glycerin,  but  forms,  when  heated  with  an  alkali, 
the  crystalline  cetyl  alcohol  (C16H33OH),  and  an  alkaline 
palmitate. 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — It  is  emollient  and  demulcent, 
resembles  wax,  is  rarely  given  internally,  but  is  used  for 
imparting  consistence  to  ointments  and  plasters. 


WAX 

CERA  FLAVA.     Yellow  Beeswax. 
CERA  ALBA.     White  Beeswax. 

Prepared  from  the  honeycomb  of  the  hive  bee,  Apis 
mellifica.  Order. — Hymenoptera. 

Beeswax  is  furnished  from  the  glands  on  the  ventral  scales 
of  the  bee.  After  removal  of  the  honey,  the  comb,  pressed, 
fused  in  boiling  water,  strained,  and  poured  into  moulds, 
constitutes  yellow  wax,  which  has  a  dull  yellow  colour,  a 
granular  fracture,  a  slightly  sweet  and  pleasant  taste  and 
odour  ;  it  should  be  free  from  greasiness  ;  it  is  insoluble 
in  alcohol,  but  entirely  soluble  in  oil  of  turpentine.  White 
wax  is  made  by  melting  yellow  wax  with  steam,  straining, 
and  decolorising  it  by  exposure  in  thin  ribbons  to  air  and 
sunshine,  or  by  boiling  with  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphuric 
acid. 

Wax  has  the  specific  gravity  '960  to  *965,  is  tough  and 
solid,  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  fixed  and  volatile  oils, 
melts  at  about  145°  Fahr.,  and  readily  unites  with  fat  and 
resins.  It  consists  of  nearly  two-thirds  of  eerin,  an  im- 
perfectly saponifiable  waxy  substance  ;  about  one-third 
of  myriein  or  myricyl  palmitate,  a  body  analogous  to 
spermaceti,  and  about  5  per  cent,  of  cerolein,  a  soft  acid 
fat.  Chinese  wax  is  the  product  of  an  insect  of  the  cochineal 
tribe.  Wax  is  also  produced  by  several  plants. 


MALLEIN  695 

ACTIONS  AND  USES. — Wax,  although  allied  to  the  fats,  is 
much  more  difficult  of  digestion,  less  nutritive,  and  less 
demulcent  and  emollient.  In  medicine,  its  chief  use  is  to 
increase  the  consistence  and  prevent  rancidity  of  ointments, 
cerates,  and  plasters.  Yellow  wax,  mixed  with  hogs'  lard, 
or  any  of  the  bland  fixed  oils,  is  much  used  for  investing 
abraded  or  irritable  surfaces,  protecting  the  sound  skin 
from  acrid  discharges,  and  preventing  corrosives  or  blisters 
extending  their  effects  beyond  the  parts  to  which  their 
action  is  to  be  limited.  Unguentum  simplex  is  usually 
made  with  one  part  of  yellow  wax  to  four  of  prepared  lard, 
or  one  part  of  wax  to  one  and  a  half  each  of  almond  oil 
and  benzoated  lard. 


MALLEIN 

Mallein  employed  for  the  diagnosis  of  glanders  in  animals, 
is  the  sterilised  and  filtered  liquid-culture  of  glanders 
bacilli.  Mallein  therefore  does  not  contain  even  dead 
bacilli,  but  it  has  in  solution  certain  substances  which  are 
added  to  the  liquid  by  the  bacilli  during  their  growth 
(Sir  John  M'Fadyean). 

Directions  for  using  Mallein,  as  prepared  and  supplied  by 
the  Royal  Veterinary  College,  London  : —  • 

1.  While  under  the  uiallein  test  horses  ought  to  be  left  at  rest  in  the 
stable  and  protected  from  draughts.     The  rectal  temperature  ought  to  be 
taken  once  or  twice  on  the  day  before  the  test  is  applied. 

2.  The  dose  of  mallein  for  a  horse  is  one  cubic  centimetre,  or  18  minims. 
It  ought  to  be  injected  about  the  middle  of  the  side  of  the  neck,  with  a 
clean  hypodermic  syringe.     The  best  form  of  syringe  is  one  with  an  asbestos 
piston,  as  the  whole  instrument  may  then  be  sterilised  by  boiling  it  in 
water  for  five  minutes  before  use. 

3.  The  mallein  must  be  injected  into  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue, 
and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  whole  dose  is  actually  introduced. 

4.  The  temperature  must  be  taken  at  the  time  of  injection,  and  at  the 
9th,  12th,  and  15th  hours  afterwards. 

5.  Provided  the  temperature  was  normal  (under  101°  F.)  before  the  in- 
jection, it  will  rise  2°  or  more  (103°-105°)  during  the  next  fifteen  hours  if 
the  horse  is  glandered,  but  it  will  remain  practically  unaffected  (under  102°) 
if  the  horse  is  not  glandered. 

6.  Attention  must  also  be  paid  to  the  swelling  that  forms  at  the  seat  of 
injection.     When  the  horse  is  glandered  this  goes  on  increasing  in  size 
during  the  second  twenty-four  hours  after  the  injection,  and  it  seldom 
declines  before  the  third  or  fourth  day.     The  maximum  diameter  of  this 
swelling  in  glandered  horses  varies  from  5  to  10  inches. 


696  TUBERCULIN 

7.  In  horses  that  are  not  glandered  the  local  swelling  attains  its  maximum 
size  during  the  first  fifteen  hours,  and  by  the  twenty-fourth  hour  it  has 
almost  entirely  disappeared.     Its  maximum  diameter  is  usually  about  3 
or  4  inches. 

8.  When  the  temperature  gradually  rises  from  the  normal  to  104°  during 
the  first  fifteen  hours,  and  a  large  slowly  disappearing  swelling  forms  at  the 
seat  of  injection,  the  horse  may  confidently  be  declared  glandered. 

9.  If,  with  a  normal  temperature  at  the  time  of  injection,  a  horse  displays 
only  the  temperature  reaction,  or  only  the  local  reaction,  the  case  must  be 
considered  doubtful,  and  the  test  repeated  after  the  lapse  of  a  week. 

10.  When  the  temperature  is  102°  or  more,  at  the  time  of  injection,  the 
temperature  reaction  is  unreliable,  but  in  such  a  case  the  diagnosis  may  be 
based  on  the  characters  of  the  local  swelling. 

11.  The  mallein  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place,  and  protected  from 
light.     Should  it  lose  its  transparency,  or  become  cloudy,  it  must  not  be 
used. 


TUBERCULIN 

Tuberculin  employed  for  the  diagnosis  of  tuberculosis  in 
animals,  is  the  sterilised  and  filtered  liquid-culture  of 
tubercle  bacilli  (see  Mallein). 

Directions  for  using  tuberculin  as  prepared  and  supplied 
by  the  Royal  Veterinary  College,  London  :— 

1.  While  under  the  tuberculin  test  cattle  ought  to  be  kept  in  the  shed, 
fed  on  their  usual  food,  and  protected  from  draughts.     They  ought  not  to 
be  allowed  to  drink  large  quantities  of  cold  water  between  the  sixth  and 
fifteenth  hours  after  injection.      It  is  well  to  take  their  temperature  at 
least  once  on  the  day  preceding  the  test. 

2.  The  dose  of  tuberculin  for  a  medium-sized  cow  is  3  cubic  centimetres, 
or  50  minims,  and  it  may  be  varied  above  or  below  that  according  to  the 
size  of  the  animal.     Large  bulls  ought  to  receive  4  c.  c. 

3.  It  ought  to  be  injected  under  the  skin  with  a  clean  hypodermic  syringe. 
The  most  convenient  points  are  in  front  of  the  shoulder,  or  on  the  chest 
wall  behind  the  point  of  the  elbow.     The  best  form  of  syringe  is  one  with 
an  asbestos  piston,  as  the  whole  instrument  may  be  sterilised  by  boiling  it 
in  water  for  five  minutes  before  use. 

4.  The  tuberculin  must  be  injected  into  the  subcutaneous  connective 
tissue,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  whole  dose  is  introduced. 

5.  The  temperature  must  be  taken  at  the  time  of  injection,  and  at  the 
9th,  12th,  and  15th  hours  afterwards. 

6.  Animals  in  which  the  temperature  during  the  fifteen  hours  following 
the  injection  rises  gradually  to  104°  or  more  may  be  classed  as  tuberculous, 
and  those  in  which  it  remains  under  103°  as  not  tuberculous.     When  the 
maximum   temperature   attained  is   under  104°  but   over  103°  the   case 
must  be  considered  doubtful,  and  the  animal  may  be  re-tested  after  a 
month. 

7.  The  test  is  not  reliable  in  the  case  of  animals  in  the  last  stage  of  the 
disease,  or  in  those  in  which  the  temperature  is  over  103°  before  injection. 

8.  The  tuberculin  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place,  and  protected  from 
light.     Should  it  become  turbid  or  cloudy  it  must  not  be  used. 

9.  The  tuberculin  test  does  not  render  the  milk  in  any  way  injurious. 


BLACK    QUARTER   VACCINE  697 


BLACK    QUARTER   VACCINE 

Directions  for  using  Black  Quarter  Vaccine,  as  prepared 
and  supplied  by  the  Royal  Veterinary  College,  London  : — 

Two  vaccines  are  employed,  viz.,  1st  and  2nd. 
The  1st  vaccine  is  put  in  the  tubes  without  a  black  ring. 
The  2nd  vaccine  is  put  up  in  the  tubes  with  a  black  ring. 
Each  tube  contains  vaccine  sufficient  for  at  least  ten  animals. 
An  interval  of  eight  to  ten  days  ought  to  be  allowed  between  the  first 
and  the  second  vaccination. 

The  apparatus  necessary  for  the  operation  is  : — 

(1)  A  small  mortar  and  pestle. 

(2)  A  graduated  hypodermic  syringe  with  a  capacity  of  ten  c.c.    The 

needle  of  the  syringe  ought  to  be  about  as  thick  as  an  ordinary 
knitting  needle,  and  have  a  proportional  bore. 

(3)  A  small  pointed  trocar  or  exploring  needle,  which  ought  to  be 

a  little  thicker  than  the  needle  of  the  syringe. 

Mixing  of  the  vaccine. — Immerse  the  mortar  and  pestle  for  ten  minutes 
in  water  near  the  boiling  point ;  have  at  hand  a  quantity  of  water  recently 
boiled  and  allowed  to  cool.  Rinse  out  the  syringe  first  with  five  per  cent, 
carbolic  solution  (in  water),  and  then  two  or  three  times  with  boiled 
water. 

Drain  the  mortar  and  pestle  dry,  and  then  turn  into  the  former  the 
contents  of  one  of  the  small  tubes  (first  vaccine  for  ten  animals).  Fill  the 
syringe  (ten  c.c.)  with  boiled  (and  now  cold)  water.  Eject  a  few  drops  of 
this  into  the  mortar,  and  triturate  the  powder  with  it  so  as  to  form  an 
uniform  paste.  Continue  the  rubbing,  and  gradually  add  the  whole  of  the 
water  in  the  syringe.  When  the  powder  has  thus  been  uniformly  mixed 
with  the  water,  suck  the  whole  back  into  the  syringe. 

The  operation. — Clip  the  hair  from  the  under  aspect  of  the  tail  for  about 
six  inches  extending  upwards  from  the  tip.  Wash  this  part  vigorously  with 
five  per  cent,  carbolic  lotion.  Take  the  small  trocar,  previously  purified 
in  boiling  water,  and  bury  it  under  the  skin  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
tail,  entering  it  on  the  middle  line  about  a  handbreadth  above  the  tip,  and 
pushing  it  vertically  upwards  for  three  inches.  Give  the  handle  of  the 
trocar  a  side-to-side  movement  so  as  to  enlarge  the  gallery  at  its  upper 
end.  Now  gently  shake  the  syringe,  insert  the  hypodermic  needle,  and 
inject  one-tenth  of  the  contents  of  the  syringe  (  =  1  c.c.).  Withdraw  needle 
and  syringe  together,  at  the  same  time  pressing  firmly  on  the  puncture  in 
the  skin.  The  dose  mentioned  (1  c.c.  or  18  drops)  is  sufficient  for  an 
animal  over  one  year  old.  For  calves  of  six  months  the  dose  is  12  drops, 
and  for  nine  months  15  drops. 

The  second  vaccination  is  carried  out  after  eight  or  ten  days  in  the  same 
manner,  the  vaccine  being  injected  under  the  skin  of  the  tail  immediately 
above  the  seat  of  the  first  operation.  After  all  the  animals  of  one  lot  have 
been  operated  on,  the  syringe  ought  to  be  rinsed  out  with  five  per  cent, 
carbolic  solution.  The  operation  ought  not  to  be  performed  when  the 
weather  is  very  hot  or  very  cold. 

Every  care  is  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  vaccine,  but  no  guarantee 
is  given  regarding  its  safety  or  efficiency. 

Tetanus  Antitoxin  (see  p.  7)  is  supplied  in  two  forms,  a 
liquid  serum  and  a  dry  powder.  The  liquid  serum,  prepared 


698          BLACK  QUARTER  VACCINE 

by  the  Pasteur  Institute  and  sent  out  in  sealed  vials  contain- 
ing 10  cubic  centimetres  and  20  cubic  centimetres,  preserves 
its  properties  for  a  long  time  when  kept  in  a  cool,  dark 
place.  Properly  administered  it  confers  immunity  from 
tetanus  for  about  six  weeks,  and  this  period  of  protection 
can  be  extended  by  successive  injections.  As  a  preventive 
of  tetanus  its  action  is  certain,  but  as  a  curative  it  has 
little  value  in  acute  tetanus,  though  in  the  slowly  developing 
case  it  sometimes  promotes  recovery.  As  a  prophylactic 
tetanus  antitoxin  is  indicated  prior  to  or  soon  after  dangerous 
operations,  and  as  early  as  possible  in  diseases  or  wounds 
which  may  be  considered  as  particularly  exposed  to  infection 
by  the  tetanus  bacillus.  It  is  usually  administered  sub- 
cutaneously  after  careful  disinfection  of  the  skin  at  the  point 
of  injection ;  but  intracranial  injection,  which  assures 
immediate  action  of  the  antitoxin  on  the  nervous  tissue, 
should  be  preferred  when  practicable.  It  has  been  given 
intravenously  ;  and  occasionally  it  is  injected  into  a  wound 
which  may  be  suspected  as  the  seat  of  primary  infection. 

DOSES. — Horses,  10  c.c. ;  ponies,  3  c.c.  to  5  c.c. ;  two  in- 
jections should  be  given,  the  first  just  before  or  immediately 
after  the  operation,  the  second  in  eight  or  ten  days  after 
the  first.  As  a  curative,  a  first  injection  of  50  c.c.  may  be 
given,  and  followed  by  injections  of  20  c.c.  daily  for  six 
to  eight  days. 

The  dried  serum,  which  keeps  indefinitely,  is  supplied 
in  tubes,  each  containing  a  quantity  of  powder  corresponding 
to  10  c.c.  of  the  liquid  serum.  This  preparation  may  be 
sprinkled  on  operation  or  accidental  wounds,  or  dissolved 
in  a  little  sterilised  water  and  injected  subcutaneously  in 
the  same  way  as  the  liquid  antitoxin.  Applied  to  wounds 
it  exerts  an  antitetanic  action  and  promotes  healing 
(Porcher). 

Antistreptococcic  polyvalent  serum  is  obtained  from 
horses  which  have  been  immunised  against  various  types 
of  streptococci.  It  is  supplied  by  the  Pasteur  Institute 
in  sealed  vials,  each  containing  10  c.c.  of  liquid  serum, 
and  in  tubes  containing  an  equivalent  in  powder.  Anti- 
streptococcic serum  has  been  used  more  or  less  successfully 
in  the  early  stages  of  strangles,  purpura,  and  distemper  of 


ANTISTREPTOCOCCIC    POLYVALENT    SEBUM      699 

the  dog.  It  is  aseptically  injected  under  the  skin  of  the 
neck.  Not  more  than  10  c.c.  should  be  injected  at  one 
point,  and  the  subsequent  punctures  should  be  eight  to  ten 
inches  apart.  After  injection  considerable  oedema  forms 
around  the  punctures,  but  usually  this  swelling  disappears 
within  thirty-six  hours.  This  serum  is  of  little  benefit 
in  advanced  or  suppurating  cases  of  strangles.  Doses. — 
Horses,  30  c.c.  ;  dogs,  3  c.c.  to  6  c.c.,  repeated  daily  until 
the  symptoms  abate  ;  if  relapse  occur,  the  injections  may  be 
renewed. 


SECTION    IV 

VETERINARY   PHARMACY 

THIS  section  presents  a  brief  notice  of  the  art  of  prescribing 
the  administration  of  medicines,  doses,  and  of  such  important 
preparations  and  therapeutic  agents  as  alkaloids,  baths, 
boluses,  drenches,  enemas,  fomentations,  fumigations,  in- 
halations, injections,  plasters,  powders,  tinctures,  etc., 
arranged  for  convenience  of  reference,  according  to  their 
English  names  ;  while  appended  are  the  tables  of  the 
Pharmacopoeia,  and  of  metric  weights  and  measures. 

THE   ART   OP   PRESCRIBING 

Successful  prescribing  obviously  necessitates  a  competent 
knowledge  of  the  chemical  and  physiological  actions  of  the 
drugs  used.  Those  only  can  be  properly  conjoined  which 
are  chemically,  pharmaceutically,  and  physiologically  com- 
patible. Text-books  contain  lists  of  medicines  which  may 
fittingly  be  used  together  under  the  title  of  synergists  ; 
while  lists  are  given  of  substances  chemically  incompatible 
or  physiologically  antagonistic. 

The  prescription  should  be  as  brief  and  simple  as  possible. 
It  should  be  explicit  and  clearly  written.  It  may  be  ex- 
pressed either  in  Latin  or  in  English.  The  manner  in  which 
the  medicine  is  to  be  used  should  be  specified.  Important 
instructions  as  to  the  regimen  or  diet  of  the  patient  are 
sometimes  appended. 

Prescriptions  usually  contain  two  or  more  of  the  following 
four  representative  constituents  : — (a)  The  basis  or  active 
ingredients.  The  practice  of  conjoining  several  active  drugs 
has  wisely  been  abandoned.  Occasionally,  however,  it 
may  be  advantageous  to  give  together  two  drugs  producing 
their  effects  in  somewhat  different  ways.  Thus,  spasms 

700 


ALKALOIDS  701 

of  the  bowels  are  more  often  effectually  controlled  by  the 
conjunction  of  a  stimulant  like  ether,  and  an  anodyne  like 
opium,  than  by  either  given  alone.  Pain  which  is  not 
alleviated  by  either  morphine  or  atropine  is  sometimes 
abated  by  giving  them  together,  (b)  The  adjuvant  is  intro- 
duced in  order  to  increase,  moderate  or  modify  the  action  of 
the  basis.  Frequently  its  chief  object  is  to  ensure  solubility 
and  ready  absorption,  (c)  A  corrective  is  occasionally 
required  to  temper  the  effects  of  the  basis.  Thus,  a  small 
dose  of  laudanum  is  prescribed  with  oil  or  other  laxative 
in  cases  of  diarrhoea  ;  ginger  is  generally  added  to  the 
aloetic  mass  for  horses,  (d)  The  vehicle  generally  consists 
of  some  comparatively  inert  substance,  added  to  facilitate 
administration,  such  as  the  treacle,  linseed  meal,  or  liquorice 
powder  used  as  excipients  for  boluses  and  pills,  the  benzoated 
lard  or  vaseline  used  for  making  ointments,  and  the  water 
given  in  drenches. 

The  prescriber's  aphorism,  '  Curare  cito,  tute,  et  jocunde,' 
is  more  easily  fulfilled  now  than  formerly.  With  a  widening 
choice  of  carefully-prepared  drugs,  the  effects  of  which  are 
becoming  more  fully  known,  the  practitioner  is  better  able 
to  cure  quickly,  safely,  and  pleasantly.  Instead  of  crude 
vegetable  drugs,  often  inconveniently  bulky,  and  containing 
useless  and  even  injurious  constituents,  extracts,  infusions, 
and  tinctures  have  long  been  used.  But  concentration  and 
simplification  are  being  carried  still  further.  Active  alka- 
loids and  neutral  proximate  principles  are  now  prepared, 
and  possess  the  advantage  not  only  of  concentrated  form, 
but  usually  also  of  more  uniform  quality  and  less  liability 
to  spoil. 

To  guard  against  impurities  and  adulterations,  the  British 
Pharmacopoeia,  under  the  head  of  each  drug,  gives  characters 
and  tests  which  enable  purchasers  to  satisfy  themselves  of 
the  quality  and  purity  of  the  articles  used. 

ALKALOIDS 

These  alkali-like  organic  bases  are  found  in  various  plants, 
some  of  which,  like  the  opium  poppy,  cinchona  bark,  and 
jaborandi,  contain  more  than  one  alkaloid.  They  probably 


702        ALKALOIDS    ABE    AMMONIA    DERIVATIVES 

result  from  the  metamorphosis  of  albuminoid  plant  consti- 
tuents. They  constitute  the  active  principles  of  vegetable 
drugs,  and  are  generally  powerful  poisons  or  active  medicines. 
Those  chiefly  used  are  morphine,  atropine,  quinine,  cocaine, 
physostigmine,  pilocarpine,  and  strychnine. 

Most  alkaloids  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen, 
and  all  contain  nitrogen.  But  although  the  molecule  may 
contain  twenty  or  thirty  carbon  or  hydrogen  atoms,  there 
are  seldom  more  than  two  atoms  of  nitrogen.  They  are 
generally  crystallisable  solids.  Three  of  the  natural  alka- 
loids, conine,  nicotine,  and  sparteine,  contain,  however,  no 
oxygen,  and  are  volatile  liquids.  Alkaloids  are  ammonia 
derivatives,  but  their  sparing  solubility  in  water  renders  it 
unlikely  that  they  are  ammonium  bases  ;  their  not  subliming 
without  some  decomposition  distinguishes  them  from  the 
amines  ;  their  feebly  basic  character  and  other  properties 
more  nearly  ally  them  with  the  amides.  They  may  other- 
wise be  defined  as  substituted  ammonias,  capable  of  forming 
salts  by  direct  addition  of  acids.  Many  are  closely  related 
to  pyridine,  and  a  few  may  be  prepared  synthetically  from 
pyridine  bases.  Most  are  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  benzine, 
and  carbon  disulphide,  and  usually  in  chloroform,  which 
does  not,  however,  dissolve  morphine.  Most  are  sparingly 
soluble  in  water.  Alkaloids  readily  unite  with  acids, 
forming  salts,  soluble  in  water  ;  and  with  radicles  such 
as  ethyl  and  methyl,  forming  combinations  which  greatly 
modify  their  actions,  as  is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  differ- 
ence between  conine  and  methyl-conine.  Their  chemical 
composition  affords  no  clue  to  their  physiological  action. 
Those  of  diverse  composition  have  sometimes  similar  actions ; 
those  apparently  of  like  composition  differ  in  their  actions. 
Between  the  anodyne  soporific  morphine,  and  the  emetic 
apomorphine,  the  formulae  show  a  difference  of  only  the 
elements  of  water.  Plants  of  the  same  genus  usually  yield 
the  same  or  similar  alkaloids  ;  thus  the  atropaceae  yield 
atropine,  the  strychnos  strychnine.  Alkaloids  are  often 
associated  in  plants  with  some  special  acid,  in  combination 
with  which,  or  with  a  diluted  acid  added  to  the  plant 
juices,  they  are  dissolved  out,  usually  by  water,  and  from 
such  solution  the  alkaloid  may  be  precipitated  by  ammonia. 


BALLS — BOLUSES — PILULE  703 

The  neutral  organic  principles  are  another  group  of 
concentrated  active  vegetable  drugs.  They  contain  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  comport  themselves  sometimes 
as  bases,  sometimes  as  acids.  Under  the  influence  of  acids 
and  organic  ferments  nearly  all  split  up,  yielding  glucose, 
and  hence  are  called  glucosides.  They  are  represented  by 
aloin,  digitalin,  santonin,  and  salicin,  and  it  will  be  observed 
have  the  terminal  '  in,'  which  distinguishes  them  from  the 
alkaloids,  to  which  the  termination  '  ine  '  or  '  ina,'  or,  in  the 
older  works,  '  ia,'  is  given. 

The  organic  animal  extracts,  prepared  from  bone  marrow, 
heart,  muscle,  brain,  spinal  cord,  testicle,  liver,  and  thyroid 
gland,  and  occasionally  prescribed  for  the  human  subject, 
are  seldom  employed  in  veterinary  medicine. 

BALLS-BOLUSES-PILUL^E 

Balls  correspond  in  veterinary  practice  with  the  pills  used 
in  human  medicine.  Extracts  are  conveniently  moulded 
into  cylindrical  balls.  Drugs  in  powder  or  concentrated 
solution  may  be  enclosed  in  gelatin  capsules,  in  cachets,  or 
made  into  mass  or  bolus  with  such  excipients  as  linseed 
meal  and  water,  oil,  lard,  soap,  mucilage,  liquorice,  and 
powdered  gentian,  treacle,  syrup,  glycerin,  vaseline,  and 
confection  of  roses,  the  choice  being  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  active  ingredients.  The  excipients  first 
mentioned  are  chiefly  used  when  the  bolus  or  mass  is  intended 
for  immediate  use  ;  when  it  is  to  be  kept  for  any  consider- 
able time  some  of  the  others  are  more  suitable.  To  keep  a 
mass  in  a  moist,  soft-solid  state,  it  is  often  advisable  to  add 
to  it  a  small  quantity  of  such  a  deliquescent  alkaline  salt 
as  potassium  acetate,  which  serves  especially  well  for  most 
diuretic  masses.  When  the  active  principles  are  resinous, 
a  little  alcohol,  glycerin,  or  oil  of  turpentine  is  a  useful 
addition,  as  in  making  aloetic  masses. 

In  preparing  a  ball  mass,  the  various  ingredients  are 
sometimes  mixed  in  a  mortar  or  on  a  slab  ;  but  when  the 
materials  are  waxy  or  resinous,  the  aid  of  heat  is  necessary. 
A  good  ball  mass  must  be  soft,  and  yet  possessed  of  proper 
consistence  and  cohesion,  must  retain  these  properties 


704  BATHS 

although  kept  for  a  considerable  time,  and  must  further  be 
so  prepared  that  each  dose  shall  make  a  proper-sized  ball, 
which  for  the  horse  usually  weighs  one  to  two  ounces.  The 
ball  mass  should  be  preserved  in  jars  covered  with  rubber 
sheeting  and  stout  paper,  and  be  made  into  doses  only  as 
required  ;  for  when  balls  are  long  kept  they  are  apt  to 
become  hard,  and  in  this  state  act  slowly  and  sometimes 
pass  through  the  alimentary  canal  unchanged.  To  prevent 
spoiling,  as  well  as  for  cleanliness  and  to  facilitate  adminis- 
tration, balls  are  rolled  up  in  oiled  paper,  or  are  coated 
with  keratin,  or  a  solution  of  one  part  of  gelatin  and  twenty 
of  water. 

The  bolus  is  given  to  horses  with  a  balling-gun  or  with 
the  fingers  ;  and  the  latter  method  is  preferable,  except  in 
infected  animals  or  those  in  which  the  mouth  cannot  be 
sufficiently  opened.  The  operation,  with  a  little  practice 
and  dexterity,  is  easily  performed.  The  ball  is  held  by  one 
end  betAveen  the  thumb  (which  supports  it  below)  and  the 
fingers  of  the  right  hand.  The  patient's  tongue  is  gently 
drawn  out  a  little  way  by  the  left  hand,  and  the  ball  passed 
rapidly  along  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  dropped  on  the 
back  of  the  tongue,  which  is  at  once  released,  the  mouth 
closed,  and  the  head  kept  slightly  elevated  for  a  few  seconds. 
In  a  similar  way  balls  may  be  administered  to  cattle.  To 
dogs  pills  or  cachets  may  be  given  enclosed  in  a  piece  of 
meat,  or  the  pill  may  be  carried  by  forceps  or  a  pill-carrier 
to  the  back  of  the  mouth. 

BATHS-FOMENTATIONS  . 

Baths  are  important,  alike  for  the  preservation  of  health 
and  for  the  cure  of  disease  amongst  the  domestic  animals. 
They  are  used  in  various  ways,  at  different  temperatures, 
and  for  the  treatment  of  medical  and  surgical  cases. 

Cold  baths  are  of  a  lower  temperature  than  70°  Fahr. 
Judiciously  used,  they  act  reflexly  on  nerve  centres,  stimu- 
lating respiration,  circulation,  and  metabolism.  Similar 
stimulant  action  is  exerted  on  the  sympathetic  nervous 
system,  the  skin  functions  are  promoted,  waste  products 
removed,  and  abnormal  temperature  reduced.  Owing  to 


BATHS  705 

its  saline  ingredients,  and  the  constant  movement  of  the 
waves,  a  sea  bath  is  more  exhilarating  than  fresh  water 
at  rest.  Healthful  reaction  is  encouraged  by  thorough 
drying,  hand-rubbing,  clothing,  and,  if  need  be,  by  subse- 
quent administration  of  stimulants.  Cold  baths  are  some- 
times used  for  reducing  excessive  temperature.  The  patient 
may  be  placed  in  water  at  80°  or  90°  Fahr.,  and  the  tempera- 
ture reduced  to  60°  Fahr.,  or  even  lower  ;  or  he  may  be 
placed  at  once  in  a  bath  of  60°  to  50°  Fahr.  ;  or  he  may  have 
cold  water  dashed  over  him.  Such  baths  reduce  abnormal 
temperature  from  1°  to  4°  Fahr.,  and  accordingly  diminish 
excessive  and  dangerous  tissue  change. 

Tepid  baths  range  from  65°  to  85°  Fahr.  They  cleanse 
the  skin,  promote  perspiration,  allay  thirst,  and  are  grateful 
to  heated  and  overtaxed  horses.  They  are  useful  not  only 
in  promoting  comfort,  but,  after  hard  work,  in  removing 
stiffness  alike  in  horses  and  dogs. 

Warm  baths  range  from  85°  to  97°  Fahr.  They  soften 
the  epidermis,  and  hence  relieve  erythematous  and  chronic 
skin  disorders.  They  dilate  cutaneous  vessels,  promote 
sweating,  and  thus  antagonise  internal  congestion. 

Hot  baths  range  from  97°  Fahr.  upwards,  and,  if  the 
temperature  be  gradually  increased,  may  be  raised  to  110° 
Fahr.  Hot  baths  elevate  the  temperature  of  the  body, 
quicken  the  pulse  and  respiration,  dilate  the  skin  capillaries, 
and  hasten  excretion  of  waste.  They  soothe  animals  which 
have  been  subjected  to  severe  muscular  exertion,  relieve 
cramps  and  colic,  benefit  chronic  skin  disorders,  and  check 
catarrh,  rheumatism,  and  lymphangitis. 

Baths  are  often  medicated.  Salt  or  mustard  may  be  added 
to  increase  skin  stimulation  ;  carbonate  of  soda  or  potash 
is  useful  in  some  chronic  skin  disorders ;  solutions  of 
arsenious  acid,  tobacco  juice,  creolin,  and  other  parasiticides 
are  introduced  when  skin  parasites  are  to  be  destroyed. 
Antiseptic  baths  are  employed  for  poisoned  and  offensive 
wounds,  canker,  thrush,  and  other  diseases  of  the  foot ; 
and  astringent  baths  form  an  excellent  remedy  for  cracked 
heels. 

Turkish,  vapour,  steam,  and  Russian  baths  are  not  used 
for  the  lower  animals  as  frequently  and  systematically  as 

2y 


706  TURKISH   AND    VAPOUR   BATHS 

for  man  ;  but  the  infirmaries  of  many  veterinarians  have 
capital  washrooms  provided  with  steam,  hot  and  cold  water, 
where  horses  and  dogs  are  conveniently  bathed,  washed, 
and  dressed ;  where  chronic  coughs,  chills,  rheumatism, 
dyspepsia,  and  other  ailments  are  hydropathically  treated, 
and  where  sprains  and  enlarged  joints  can  be  successfully 
douched. 

Without  expensive  or  special  appliances,  many  of  the 
sanitary  and  curative  advantages  of  baths  can  be  secured 
by  sponging  horses,  as  their  condition  or  ailment  suggests, 
with  tepid,  hot,  or  cold  water.  Cleansing,  tonic,  or  anti- 
pyretic effects  may  thus  be  readily  obtained.  Irritating  or 
noxious  matters  are  removed  from  the  skin,  circulation  is 
equalised,  and  excessive  temperature  reduced.  In  acute 
febrile  cases,  whether  in  horses  or  cattle,  the  temperature 
of  the  water  used  should  not  at  first  be  lower  than  85° 
or  80°  Fahr.  A  little  acetic  acid  may  be  advantageously 
added.  The  sponging  should  not  occupy  more  than  three 
or  four  minutes.  The  animal  should  be  wisped  dry  and 
immediately  clothed.  Within  three  or  four  hours  the 
operation,  if  necessary,  may  be  repeated,  especially  if  the 
temperature  reduced  by  the  first  sponging  again  rises. 
After  the  first  or  second  sponging  water  at  65°  or  60°  Fahr. 
may  be  used.  Concurrently  with  such  treatment,  anti- 
septic salines  or  stimulants  may  be  prescribed.  In  chorea, 
especially  in  tolerably  vigorous  and  short-haired  dogs, 
sponging  with  cold  water  is  serviceable.  Enveloping  the 
patient  in  a  sheet  wetted  with  either  tepid  or  cold  water, 
and  covering  with  two  or  three  blankets,  constituting  what 
is  entitled  the  '  wet  pack,'  is  not  generally  so  convenient 
in  veterinary  practice  as  either  sponging  or  douching  (see 
Water,  p.  152). 

Douches  or  Affusions  of  cold  water,  frequently  repeated, 
are  used  in  the  early  treatment  of  bruises,  harness  galls, 
bumped  knees,  and  other  cedematous  swellings.  They  are 
often  beneficial  in  cases  of  prolapsed  rectum,  or  vagina, 
and  in  the  preliminary  treatment  of  inverted  uterus, 
wrenched  joint,  periostitis,  tendinitis,  and  synovial  dropsy 
of  joint  or  tendon  sheath.  Prolonged  douching  is  strongly 
recommended  as  a  remedy  for  recent  scrotal  hernia,  and  as 


FOMENTATIONS  707 

an  accessory  measure  in  tympanites,  parturient  coma  of 
the  cow,  and  partial  paralysis  of  the  horse. 

Continuous  irrigation  with  cold  water,  or  an  antiseptic 
solution,  is  employed  in  the  treatment  of  open  and  closed 
arthritis,  synovitis  of  tendon  sheath,  foot  injuries, 
quittor,  abscess  cavities,  fistulous  withers,  and  accidental 
wounds  of  the  limbs.  It  modifies  inflammation,  lessens 
pain,  and  hinders  the  development  of  bacteria  ;  but  as  it 
somewhat  restricts  local  nutrition,  healing  is  slightly 
retarded. 

Topical  baths  or  fomentations  usually  consist  of  water 
alone,  but  antiseptics,  anodynes,  vinegar,  salines,  and  other 
substances  are  often  added.  Unless  otherwise  specified, 
they  are  applied  hot.  The  temperature  at  which  they  are 
used  must  be  determined  by  the  purpose  to  be  served,  by 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  malady,  and  the  part  of  the 
body  to  which  they  are  applied.  For  the  eye,  they  should 
not  exceed  100°  Fahr.  ;  for  contusions,  abscesses,  strains, 
and  lymphangitis,  they  should  be  as  hot  as  the  hand  can 
bear.  Up  to  110°  Fahr.  they  generally  soften  and  soothe. 
At  higher  temperatures  they  irritate.  To  produce  active 
counter-irritation,  as  in  bronchitis,  pleurisy,  or  enteritis, 
they  are  used  at  temperatures  ranging  from  120°  Fahr. 
upwards.  For  such  cases,  pieces  of  flannel  or  horse-cloth 
saturated  with  boiling  water,  are  partially  dried  by  a  wringer, 
or  by  being  rolled  and  pressed  between  dry  coarse  towels, 
and  are  laid  over  a  considerable  extent  of  surface  contiguous 
to  the  parts  affected.  The  hot,  wet  woollen  cloth  should 
be  covered  with  oilskin  or  a  piece  of  mackintosh  to  retard 
evaporation  and  cooling.  The  pained  part  to  be  soothed, 
or  the  surface  to  be  stimulated  is  sometimes  covered  with 
several  folds  of  woollen  cloth  on  which  hot  water  is  poured 
at  short  intervals.  Jets  of  steam  mixed  with  air,  to  prevent 
scalding,  used  either  plain  or  medicated,  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  ordinary  stuping  with  water.  Fomentations 
are  generally  made  with  a  sponge,  tow  or  lint.  When  there 
is  pus  or  septic  discharge,  sponges  should  not  be  used,  as 
they  are  apt  to  retain  and  convey  infective  germs,  while 
the  piece  of  lint  or  tow  is  thrown  away  as  soon  as  done 
with. 


708  FOMENTATIONS 

Antiseptic  fomentations  are  used  to  cleanse  wounds  and 
soften  hard  skin  or  encrusted  discharges.  They  relax  and 
soothe  irritated,  congested,  inflamed  parts  to  which  they  are 
applied,  and  thus  lessen  tension  and  pain.  When  freely 
employed  for  some  considerable  time,  they  dilate  the 
capillaries  of  collateral  areas  of  circulation,  withdraw  blood 
from  adjacent  inflamed  parts,  and  act  as  mild  counter- 
irritants.  To  obtain  their  full  benefits,  they  should  be 
continued  during  several  hours  ;  fresh  supplies  of  water, 
of  the  requisite  temperature,  being  had  in  abundance. 
After  the  operation  is  finished,  the  parts  should  be  dried, 
and  well  covered,  in  order  to  prevent  the  rapid  diminution 
of  temperature  which  otherwise  ensues  from  evaporation. 
Further,  to  prevent  chilling,  the  fomented  surface  is  some- 
times stimulated  with  a  weak  mustard  paste  or  mild 
liniment. 

Heat  applied  to  the  spine,  usually  in  the  form  of  the 
hot-water  bag,  at  a  temperature  of  120°  Fahr.,  stimulates 
the  cord  and  sympathetic  ganglia,  contracts  the  involuntary 
muscular  fibres  of  arterioles,  and  thus  lessens  the  volume 
and  rapidity  of  blood  passing  through  them.  The  spinal 
hot-bag  is  hence  used  to  arrest  haemorrhage. 

The  ice-bag  applied  to  the  spine,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a 
sedative  to  the  cord  and  nerve-centres  brought  under  its 
paralysing  influence,  and  hence  lowers  muscular  tone, 
sensibility,  and  secretion.  Applied  in  the  cervical  region, 
it  increases  afflux  of  blood  to  the  head  ;  applied  over  the 
anterior  dorsal  region,  blood  is  driven  to  the  chest  and 
anterior  extremities  ;  applied  over  the  posterior  dorsal  and 
lumbar  regions,  blood  is  moved  in  larger  amount  through 
the  abdominal  and  pelvic  organs,  and  the  posterior  ex- 
tremities. Acting  upon  the  spinal  and  sympathetic  centres, 
the  ice-bag  controls  remote  morbid  processes  ;  cramps  and 
spasms  are  stated  to  be  abated  ;  pains  of  neuralgia  and 
rheumatism  are  sometimes  arrested  ;  while  inordinate  dis- 
charge, and  even  haemorrhage  from  the  lungs,  bowels,  or 
kidneys,  are  sometimes  checked  (Ringer). 

Antiseptic  compresses,  consisting  of  several  layers  of  lint 
or  cotton  wool  thoroughly  saturated  with  an  antiseptic 
solution,  are  frequently  applied  to  sutured  operation  wounds. 


DECOCTIONS  709 

They  preserve  asepsis,  support  the  sutures,  and  prevent  or 
diminish  the  consecutive  oedema.  They  are  also  employed 
with  the  object  of  ensuring  asepsis  of  the  operation  area 
prior  to  neurectomy,  tenotomy,  oophorectomy  of  the  bitch 
and  cat,  aspiration  of  bursal  distensions,  etc.  Before 
application,  the  hair  is  removed  from  skin  of  the  region, 
which  is  then  washed  and  disinfected,  and  the  compress  is 
kept  in  place  until  the  patient  is  in  position  for  operation. 

DECOCTIONS 

Decoctions  are  solutions  prepared  by  boiling  the  drug  in 
distilled  water.  To  ensure  perfect  solution,  the  substance 
is  bruised  or  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  boiled  in  a  glass  or 
earthenware  vessel  for  five  to  ten  minutes.  Any  insoluble 
residue  is  subsequently  separated  by  straining  through 
muslin  or  calico,  or  by  allowing  the  solution  to  settle,  and 
pouring  off  the  supernatant  fluid.  Decoctions  intended  to 
be  kept  beyond  a  week  or  two  should  be  preserved  by 
adding  a  little  spirit  or  about  one  part  of  benzoic  acid  to 
200  of  decoction. 

DOSES   AND   THEIR  ADMINISTRATION 

The  dose,  or  quantity  of  the  medicine  used,  affects  the 
degree,  and  sometimes  also  the  nature  of  the  action  pro- 
duced. Thus,  small  doses  of  most  salts  of  potassium, 
sodium,  and  magnesium  are  diuretic,  while  larger  quan- 
tities are  purgative.  Aloes,  in  small  quantity,  is  tonic, 
and  in  large,  purgative.  Alcohol  and  opium  are  examples 
of  medicines  in  which  variation  in  dose  produces  difference 
in  effect.  With  topical  remedies,  an  increase  of  the  time 
during  which  the  drug  is  applied  is  generally  equivalent  to 
an  increase  of  dose,  as  illustrated  in  the  case  of  mustard, 
cantharides,  and  concentrated  acids. 

The  period  during  which  a  drug  remains  in  the  body 
determines  in  like  manner  its  activity.  Hence  increased 
action  results  from  rapid  absorption  and  prolonged  retention 
within  the  body,  while  diminished  action  results  from  tardy 
absorption  and  quick  excretion.  Where  prompt  and  full 


710  DOSES   AND    THEIR   ADMINISTRATION 

effects  are  desired,  carefully  regulated  doses  are  given 
every  hour  or  oftener.  Where  continued  effects  are  de- 
sired, as  in  the  case  of  tonics  or  alteratives,  small  doses 
repeated  three  or  four  times  daily  are  preferable  to  larger 
doses  given  at  longer  intervals.  Stimulants,  which  are  evan- 
escent in  their  effects — such  as  alcohol,  ether,  and  ammonia 
— are  usually  beneficially  repeated  every  two  or  three  hours, 
or,  in  critical  cases,  oftener.  The  dose  of  a  medicine,  and 
the  desirability  of  its  repetition,  intermission,  or  suspension, 
must  frequently  be  determined  by  the  manner  in  which  the 
patient  is  affected  by  the  first  dose  or  doses. 

The  doses  mentioned  in  this  work  under  each  drug, 
unless  otherwise  stated,  are  those  suitable  for  adult 
animals  of  medium  size.  But,  as  already  indicated,  the 
size,  weight,  and  environment  of  the  patient  require  con- 
sideration in  fixing  the  dose.  In  the  lower  animals,  differ- 
ences of  sex  do  not  materially  affect  dosage  ;  although,  on 
account  of  their  larger  size,  extra  doses  are  required  for 
stallions,  bulls,  and  rams.  Doses  must  be  adapted  to  the 
age  of  the  patient.  It  is  generally  estimated  that  a  one- 
year-old  colt  requires  one-third  the  quantity  of  any  medicine 
given  to  an  adult  horse  ;  a  two-year-old,  one  half  ;  a  three- 
year-old,  two-thirds.  A  somewhat  similar  ratio  is  applicable 
to  cattle. 

Medicinal  agents  are  used  to  produce  either  local  or  general 
actions,  or  a  combination  of  both. 

LOCAL  ACTIONS  are  produced  by  applying  the  agent  to  the 
surface  of  the  skin,  to  the  mouth  or  throat,  the  eye,  ear,  or 
nasal  passages,  and  also  by  injection  into  the  rectum, 
bladder,  vagina,  uterus,  udder,  and  substance  of  muscles. 
Agents  thus  used,  besides  acting  locally,  may  pass  into  the 
general  circulation,  and  produce  general  effects,  or  by 
reflex  action  develop  secondary  or  remote  effects. 

GENERAL  ACTIONS  are  usually  produced  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  medicine  into  the  circulation.  Injection  may  be 
made  directly  into  the  veins  as  in  the  treatment  of  collapse 
and  acute  anaemia,  and  occasionally  into  the  arteries,  for 
purposes  of  experiment.  When  transfusion  is  undertaken 
the  fluid  should  be  watery,  and  of  the  same  salt  content  as 
blood  serum  ;  for  example,  normal  saline  solution,  a  O9  per 


LOCAL   AND    GENERAL   ACTIONS  711 

cent,  solution  of  sodium  chloride.  Drugs  injected  into  the 
peritoneal  and  other  serous  cavities  are  very  rapidly  ab- 
sorbed. They  are  also  quickly  taken  up  from  abraded  skin 
surfaces. 

The  channels  by  which  medicines  may  be  administered 
are  : — 

1.  The  digestive  tract,  generally  by  the  mouth  (bolus,  pill, 
drench,  electuary),  and  occasionally  by  the  rectum  (evacuant, 
nutrient,  anodyne,  or  anaesthetic  enemata). 

2.  The    pulmonary   mucous    membrane,    by   inhalation 
(anaesthetics,  fumigations). 

3.  Intratracheal  injection. 

4.  Intravenous  injection. 

5.  Intraperitoneal  injection. 

6.  The    skin  :     (a)    epidermically    by    inrubbing ;     (b) 
endermically  by  inunction  after  removal  of  the  epidermis. 

7.  Hypodermically,  by  injection  into  the  subcutaneous 
connective  tissues.    Intramuscular,  intramammary,  intra- 
spinal,  intrauterine,  and  subconjunctival  injections  are  also 
employed,  and  occasionally  injections  are  made  into  the 
nasal  chambers,  urethra,  bladder,  and  vagina.     Medicated 
spray  thrown  from  an  atomizer,  or  from  a  steam  spray 
producer,  is  used  for  irrigating  the  throat,  when  irritable  or 
relaxed,  especially  in  horses. 

The  mouth  is  the  channel  by  which  medicines  are  most 
frequently  administered,  for  they  immediately  pass  into  the 
stomach  or  intestine,  whence  they  are  readily  and  rapidly 
absorbed.  To  avoid  their  admixture  with  food,  and  conse- 
quent impaired  and  delayed  effect,  they  should  generally  be 
given  after  the  patient  has  been  fasted  for  several  hours. 
Nutrient  oils,  iron  salts,  arsenic,  and  other  irritants  are, 
however,  given  with  the  food,  or  immediately  after  eating. 
When  it  is  desired  that  they  shall  be  quickly  absorbed, 
and  thus  act  promptly  and  certainly,  they  should  be  given 
in  the  fluid  state,  and  this  is  especially  requisite  in  rumi- 
nants. The  time,  labour,  and  patience  of  attendants  may 
be  saved,  and  high-spirited,  nervous  animals  preserved  from 
injurious  struggling,  if  they  can  be  persuaded  to  take  their 
medicines  voluntarily.  This  may  sometimes  be  accom- 
plished when  comparatively  concentrated,  tasteless,  or 


712  INTRATRACHEAL   INJECTION 

pleasant-tasted  drugs  are  used,  by  mixing  them  with 
palatable  food,  or  disguising  them  in  gruel,  milk,  or  even  in 
water.  Dogs  and  cats  will  often  bolt  concentrated  drugs 
rolled  up  in  a  piece  of  meat.  Although  absorption  is  not 
so  active  from  the  posterior  portions  of  the  digestive  tract, 
nutrients  and  soluble  medicines  introduced  into  the  rectum 
enter  the  circulation. 

The  pulmonary  mucous  membrane  has  a  superficies  of 
fifty  times  the  extent  of  the  skin  surface,  and  actively 
absorbs  substances  in  the  gaseous  form.  By  this  channel 
are  administered  anaesthetics,  when  their  general  effects  are 
required  ;  balsams  and  anodynes  to  relieve  morbid  con- 
ditions of  the  respiratory  passages  ;  diluted  sulphurous 
and  chlorine  gases  to  destroy  bronchial  filariae.  But  other 
volatile  drugs  may  thus  be  introduced  into  the  body,  while 
others,  in  a  finely  divided  state,  can  be  inhaled  with  such 
a  readily  diffusible  volatile  body  as  a  chloroform,  or  ether. 

INTRATRACHEAL  INJECTION  has  lately  been  adopted  both 
in  this  country  and  abroad.  Tolerably  bland  fluids  in 
considerable  quantity  can,  with  impunity,  be  introduced 
into  the  trachea,  and  agents  too  bulky  to  be  used  hypo- 
dermically  can  thus  be  absorbed  into  the  blood  more  quickly 
and  directly,  and  with  less  risk  of  having  their  activity 
impaired  than  when  administered  through  the  digestive 
tract.  Various  experiments  on  dogs,  made  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, indicate  that  the  effects  of  curare,  strychnine,  and 
cocaine  are  frequently  produced  in  ten  seconds,  and  more 
rapidly  than  when  these  drugs  are  injected  subcutaneously. 
Turpentine  by  this  channel  exerts  its  lethal  action  very 
effectually  on  the  bronchial  parasites  which  attack  cattle 
and  sheep.  The  injection  is  effected  with  a  syringe  having 
a  stronger  needle  than  that  used  for  hypodermic  purposes. 
Intratracheal  injections  intended  to  produce  general  effects 
should  be  non-irritant  and  well  diluted  in  water,  alcohol,  or 
oil.  Beyond  a  slight  gain  in  time,  intratracheal  injections, 
other  than  those  intended  to  act  locally,  have  no  advantage 
over  hypodermic  injections.  Drugs  have  occasionally  been 
injected  directly  into  the  lungs. 

Intravenous  injection  of  medicines  is  resorted  to  when 
immediate  effects  are  desired.  In  this  way  sterilised  salt- 


INTRAPERITONEAL   INJECTIONS  713 

solution,  barium  chloride,  silver  colloid  chloral  hydrate, 
and  a  few  other  remedies  may  be  injected  into  the  jugular 
vein  of  the  horse  and  ox  ;  in  the  saphena  vein  of  the  dog. 
The  injection  should  be  diluted,  non-irritant,  and  introduced 
slowly  with  strict  attention  to  asepsis.  The  introduction 
of  air,  the  formation  of  clots,  and  septic  contamination  must 
be  avoided. 

Intraperitoneal  injections  are  serviceable  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  physiological  salt-solution  and  other  artificial 
sera,  and  chloral  as  a  general  anaesthetic.  The  injection  is 
made  at  the  upper  region  of  the  left  flank,  which  is  punctured 
with  a  fine  trocar  and  canula  ;  the  trocar  having  been 
withdrawn,  the  nozzle  of  the  syringe  is  inserted  in  the 
canula.  The  usual  aseptic  precautions  should  be  observed. 

On  the  skin  many  medicinal  agents  are  applied,  most 
of  them — such  as  counter-irritants,  caustics,  and  poultices — 
for  the  production  of  local  effects,  or  of  reflex  actions  exerted 
on  adjacent  or  distant  parts.  The  skin,  protected  by 
epidermis,  although  it  absorbs  oxygen  and  other  gases, 
excretes  carbonic  acid,  and  takes  up  water  from  baths  or 
from  wet  clothing,  especially  if  there  is  a  deficiency  of  fluid 
in  the  body,  does  not  absorb  drugs  unless  they  are  dissolved 
in  chloroform  or  other  agent  which  promotes  penetration. 
Drugs,  whether  in  alcoholic  or  watery  solution,  are  absorbed 
through  the  unbroken  skin  only  in  very  small  amount  and 
tardily ;  but  when  the  epidermis  is  removed  by  a  blister, 
the  true  skin  readily  absorbs  drugs  placed  on  it.  By  this 
endermic  method,  morphine  was  formerly  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  its  general  anodyne  effects,  but  the  hypodermic 
method  is  more  convenient,  and  is  now  generally  preferred. 

The  hypodermic  administration  of  drugs,  and  mallein, 
tuberculin,  the  various  sera  and  vaccines,  consists  in  their 
injection  in  solution  into  the  subcutaneous  cellular  tissue. 
They  thus  enter  the  blood-stream  unaltered  by  contact  with 
the  contents  or  secretions  of  the  digestive  canal.  They 
escape  the  changes  which  many  substances  undergo  in  the 
liver,  and  hence  act  more  certainly  and  rapidly.  Hypo- 
dermic injection  is  specially  indicated — 

(1)  Where  rapid  energetic  effects  are  required,  as 
in    poisoning,   internal   haemorrhage,    threatening 


714  HYPODERMIC   ADMINISTRATION 

collapse,    paroxysms    of    acute    pain,    and    con- 
vulsions. 

(2)  Where   it  is   desired   that   the    drug   shall   act 
promptly  and  directly  on  the  diseased  part,  as  in 
neuralgia,  rheumatic  pains,  and  mammitis  in  cows. 

(3)  Where  local  and  general  effects  are  desired  to  be 
conjoined,  as  in  reflex  spasms. 

(4)  Where  administration  by  the  mouth  is  difficult, 
impossible,  or  inadvisable. 

The  drugs  thus  used  should  be  in  neutral,  non-irritant,  well 
diluted  solution,  and  preferably  dissolved  in  water  or  in 
vegetable  oil.  Alcohol,  chloroform,  and  glycerin,  though 
often  employed,  are  objectionable,  and  concentrated  solu- 
tions should  be  avoided  as  they  cause  pain  and  are  less 
rapidly  absorbed.  The  quantity  injected  at  one  point 
should  seldom  exceed  two  drachms  ;  when  larger  quantities 
must  be  administered,  injections  should  be  made  at  different 
points  of  the  skin.  Many  veterinarians  use  morphine, 
atropine,  ergotin,  eserine,  arecoline,  and  other  active  drugs 
hypodermically  for  arresting  or  controlling  the  spasms  of 
colic  and  chronic  cough,  the  sharp  twinges  of  rheumatism, 
the  inflammatory  pain  of  enteritis,  pleurisy,  and  laminitis, 
as  well  as  for  combating  the  effects  of  poisons.  By  this 
method  are  administered  pilocarpine,  apomorphine,  adren- 
alin, atoxyl,  sodium  cacodylate,  caffeine,  cocaine  and  other 
local  anaesthetics,  sterilised  gelatin,  and  the  various  organic 
and  artificial  sera.  Where  local  pain  is  to  be  coun- 
teracted, the  injection  may  be  made  more  deeply  near 
the  affected  spot,  or  over  the  nerve  which  is  believed 
to  be  conveying  the  disordered  impression.  With  active 
agents  it  is  unwise,  without  careful  trial,  to  inject  sub- 
cutaneously  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  dose  which  would 
be  given  by  the  mouth.  Strychnine  is  too  active,  and  quinine 
is  too  irritant  for  safe  administration  by  this  method,  but 
there  is  less  risk  in  veterinary  than  in  human  patients  of 
subsequent  local  irritation. 

The  hypodermic  syringe  has  a  glass  barrel  with  metal 
mounts,  a  hollow  needle  fitted  to  the  nozzle,  and  an  asbestos 
piston.  It  is  essential  that  every  part  of  the  syringe  be 
aseptic,  and  the  needle  sharp.  Hypodermic  injection  is 


INTRAMAMMARY   INJECTIONS  715 

very  simple.  Choice  is  generally  made  of  a  situation  where 
the  skin  is  thin,  and  the  subcutaneous  tissue  loose,  as  behind 
the  elbow,  or  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck.  A  fold  of  loose 
skin,  after  disinfection  with  5  per  cent,  carbolic  solution, 
is  taken  up  between  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  left  hand  ; 
the  needle,  detached  from  the  syringe,  is  passed  through 
the  skin,  and  carried  about  an  inch  obliquely  under  the 
surface.  The  nozzle  of  the  filled  syringe  is  then  attached  to 
the  needle,  the  piston  slowly  pushed  home,  and  the  instru- 
ment cautiously  withdrawn.  The  injection  of  air  can  be 
prevented  by  seeing  that  the  packing  of  the  piston  is  suffi- 
cient, or  by  arresting  the  piston  before  the  contents  of  syringe 
have  been  wholly  expelled.  The  puncture  requires  no  plaster 
or  dressing.  Convenient  tablets,  lamellae,  or  pellets  of  the 
various  drugs  used  hypodermically  are  now  obtainable. 

Intramuscular  injections,  though  very  rapidly  absorbed, 
are  only  occasionally  employed.  By  this  method  solutions 
of  strychnine  and  veratrine  have  been  used  as  stimulants 
in  muscular  paralysis,  morphine  and  cocaine  as  anodynes  in 
rheumatism,  compound  fractures,  and  extensive  laceration  of 
muscles  ;  and  recently  fibrolysin  has  been  tried  with  the 
object  of  reducing  fibrous  indurations.  Usually  the  in- 
jections are  made  into  the  substance  of  the  gluteal,  or 
scapular  muscles.  Deep  injection  of  ether  and  of  other 
drugs  occasionally  causes  temporary  motor  or  sensory 
paralysis. 

Intramammary  injections  of  antiseptic  solutions,  and 
insufflations  of  air,  or  pure  oxygen,  are  employed  in  acute 
and  contagious  mammitis  and  parturient  toxaemia  or  '  milk 
fever  '  of  the  cow.  Antiseptic  solutions  are  injected  by  a 
Higginson's  syringe  through  a  teat-syphon  or  special  tube 
inserted  in  the  teat.  Two  to  four  ounces  of  warm  aqueous 
solution  of  boric  acid  (3  per  cent.),  of  sodium  fluoride  (1  to 
200-500),  or  chinosol  (1  :  1200),  are  injected  in  acute  and 
contagious  mammitis.  In  parturient  toxaemia  filtered 
air,  introduced  by  a  bicycle  pump,  or  pure  oxygen  from  a 
cylinder,  or  a  solution  of  potassium  iodide  may  be  used. 
In  all  cases  the  udder  or  diseased  quarter  should  be  emptied 
as  completely  as  possible  before  injection.  After  insufflation 
of  air  or  oxygen,  a  clamp  is  applied  to  the  teat,  the  udder  is 


716  DRENCHES 

lightly  massaged,  and  after  an  interval  of  three  or  four 
hours  the  teats  are  drawn.  In  contagious  mammitis 
injections  of  gradually  increasing  strength  should  be 
repeated  three  or  four  times  daily  ;  but  in  acute  mammitis 
usually  only  one  injection  is  required,  though  occasionally  a 
second  injection  is  given  three  or  four  days  after  the  first. 
The  teats  should  be  drawn  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  hours 
from  the  first  injection  until  the  gland  resumes  its  function. 

DRAUGHTS-DRENCHBS-DRINKS 

Drenches  are  generally  extemporaneous  fluid  prepara- 
tions used  in  a  single  dose.  Bulky  substances  which  cannot 
be  administered  in  bolus  are  necessarily  given  in  draught. 
They  are  prescribed  for  cattle  and  sheep,  horses  and  dogs, 
especially  when  a  speedy  effect  is  desired.  In  ruminants, 
medicines  in  the  solid  state  mix  with  the  food  always  found 
in  the  rumen,  and  thus  act  tardily  and  imperfectly.  Medi- 
cines in  liquid  form,  however,  come  more  immediately  into 
contact  with  the  mucous  surface,  and  pass  on  more  rapidly 
to  the  abomasum  and  intestine.  Saline,  febrifuge,  and  tonic 
draughts,  made  fairly  palatable,  are  often  readily  taken  by 
patients  in  gruel  or  water,  without  the  trouble  of  forcible 
administration. 

In  preparing  drenches,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
several  ingredients  are  not  incompatible,  decomposing  or 
injuriously  reacting  on  each  other  ;  and  further,  that  their 
quantity  is  not  so  great  as  unnecessarily  to  increase  the 
trouble  of  administration.  Before  being  given,  drenches 
ought  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  well  shaken,  in  order  to 
prevent  ether,  ammonia,  turpentine,  or  other  light  con- 
stituent floating  to  the  surface,  or  heavy,  partially  dissolved 
substances  falling  to  the  bottom. 

In  giving  drenches,  the  head  should  be  slightly  raised, 
which  in  horses  is  conveniently  done,  with  the  aid  of  a 
mouth-twitch,  the  noose  of  which  is  placed  over  the  animal's 
upper  jaw  within  the  incisor  teeth,  and  the  stick  held  by 
an  assistant,  standing  on  the  left  side  of  the  patient.  In 
cattle,  the  head  should  be  steadied  by  an  assistant,  who 
holds  either  the  horn  or  ears.  In  dogs,  the  jaws  may  be 


ENEMATA  717 

kept  sufficiently  apart  by  an  assistant,  or  a  finger  may  be 
placed  within  the  cheek  which  is  then  raised  to  form  a 
pouch  into  which  the  medicine  can  be  readily  poured. 
Small  dogs  are  most  conveniently  dosed  when  placed  on 
their  hind-quarters  on  a  table  or  bench ;  but  larger  dogs 
should  be  backed  into  a  corner,  the  operator  holding  the 
head  between  his  knees.  Cats  can  be  drenched  without 
doing  damage  with  their  claws  if  rolled  in  a  stout  rug  or 
dropped  into  a  capacious  top-boot,  the  head  being  left  out, 
and  the  jaws  held  apart  with  pieces  of  tape  ;  or  the  cheek 
may  be  pouched  with  forceps.  In  all  animals  the  nostrils 
must  be  unobstructed,  and  the  tongue  loose,  or  only  gently 
held  down.  Drenches  should  be  carefuUy  and  slowly  given  ; 
and  if  coughing  occur,  administration  should  be  stopped, 
and  the  animal's  head  released.  Drenches  may  be  given 
by  an  ordinary  pint  syringe.  The  jaws  are  fixed  by  a  cord 
or  strap  passed  round  the  head,  the  lips  are  held  closed  in 
front  and  at  the  sides ;  the  nozzle  of  the  syringe  is  then 
passed  into  the  mouth  near  one  of  the  commissures,  and  the 
injection  is  directed  towards  the  base  of  the  tongue. 

Glass  bottles,  often  used  for  the  administration  of  drenches, 
are  dangerous,  when  they  break  they  may  injure  the  mouth 
of  the  patient,  or  the  hands  of  the  operator.  Veterinarians, 
and  even  agriculturists,  should  therefore  only  use  stout 
tin  drenching  bottles.  The  old-fashioned  horn  is  now 
generally  superseded  by  the  tin  bottle. 


ENEMAS-ENEMATA-CLYSTERS-SUPPOSITORIES 
-INJECTIONS 

Enemas  are  liquid  injections  into  the  rectum,  and  are 
employed  to  effect  several  useful  purposes.  They  soften 
and  remove  hard  faeces  lodged  in  the  rectum,  and  do  so 
without  unnecessarily  exciting  other  parts  of  the  intestine. 
They  accelerate,  increase,  and  maintain  the  action  of 
purgatives.  They  destroy  and  remove  worms  infesting 
the  posterior  part  of  the  canal.  They  may  exert  either 
soothing  or  stimulating  effects  ;  and,  reflexly,  such  effects 
may  be  propagated  to  adjacent  and  even  to  remote  organs. 
They  besides  prove  convenient  vehicles  for  introducing  into 


718  ENEMATA 

the  body  food  and  medicines,  in  sore-throat,  gastritis, 
tetanus,  apoplexy,  and  other  conditions,  in  which  adminis- 
tration by  the  mouth  is  contra-indicated  or  impracticable. 

For  maintaining  the  regular  action  of  the  bowels,  no 
remedies  are  so  safe  and  effectual,  and  when  properly  used 
they  sometimes  supersede  the  necessity  for  purgatives. 
In  constipation  and  torpidity,  after  hardened,  impacted, 
obstructing  faecal  masses  have  been  broken  down  and 
removed,  laxative  enemata  are  advantageously  injected, 
intermitting  the  operation  whenever  straining  occurs, 
raising  the  hind  parts,  and  by  external  pressure  from 
behind  increasing  the  retaining  capacity  of  the  sphincter. 
A  gallon  and  a  half  to  five  gallons  of  tepid  water  may  thus 
be  slowly  introduced  into  the  rectum  of  a  draught  horse  ; 
half  a  pint  to  a  pint  into  the  rectum  of  a  dog  40  Ibs.  weight. 
When  the  posterior  gut  is  thus  distended,  not  only  is 
mechanical  facility  given  for  the  outward  movement  of  the 
contents  of  the  canal,  but  by  reflex  action  peristalsis  is 
encouraged  far  beyond  the  surface  reached  by  the  injection. 
The  effects  of  tepid  water  are  increased  by  the  addition  of 
soap,  bland  oil,  glycerin,  salines,  oil  of  turpentine,  or  solu- 
tion of  aloes.  These  copious  injections,  and  the  administra- 
tion of  full  doses  of  opium,  Indian  hemp  or  atr opine,  relieve 
intestinal  spasm,  and  sometimes  prove  beneficial  in  cases 
of  suspected  invagination  and  strangulation  of  the  intes- 
tines in  horses  and  dogs. 

Obstinate  torpidity  of  the  bowels  in  horses,  depending 
on  impaction  of  ingesta,  or  obstruction  from  earthy  deposits 
in  the  colon,  may  frequently  be  relieved  or  removed  by  the 
free  use  of  enemata  introduced  into  the  large  intestine  by  a 
special  apparatus,  an  adaptation  of  O'Beirne's  tube.  It 
consists  of  six  feet  of  one-inch  rubber  hose,  attached  to  a 
Read's  pump,  and  provided  with  a  round  nozzle,  with  side 
perforations.  This  tube  can  be  passed  into  the  single  colon 
of  the  horse.  Any  difficulty  in  introducing  it  is  overcome, 
not  by  force,  but  by  injection  of  a  gallon  of  water,  which, 
dilating  the  bowel  in  advance,  facilitates  further  passage 
of  the  tube.  Five  to  fifteen  gallons  of  cold  water  are  in- 
jected ;  and  the  injection  may  be  repeated  at  intervals  of 
three  or  four  hours.  Unlike  ordinary  enemata  discharged 


LAXATIVE   AND    NUTRIENT  719 

into  the  rectum,  these  large  quantities  of  fluid  are  in  great 
part  retained,  with  the  effect  of  softening  and  mechanically 
removing  obstructions. 

Tolerably  copious  clysters  of  tepid  water  or  other  bland 
fluid  exert  local  soothing  effects,  not  only  on  the  intestines, 
but  they  also  reflexly  allay  irritability,  spasm,  and  pain  of 
the  urino-genital  organs,  and  frequently  relieve  suppression 
of  urine.  Their  efficacy  is  sometimes  increased  by  addition 
of  opium  and  sedatives,  which  are  used  in  about  the  same 
doses  as  are  given  by  the  mouth.  By  reflex  action  the 
kidneys,  bladder,  and  uterus  are  also  sometimes  beneficially 
acted  upon  by  stimulant  enemata.  For  destroying  and  dis- 
lodging the  oxyuris  curvula,  clysters  of  turpentine  and  lime 
water,  and  of  solutions  of  aloes,  quassia,  ferric  chloride, 
or  common  salt,  are  effectual.  In  house  dogs,  troubled  with 
constipation  and  haemorrhoids,  the  cautious  daily  injection 
of  two  or  three  ounces  of  cold  water  proves  serviceable. 

When  intended  to  be  retained  and  absorbed,  enemas 
should  be  limited  in  amount.  To  allay  irritation  and  spasm 
in  troublesome  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  vegetable  astrin- 
gents, opium,  and  lead  acetate  are  given,  usually  with  well- 
boiled  tepid  starch  gruel.  In  such  cases  the  injection  may 
be  repeated  every  hour  or  two,  so  long  as  straining  or 
diarrhoea  continues.  Rectal  injections  intended  to  produce 
general  effects  should  be  warm  and  concentrated.  Nutrient 
enemata,  useful  in  tetanus,  sore-throat,  and  debilitating 
complaints,  when  patients  will  not  or  cannot  eat,  usually 
consist  of  a  pint  or  two  of  linseed  tea,  with  milk  and  eggs, 
or  of  strong  beef  tea  introduced  at  a  temperature  of  100° 
Fahr.,  and  repeated  not  oftener  than  four  or  five  times 
in  the  twenty-four  hours.  In  cases  of  influenza  in  horses 
and  distemper  in  dogs,  a  little  wine  or  whisky  is  sometimes 
added  to  the  nutrient  enema. 

The  apparatus  for  giving  enemata  are — Higginson's 
rubber  syringe  ;  Read's  patent  clyster  syringe,  improved 
by  Arnold,  which  is  also  available  as  a  stomach  pump  ;  the 
far-reaching  apparatus,  with  six  feet  of  rubber  tubing, 
already  described ;  Gamgee's  block-tin  funnel,  which  fills 
the  rectum  by  gravitation,  and  obviates  the  necessity  of 
pumping  ;  and  the  common  barrel  syringe,  of  tinned  copper, 


720  EXTRACTS 

with  a  nozzle  which  unscrews  at  pleasure,  and  can  be  carried 
in  the  interior  of  the  instrument.  The  female  catheter 
may  be  used  for  the  administration  of  medicinal  injections. 
In  the  horse  the  rectum  is  generally  cleared  by  the  hand 
before  any  of  these  articles  are  used ;  and  in  all  animals 
the  part  of  the  apparatus  which  enters  the  gut  should  be 
smeared  with  lard  or  oil,  and  introduced  slowly  and  care- 
fully. 

Suppositories  of  raw  or  cooked  meat  are  readily  absorbed 
from  the  rectum,  especially  if  they  are  previously  moistened 
with  diluted  hydrochloric  acid  and  pepsin.  Drugs  in  the 
form  of  suppository,  usually  made  up  with  cacao-butter 
and  a  little  wax,  are  occasionally  introduced  into  the  rectum, 
vagina,  and  uterus.  A  cylinder  of  soap  introduced  within 
the  anus,  and  held  for  a  minute  or  two,  conveniently  encour- 
ages the  action  of  the  bowels,  especially  in  dogs  and  cats, 
and  in  foals  and  calves. 

Intra-uterine  injections  of  antiseptic,  astringent,  haemo- 
static, anodyne,  and  saline  solutions  are  used  in  the  treat- 
ment of  metritis,  retention  of  the  foetal  membranes,  uterine 
wounds,  haemorrhage,  and  leucorrhcea,  and  after  difficult 
parturition.  The  solution,  varying  in  quantity  from  a  few 
ounces  to  ten  or  fifteen  quarts,  should  be  warm,  and  slowly 
injected  by  a  Higginson's  syringe  or  Read's  pump,  or  intro- 
duced by  gravitation  through  a  double  catheter,  or  half- 
inch  rubber  tube,  which  is  passed  by  the  hand  through  the 
os  uteri  for  a  distance  of  three  to  six  inches.  If  the  womb 
contract  under  the  stimulus  of  the  injection,  the  solution 
will  be  completely  expelled ;  but  in  cases  associated  with 
uterine  inertia,  to  prevent  distension,  poisoning  or  irrita- 
tion, and  consequent  straining,  the  solution  should  be 
withdrawn  or  syphoned  out  soon  after  injection.  After 
manual  extraction  of  the  foetal  membranes,  the  womb  is 
irrigated  with  a  weak,  antiseptic  solution,  and  irrigation 
may  be  continued  until  the  returning  fluid  is  quite  clear. 

EXTRACTS-FLUID   EXTRACTS-FRESH   OR 
GREEN   EXTRACTS 

Extracts  consist  of  the  soluble,  active  principles  of  plants 
reduced  to  a  semi-solid  paste  by  evaporation  of  the  natural 


INHALATIONS  721 

expressed  juices,  or  of  decoctions,  infusions,  or  tinctures. 
Selection  is  made  of  the  solvent — water,  alcohol,  or  ether — 
which  most  readily  removes  the  active  principles.  Where 
two  active  principles,  soluble  in  different  media,  are  to  be 
dissolved  out,  the  drug  is  acted  upon  by  the  two  solvents 
in  succession,  and  the  solutions  mixed  and  evaporated.  It 
is  important  that  evaporation  be  effected  at  low  tempera- 
tures ;  heat  above  150°  Fahr.  is  apt  to  injure  or  decompose 
many  active  principles.  Well-made  extracts  keep  for  a 
considerable  time  without  change,  especially  in  a  cool, 
dry  place,  and  if  occasionally  moistened  with  rectified 
spirit ;  but  when  twelve  months  old  they  should  be  regarded 
with  suspicion.  Of  the  B.P.  extracts,  veterinarians  chiefly 
use  those  of  belladonna,  hemlock,  ergot,  and  Indian  hemp. 

The  liquid  extracts  are  prepared  from  infusions,  decoc- 
tions, or  weak  tinctures,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  semi* 
solid  extracts.  Most  liquid  extracts  are  of  such  a  strength 
that  one  fluid  ounce  represents  an  ounce  of  the  drug  em- 
ployed. Those  chiefly  used  in  veterinary  practice  are  liquid 
extract  of  cinchona,  ergot,  male  fern,  and  opium. 

Green  extracts,  as  Extracta  belladonnas  viride  and  hyos- 
cyami  viride,  are  prepared  from  fresh  plants,  the  leaves  and 
tender  stems  being  generally  preferred.  They  are  bruised, 
the  juice  expressed,  and  gently  heated  to  about  130°  Fahr. 
The  green  colouring  matter  is  separated  by  filtration,  the 
strained  juice  is  heated  to  200°  Fahr.  to  coagulate  albumin, 
again  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  evaporated  in  a  water  bath 
to  the  consistence  of  a  thin  syrup.  The  green  colouring 
matter  previously  separated  is  then  added,  and  evaporation 
continued,  until  a  suitable  consistence  is  attained. 

Abstracts  are  concentrated  extracts,  about  twice  the 
strength  of  the  corresponding  fluid  extract,  and  occur  in 
dry  powder  mixed  with  milk  sugar.  Many  of  these  figure 
in  the  U.S.P.,  including  those  of  aconite,  belladonna,  hem- 
lock, and  digitalis. 

INHALATIONS-FUMIGATIONS 

Inhalations  or  vapours  are  volatilised  applications  in- 
tended to  soothe,  stimulate,  deodorise,  or  disinfect  the  nasal 

2z 


722  GLYCERIN  A 

chambers,  pharynx,  larynx,  and  other  portions  of  the 
respiratory  membrane,  though  it  is  doubtful  if  they  have 
any  beneficial  effect  beyond  the  nasal  passages  and  the 
pharynx.  The  inhalation  most  frequently  used  is  moist, 
warm  air,  produced  from  a  steam  kettle,  or,  in  the  treatment 
of  horses,  from  a  hot  mash,  placed  in  a  capacious  nose-bag, 
or  in  a  large  bucket  brought  under  the  nostrils,  the  animal's 
head  and  the  bucket  being  covered  with  light  waterproof 
sheeting.  Such  inhalations  are  considered  serviceable  in 
catarrh  and  bronchial  congestion,  and  may  be  rendered 
more  efficacious  by  mixing  with  the  moist,  warm  air  a  little 
laudanum,  eucalyptus  oil,  or  turpentine.  Antiseptic  pro- 
perties are  conferred  by  impregnating  the  air  with  sulphur- 
ous acid,  or  by  the  use  of  creosote,  iodine,  or  iodoform. 
As  in  the  administration  of  chloroform  for  production  of 
anaesthesia,  volatile  drugs  may  be  conveniently  inhaled 
from  a  sponge  placed  in  one  nostril.  Irritability  of  the 
larynx  and  violent  coughing  are  sometimes  relieved  by 
spraying  the  throat  with  solution  of  cocaine,  or  antipyrine 
with  tannin  and  alcohol. 

Fumigations  of  gas  produced  in  a  limited  space  are  used 
to  deodorise  and  disinfect  stables  and  other  premises ; 
and  to  destroy,  or  cause  the  expulsion  of,  parasites  infesting 
the  trachea  and  bronchial  tubes.  For  these  purposes,  the 
agents  commonly  employed  are  chlorine,  formaldehyde, 
and  sulphur  dioxide,  which  is  conveniently  obtained  by 
burning  sulphur  (an  ounce  to  the  cubic  yard  of  space)  or  by 
using  sulphur  candles.  Fumigations  of  sulphurous  acid  gas 
twice  or  thrice  repeated  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  days 
are  usually  effectual  in  destroying  bronchial  strongyles  in 
calves  and  lambs.  Tar  fumes,  produced  by  placing  tar  on 
a  hot  metal  plate,  are  also  employed. 

GLYCBRINA-GLYCBROLES 

Glyeerina  are  solutions  of  soothing  astringent  or  anti- 
septic substances  in  glycerin.  They  are  applied  locally  to 
the  skin  and  mucous  surfaces.  Those  of  carbolic  and  tannic 
acids  contain  one  ounce  by  weight  of  the  acid,  mixed  and 
gently  heated  with  five  fluid  ounces  of  glycerin.  Glycerinum 


INFUSIONS — LIQUORS  723 

boracis  contains  one  of  acid  and  six  of  the  solvent.  Glycer- 
inum  amyli  is  made  with  one  ounce  by  weight  of  starch,  six 
and  a  half  fluid  ounces  of  glycerin,  and  one  and  a  half  of 
water.  Glycerina  of  lead  subacetate,  tragacanth,  boric 
acid,  and  salicylic  acid  are  also  used. 

INFUSIONS 

Infusions  are  solutions  prepared  by  digesting  vegetable 
substances  in  hot  water.  Fourteen  of  the  twenty-two 
officinal  infusions  are  made  with  one  part  of  the  powdered 
or  cut  drug,  to  twenty  of  water.  To  prevent  solution  of  the 
starch  of  the  root,  infusions  of  calumba  and  quassia  are 
made  with  cold  water.  The  process  is  generally  conducted 
in  stoneware  jars,  provided  with  a  cup  having  perforated 
sides  and  bottom,  fitting  into  the  top  of  the  jar,  extending 
about  half-way  down,  and  containing  the  solid  matters  to 
be  infused.  Digestion  is  effected  on  a  stove,  and  is  continued 
for  fifteen  minutes  to  half  an  hour.  The  infusion,  when  cool, 
is  generally  strained,  but  for  veterinary  purposes  and  for 
immediate  use  decanting  is  often  sufficient.  Unless  care- 
fully bottled  and  corked  while  hot,  infusions  soon  spoil, 
especially  in  warm  weather.  Their  keeping  is  sometimes 
improved  by  concentration,  by  evaporation,  or  by  addition 
of  alcohol,  or  about  a  quarter  grain  of  benzoic  acid  to  the 
ounce.  Examples — infusion  of  quassia,  gentian,  ergot,  and 
calumba. 

LIQUORS-SOLUTIONS-LOTIONS 

The  B.P.  enumerates  many  liquors  or  solutions,  nearly 
all  containing  inorganic  bodies,  or  alkaloids,  dissolved 
in  water  alone,  or  with  other  solvents.  They  vary  greatly 
in  strength  and  dose.  The  B.P.  Liquor  Hydrargyri  Per- 
chloridi  contains  gr.  ygth  in  a  fluid  drachm.  Those 
containing  arsenic,  atropine,  morphine,  and  strychnine 
have  about  4J  grains  of  the  poison  in  the  fluid  ounce,  or  one 
grain  in  110  minims.  The  liquors  chiefly  used  by  veterin- 
arians are  liquor  ammonise,  liquor  ammonii  acetatis,  liquor 
iodi,  liquor  arsenicalis,  liquor  ferri  perchloridi,  liquor 


724  MIXTURES— OILS 

potassae,  liquor  calcis,  and  liquor  zinci  chloridi.  The  B.P. 
solutions  of  cocaine,  ergot,  morphine,  and  apomorphine, 
and  many  unofficial  formulae  for  hypodermic  injection  are 
also  used. 

Lotions  are  watery  solutions  intended  for  external  use. 
Those  for  the  mouth  are  called  collutoria,  and  those  for  the 
nasal  chambers  are  known  as  collunaria.  Applications  to 
the  eye  may  be  dry  (powder),  soft  (pomade),  or  liquid 
(eollyrium).  Collyria  may  be  sprayed  or  instilled  into  the 
eye.  In  practising  instillation  in  the  horse  or  ox,  the 
eyelids  are  separated  and  the  lotion  is  poured  into  the 
conjunctival  sac  at  the  temporal  angle  ;  in  the  dog  and  cat 
the  eollyrium  is  dropped  on  to  the  surface  of  the  eyeball. 
Collyria  may  be  anaesthetic  (cocaine,  novocaine,  adrenalin) ; 
antiseptic  (solution  of  boric  acid,  protargol,  hydrogen 
peroxide,  etc.)  ;  astringent  (alum,  zinc  sulphate,  etc.)  ; 
caustic  or  stimulant  (silver  nitrate)  ;  mydriatic  (atropine, 
cocaine,  etc.);  myotic  (eserine);  and  haemostatic  (adrenalin). 
When  frequently  applied  the  salts  of  lead,  zinc,  or  silver 
may  produce  corneal  opacity,  which  does  not  occur  in  using 
boric  acid,  sodium  hyposulphite,  or  hydrogen  peroxide. 

MIXTURES-MUCILAGES-EMULSIONS 

Mixtures  or  misturae  are  preparations  usually  containing 
insoluble  drugs  suspended  in  mucilage  or  other  viscid 
substances.  They  are  exemplified  by  camphor,  chalk, 
and  catechu  mixtures.  Insoluble  heavy  powders,  mixed 
with  dissolved  gum  or  starch,  are  sometimes  also  termed 
mucilages. 

Emulsions  are  opalescent  mixtures  of  oil  or  resin,  sus- 
pended in  aqueous  solution  of  gum,  soap,  alkali,  or  white 
of  egg. 

OILS,    FIXED,   VOLATILE,   AND   MINERAL 

Fixed  oils  and  fats  occur  in  many  plants,  usually  in  the 
seeds  or  fleshy  pulp,  frequently  associated  with  mucilage, 
and  are  also  present  in  animal  bodies.  Besides  lard,  almond, 
olive,  castor,  croton,  cocoa-nut,  linseed,  and  cod-liver  oils, 
enumerated  in  the  Pharmacopoeia,  palm,  rape,  and  cotton- 


VOLATILE    OILS  725 

seed  oils  are  also  used  in  veterinary  practice.  The  fixed  oils 
are  obtained  by  expression.  They  consist  of  two  or  more 
fatty  acids — oleic,  margaric,  palmitic,  and  stearic — in  com- 
bination with  the  sweet  basic  principle  glycerin.  They 
contain  76-79  parts  of  carbon,  with  11-13  of  hydrogen,  and 
10-12  of  oxygen.  Their  consistence  varies  according  to  the 
proportion  of  the  fluid  olein.  When  fresh,  they  are  gener- 
ally almost  colourless,  and  are  inodorous  and  tasteless. 
When  exposed  to  the  air,  the  traces  of  albuminoids  which 
they  contain  oxidise,  a  species  of  fermentation  ensues,  as  in 
saponification,  resulting  in  the  breaking  up  of  the  neutral 
fatty  matters,  with  the  production  of  disagreeable  rancidity, 
which  may,  however,  be  removed  by  boiling  the  faulty  oil 
with  water,  and  subsequently  washing  it  with  a  weak  soda 
solution.  Oils  and  water  are  mutually  but  very  slightly 
soluble,  but  oils  and  fats  are  readily  dissolved  by  carbon 
disulphide,  benzine,  oil  of  turpentine,  ether,  and  chloroform. 
They  are  miscible,  and  hence  sometimes  conveniently  ad- 
ministered, in  milk.  Castor  and  croton  oils  are  soluble  in 
absolute  alcohol.  They  vary  in  their  combustibility  and 
their  melting  and  freezing  points.  Their  specific  gravity 
ranges  from  900-970.  The  bland  oils — such  as  olive, 
linseed,  palm,  and  cod-liver — in  small  quantities  are  nutri- 
ents, but  administered  in  large  doses  they  are  purgatives. 
Croton  oil  is  irritant,  whether  applied  to  a  mucous  surface 
or  to  the  skin. 

The  volatile  or  essential  oils  are  mostly  of  vegetable 
origin,  being  found  generally  in  the  flowers,  leaves,  fruit, 
or  seeds  of  plants,  but  they  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  coni- 
ferae.  The  several  volatile  animal  odorous  principles — am- 
bergris from  the  sperm  whale,  civet,  musk,  and  castoreum 
are  occasionally  used.  The  chemical  constitution  of  the 
volatile  oils  differs  from  that  of  the  fixed  oils  ;  most  are 
pure  hydrocarbons,  with  the  molecular  formula  of  oil  of 
turpentine  (C10H16),  and  are  termed  terpenes.  With  this 
terpene  is  generally  associated  an  oxidised  product,  analo- 
gous to  the  colophony  or  resin  (C2oH3002)  of  turpentine. 
Some,  such  as  oil  of  garlic,  contain  sulphur  ((C3H5)2S). 
They  produce  no  permanent  grease  stain.  Unlike  the  fat 
oils,  they  are  not  unctuous,  but  make  the  skin  rough  or 


726  OINTMETSTTS — OLEATES 

brittle.  They  are  mostly  colourless,  but  have  a  powerful 
odour,  and  distinctive — often  aromatic — taste.  They  are 
insoluble,  or  only  slightly  soluble,  in  water,  but  are  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  fatty  and  mineral  oils.  They  are 
mostly  lighter  than  water.  Most  boil  between  302-382° 
Fahr.,  but  the  boiling  point  of  camphors  is  about  372°  Fahr. 
All  are  acted  upon  by  oxygen,  and  distil  unchanged.  They 
are  obtained  by  distillation,  or  by  extraction.  The  volatile 
oils  are  antiseptic  and  stimulant,  and  are  used  as  carmina- 
tives, antispasmodics,  and  parasiticides,  and  for  flavouring. 

The  Camphors,  thymol,  menthol,  and  common  camphor 
are  oxygen  derivatives  of  volatile  hydrocarbons.  In 
physiological  action  they  are  allied  to  the  volatile  oils. 

Oleo-resins,  such  as  crude  turpentine,  Canada  balsam,  and 
Frankincense,  are  natural  mixtures  of  volatile  oil  and  resin. 

Balsams  are  vegetable  exudations  consisting  of  resins 
with  benzoic  or  cinnamic  acid,  dissolved  in  volatile  oils. 

Mineral,  paraffin,  or  petroleum  oils  are  a  series  of  paraffin 
hydrocarbons,  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  shale,  coal, 
and  other  geological  deposits,  and  having  the  formula 
CuH2n+2.  (See  Petroleums.)  The  several  members  differ 
in  their  boiling  point,  and  are  separable  by  distillation. 
Methane,  or  marsh  gas  (CH4),  and  several  of  the  simpler 
members  are  gaseous,  and  used  for  heating  and  illumination. 
Others,  such  as  pentane  (C5H12),  and  hexane  (C6H14),  are 
known  as  petroleum  spirit,  are  solvents  for  fats,  resins,  and 
indiarubber,  and  are  used  for  making  varnishes.  Heptane 
(C7H16),  known  as  benzoline,  paraffin  oil,  or  mineral  sperm 
oil,  is  used  for  burning.  Nonane  and  dodecane  are  em- 
ployed as  lubricants.  Hexdecane  (C16H34)  is  the  chief 
constituent  of  vaseline  and  other  soft  paraffins.  It  is  used 
as  a  bland  protective,  and  for  the  making  of  ointments. 
The  solid,  hard,  or  wax  paraffins,  melting  at  110-145°  Fahr., 
are  substituted  for  wax  in  the  making  of  ointments. 

OINTMENTS-OLEATES-LINIMENTS-CERATES- 
PASTBS 

Ointments  or  unguenta  are  semi-solid  mixtures  of  drugs 
with  fatty  matters,  and  are  used  externally.  The  excipients 


LINIMENTS — PASTES  727 

generally  employed  are  lard  and  oils  ;  greater  consistence 
and  adhesion  are  conferred  by  addition  of  paraffin  wax  or 
resin  :  rancidity  is  checked  by  admixture  of  benzoin,  or  by 
substituting  mineral,  for  animal  or  vegetable  oils.  By  using 
hydrous  wool  fat,  or  oleic  acid  as  the  basis,  absorption 
through  the  skin  is  said  to  be  facilitated.  When  lard  or 
oil  is  the  excipient,  the  ointment  may  generally  be  prepared 
in  a  suitable  mortar  ;  but  when  wax  or  resin  is  used,  it  must 
be  melted  over  a  slow  fire,  the  other  constituents  added,  and 
the  mass  stirred  until  it  has  acquired  proper  consistence. 
Ointments,  of  which  forty-four  are  enumerated  in  the  B.P., 
should  be  kept  in  well-closed  pots  or  jars,  which  (except 
when  in  daily  use)  should  be  covered  with  moistened 
bladder  and  strong  paper.  They  are  generally  dispensed 
either  in  chip  boxes  or  earthenware  pots,  of  which  the 
practitioner  should  have  several  sizes.  In  dispensing  these 
and  other  officinal  preparations,  spatulse  of  steel,  bone,  wood 
or  horn  are  essential  articles  of  the  pharmacy. 

Oleates  are  solutions  of  active  principles  in  oleic  acid. 
The  B.P.  contains  directions  for  making  mercuric  oleate 
and  the  ointments  of  mercuric  and  zinc  oleates.  Oleic 
acid  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  ointments  of  cocaine, 
atropine,  aconitine,  and  veratrine.  Oleates  are  sometimes 
preferred  to  the  corresponding  ointments,  on  account  of 
their  being  more  readily  absorbed.  The  smart  friction 
employed  in  the  in-rubbing  of  this  class  of  remedies  is 
itself  of  considerable  therapeutic  value.  It  causes  dilata- 
tion of  cutaneous  capillaries,  and  hence  promotes  increased 
circulation  through  superficial  blood  and  lymph  vessels. 

Liniments  or  embrocations  are  solutions  of  active  prin- 
ciples in  oil  or  spirit ;  some,  besides,  contain  camphor, 
several  have  soap  added,  to  increase  their  lubricant  pro- 
perties ;  all  are  intended  for  external  use.  The  B.P. 
enumerates  fifteen  liniments. 

Pastes  are  topical  applications,  of  which  the  basis  consists 
wholly  or  partially  of  fine  silica,  magnesium  carbonate,  or 
siliceous  earths.  Zinc  oxide  and  other  ointments  are  some- 
times united  with  ten  per  cent,  of  such  siliceous  matters. 
The  term  '  paste  '  is  occasionally  also  applied  to  mixtures  of 
farina  or  flour  with  such  drugs  as  borax,  alum,  or  zinc  oxide. 


728  PLASTERS 

The  siliceous  pastes  do  not  impair  skin  secretion  as  fatty 
bodies  do,  and,  moreover,  leave  a  protective  powdery  coating 
on  the  skin.  They  are  hence  indicated,  in  some  cases  of 
moist  eczema  and  other  irritable  conditions  of  the  skin. 

Cerates  are  stiff  ointments  containing  wax. 

Pomades  are  preparations  of  soft  consistence  with  a  basis 
of  lard,  lanoline,  vaseline,  or  glycerin  of  starch,  in  which  is 
incorporated  various  active  agents,  anaesthetics,  antiseptics, 
astringents,  etc. 

PLASTBRS-EMPLASTRA 

Plasters  are  adhesive  substances,  usually  containing  lead 
oxide,  conjoined  with  resin,  wax,  soap,  fats,  tar,  or  pitch  ; 
are  conveniently  kept  in  rolls  ;  and  are  prepared  for  use  by 
being  melted  and  spread  on  calico,  linen,  or  leather.  The 
equable  pressure  of  a  well-applied  plaster  gives  support  and 
protection  ;  retards  evaporation,  and  hence  raises  topical 
temperature  ;  increases  glandular  activity  ;  and  sometimes 
also  hastens  removal  of  inflammatory  products.  Plasters 
are  rendered  more  stimulating  by  addition  of  mustard  or  can- 
tharides  ;  more  soothing  or  anodyne  by  addition  of  opium 
or  belladonna. 

Ordinary  plasters  are  less  useful  in  veterinary  than  in 
human  practice  ;  for  in  the  lower  animals  they  are  apt  to  be 
displaced  by  movements,  the  action  of  the  panniculus  car- 
nosus,  and  by  the  patient  rubbing  or  gnawing  them.  Where 
they  are  to  remain  on  for  several  days  or  weeks,  the  melted 
ingredients  are  applied  directly  to  the  skin,  and  covered  first 
with  finely  chopped  tow  or  lint,  and  then  with  a  linen  or 
leather  bandage.  Plasters  of  this  kind  are  popularly  known 
as  charges,  and  were  formerly  much  used  in  some  forms 
of  lameness.  They  are  serviceable  when  properly  applied 
in  preventing  undue  motion  of  injured  parts.  For  open 
joint  a  useful  plaster  is  made  by  shaking  together  one  Ib. 
shellac  and  one  pint  methylated  spirit.  The  hair  around  the 
wound  is  clipped,  a  small  piece  of  oiled  silk  is  laid  on, 
and  the  adhesive  solution  painted  on  with  a  camel's  hair 
brush  until  a  firm  shield  is  formed.  Adhesive  or  supporting 
plasters  may  be  prepared  with  starch,  silicate  of  potash, 


POULTICES  729 

dextrin,  tripoli,  gum  arable,  plaster  of  Paris,  alum,  gutta- 
percha,  or  flour  and  white  of  egg.  Velpeau's  plaster  con- 
sists of  dextrin  100  parts,  camphor  tincture  and  hot  water, 
of  each  50  parts.  Alum,  16  ounces,  and  alcohol,  35  ounces, 
heated  until  the  mixture  assumes  the  consistence  of  syrup  ; 
or  dextrin  and  alcohol,  without  the  addition  of  water, 
solidify  quickly  and  form  strong  adhesives. 

POULTICBS-CATAPLASMATA 

Poultices  are  local  baths  or  semi-solid  packs,  used  for 
the  topical  application  of  heat  and  moisture.  They  closely 
resemble  fomentations,  and  are  often  employed  to  soften 
the  horn  of  the  horse's  foot.  They  constitute  an  important 
form  of  emollient.  They  are  made  of  such  farinaceous 
substances  as  linseed  meal,  bran,  or  oatmeal,  stirred  into 
boiling  water  until  the  fitting  consistence  is  reached  ;  or  of 
carrots  or  turnips,  either  steamed  or  boiled.  Bread  and 
starch  make  bland  porous  poultices,  and  spent  hops  are 
indicated  where  the  poultice  should  be  light.  Unless  nicely 
prepared,  soft,  fresh,  and  changed  every  two  or  three  hours, 
they  merit  Liston's  condemnation,  that  they  are  associated 
4  with  putrefaction  and  nastiness.'  In  order  to  secure 
softening  of  the  skin,  as  well  as  the  soothing  of  peripheral 
nerve-endings,  medicated  poultices  are  sometimes  laid 
directly  on  wounds  or  contusions,  or  with  only  a  very  thin 
substance  intervening.  When  used,  however,  either  directly 
or  reflexly,  to  relieve  congestion  or  pain,  they  are  placed  in 
a  well- warmed  flannel  bag,  or  in  folds  of  flannel,  which, 
conducting  heat  slowly,  justifies  their  application  at  a  higher 
temperature  than  could  otherwise  be  borne,  and,  moreover, 
preserves  heat  longer.  Poultices  arrest  superficial  and 
circumscribed  inflammation  in  the  early  stages  ;  and  in 
more  advanced  stages,  when  white  corpuscles  have  escaped 
through  the  vessels,  or  pus  has  begun  to  form,  they  promote 
maturation  of  the  abscess.  They  should  not  be  used  for 
wounds,  which,  if  kept  dry  or  treated  antiseptically,  will 
heal  by  first  intention  or  adhesion,  nor  for  chronic  injuries 
where  the  parts  have  become  relaxed  and  deficient  in  tone, 
in  which  cases  cold  applications  are  indicated.  Heat, 


730  POULTICES 

without  moisture,  may  be  applied  by  the  agency  of  hot 
bricks,  salt,  bran,  or  sand,  of  hot-water  bags,  of  well- 
warmed  rugs  or  flannels,  or  of  the  smoothing-iron.  A  piece 
of  flannel,  thoroughly  wrung  out  of  boiling  water,  applied 
hot,  its  several  folds  covered  with  thin  mackintosh,  and  kept 
in  place  by  a  bandage,  in  virtue  of  the  heat  and  equable 
pressure,  relieves  strains,  and  diminishes  swelling  and  pain 
of  the  legs  of  horses  worn  by  much  work  on  hard  roads. 

Poultices,  to  be  properly  and  securely  applied,  require 
some  ingenuity  and  mechanical  tact.  To  prevent  unpleasant 
sticking,  the  skin  is  sometimes  covered  with  a  piece  of 
muslin,  or  moistened  with  vaseline,  oil,  or  solution  of  glycerin. 
Before  application  of  the  poultice,  the  irritable  inflamed 
surface  is  sometimes  dressed  with  equal  parts  of  belladonna 
extract,  glycerin  and  water,  or  an  anodyne.  To  keep  the 
poultice  as  long  as  possible  at  a  uniform  temperature,  it 
should  be  of  considerable  bulk,  and  usually  several  inches 
thick  ;  hot  water  is  poured  over  the  mass  every  hour  or 
two,  or,  better  still,  fresh  poultices  are  supplied  as  the  old 
ones  become  dry,  lower  in  temperature,  or  foul.  Such 
changes  should  be  quickly  effected,  for  exposure  chills  the 
moist,  warm  surface.  When  the  poulticing  is  done  with, 
the  surface  should  be  enveloped  in  flannel,  or  in  a  woollen 
rug  covered  with  oilskin.  In  cases  of  chest  or  bowel  in- 
flammation, dogs,  like  children,  are  advantageously  placed  in 
jacket  or  saddle  poultices.  Poultices  are  rendered  more 
soothing  by  addition  of  opiates  or  anodynes  ;  more  stimulat- 
ing by  sprinkling  with  mustard  or  turpentine  ;  more  anti- 
septic by  admixture  with  boric  acid,  chlorinated  soda, 
carbolic  or  salicylic  acid,  or  charcoal. 

Poultices  too  long  continued  are  apt  to  soften  and  sodden 
the  skin,  and  to  hinder  reparative  power.  Unwieldy  to 
apply,  and  troublesome  to  regulate  as  to  temperature,  they 
are  often  superseded  by  fomentations,  by  antiseptic  dress- 
ings, by  water  dressings  of  moistened  and  medicated  lint 
or  tow,  from  which  evaporation  is  retarded  by  a  covering  of 
oiled  silk  or  waterproof  cloth,  or  by  spongiopiline — a  felted 
wool  and  sponge,  coated  on  one  surface  with  guttapercha, 
and  when  soaked  with  hot  water  proving  a  cleanly,  handy 
substitute  for  a  small  poultice. 


POWDERS — PULVEBES  731 

POWDERS-PULVBRES 

Many  medicines  may  be  reduced  to  a  rough  powder  in  a 
hand-mill  such  as  that  used  for  grinding  coffee  or  pepper  ; 
or  in  an  iron  mortar  (which  should  be  fixed  into  a  block  of 
wood),  with  a  large,  heavy,  iron  pestle,  which  ought  to  be 
suspended  from  one  end  of  a  flexible  rod  running  along  the 
ceiling,  and  fixed  into  the  opposite  wall.     Preparatory  to 
further  reduction,  many  roots  and  barks  are  pounded  or 
cut.     To  effect  minuter  subdivision,  small  quantities  of  the 
coarse  powders  are  reduced  in  hand  mortars,  of  marble,  or 
Wedgwood  ware,  the  latter  being  cheap,  easily  cleaned,  and 
little  affected  by  acids.     When  a  fine  state  of  division  is 
required,  the  powder  is  put  through  wire-gauze  or  horse- 
hair sieves,  the  meshes  of  which  are  made  of  suitable  close- 
ness.    For  light,  pungent,  or  irritant  powders,  compound 
sieves,  closed  in  above  and  below,  are  used.     To  facilitate 
reduction  of  tough  vegetable  drugs  such  as  opium,  they 
are  sometimes  mixed  with  a  hard  salt,  such  as  potassium 
sulphate.     To    avoid    tedious    trituration,    powders,    like 
calomel  and  flowers  of  sulphur,  are  conveniently  obtained 
by  sublimation  ;   others,  like  magnesium  carbonate  or  mer- 
cury red  oxide,  by  precipitation  ;  other  insoluble  substances, 
like  prepared  chalk,  by  stirring  in  water,  allowing  the  coarser 
particles  to  settle,  and  pouring  off  the  solution  from  which 
the  finely-divided  powder  is  gradually  deposited  and  dried. 
Nauseous,  deliquescent,  efflorescent,  and  volatile  substances, 
and  those  given  in  large  doses,   cannot  be  conveniently 
administered  in  powder.     Active  drugs  are  prescribed  with 
such  inert  substances  as  starch,  gum,  liquorice,  or  sugar 
of  milk.     Powders,  when  not  too  bulky,  are  occasionally 
dropped  upon  the  patient's  tongue,  or  introduced  into  the 
mouth  or  nostrils  by  insufflation.     When  free  of  disagree- 
able flavour,  they  are  sometimes  scattered  upon  or  mixed 
with  the  food. 


RESINS 

Resins  are  amorphous  solids  consisting  of  acids  formed 
from  the  oxidation  of  terpenes  (C10H16).     They  are  insoluble 


732  RESINS— SYRUPS 

in  water,  soluble  in  spirit,  and  melt  when  heated.  They 
dissolve  in  alkalies,  forming  soaps.  They  are  frequently 
found  in  plants  conjoined  with  volatile  oil,  constituting  an 
oleo-resin,  such  as  that  of  copaiba  or  of  cubebs.  Occasion- 
ally they  are  associated  with  gum,  as  in  the  gum-resins, 
asafostida,  ammoniacum,  myrrh,  and  gamboge.  The  resins 
proper  are  only  sparingly  soluble  in  the  animal  secretions, 
but  they  irritate  by  contact,  and  hence,  when  swallowed, 
are  cathartic  and  diuretic.  The  oleo-resins  are  more  active  ; 
they  stimulate  mucous  surfaces,  from  which  they  are  ab- 
sorbed or  excreted.  Gums  or  exudations  from  the  stems  of 
plants  contain  arabin  or  soluble  gum  (acacia),  bassorin  or 
less  soluble  gum,  and  cerasin  or  insoluble  gum.  Alcohol 
precipitates  solution  of  gum. 

SYRUPS-CONFECTIONS-ELECTUARIES 

Syrups  are  saccharine  solutions,  usually  containing 
flavouring  or  medicinal  substances.  Their  specific  gravity 
ranges  from  1*300  and  1*400.  Their  consistence  is  im- 
portant. If  too  thin  and  weak,  they  become  mouldy,  and 
are  apt  to  ferment ;  if  too  thick  and  strong,  the  sugar 
crystallises  out.  But  the  B.P.  ensures  uniformity  and  good 
keeping  by  definite  instructions  as  to  the  proportion  of 
refined  sugar  and  other  constituents  in  the  twenty-two  syrups . 
Simple  syrup  is  prepared  by  dissolving,  by  the  aid  of  heat, 
five  pounds  of  refined  sugar  in  two  pints  of  distilled  water, 
and  adding  sufficient  water  to  make  7J  Ibs.  of  syrup.  The 
syrups  chiefly  used  in  veterinary  practice  are  those  of 
buckthorn,  squill,  rhubarb,  chloral,  ginger,  and  iron  iodide, 
in  which  the  sugar  prevents  oxidation.  Electuaries  are 
made  with  sugar,  mucilage,  honey,  or  treacle.  Confections 
or  conserves  are  soft  pastes,  largely  composed  of  sugar  or 
honey,  and,  like  syrups  and  electuaries,  are  chiefly  used  as 
vehicles  for  administering  powders,  or  disagreeably  tasted 
drugs. 

TINCTURES-SPIRITS-WINES 

Tinctures  are  spirituous  solutions  of  active  principles. 
The  usual  solvent  is  ethylic  alcohol  (45  to  90  per  cent.). 


TINCTURES  733 

Spirit  of  ether  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  tincture  of 
lobelia,  and  solution  of  ammonia,  in  making  the  ammoniated 
tinctures  of  guaiacum,  valerian,  ergot,  opium,  and  quinine. 
Tinctures  are  prepared  without  heat  by  simple  solution,  by 
maceration,  or  by  displacement,  or  sometimes  by  a  combina- 
tion of  these  processes.  The  materials,  first  reduced  by 
cutting  or  bruising,  are  placed  with  the  spirit  in  a  suitable 
vessel,  and  usually  remain  from  two  to  seven  days  ;  the 
solution  is  poured  off,  the  residue  pressed,  and  the  tincture, 
when  filtered,  is  ready  for  use.  Sometimes  the  materials,  in 
a  state  of  moderately  fine  division,  are  packed  in  a  per- 
colator or  cylindrical  vessel  of  glass  earthenware,  or  metal ; 
the  spirit  passes  gradually  through  them,  displaces  and 
dissolves  out  their  soluble  parts,  filters  through  the  linen  or 
calico,  which  is  usually  stretched  across  the  lower  part  of 
the  cylinder,  and  passes  off  by  the  stop-cock,  which  should 
be  attached  to  the  apparatus.  Some  tinctures  are  made  by 
macerating  the  materials  in  water  for  a  couple  of  days, 
obtaining  the  remaining  active  principles  by  percolation 
with  spirit,  and  mixing  the  two  solutions.  More  thorough 
and  rapid  extraction  of  active  principles  is  obtained  by 
Burton's  process.  The  drug  and  solvent  are  packed  in  the 
percolator,  on  the  neck  of  which  an  elastic  cap  is  fixed  ; 
with  an  exhausting  syringe  a  partial  vacuum  is  created  ;  and 
air  being  subsequently  admitted,  the  spirit  penetrates  the 
drug,  and  more  effectually  extracts  its  active  principles. 

Tinctures  are  clear,  of  a  yellow,  red,  or  brown  colour,  and 
generally  keep  well.  A  few  have  been  standardised,  which 
means  that,  in  accordance  with  the  B.P.  1898,  the  tincture 
shall  be  made  to  contain  a  fixed  percentage  of  the  chief 
active  principle  of  the  drug.  The  tinctures  of  cinchona, 
jalap,  and  opium  are  now  standardised,  and  others  are 
directed  to  be  prepared  from  standardised  extracts.  The 
revisers  of  the  B.P.  have  endeavoured  to  reduce  dubiety 
and  risk  of  accident  by  so  adjusting  the  strength  of  the 
tinctures  that,  for  an  adult  human  patient,  the  average 
dose  of  the  more  potent  tinctures  is  from  five  to  fifteen 
minims,  and  of  the  less  potent,  from  half  a  drachm  to  a 
drachm,  while  four  to  eight  drachms  of  the  stronger,  and 
one  to  two  ounces  of  the  weaker  tinctures  may  be  pre- 


734  WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES 

scribed  for  the  horse. — The  official  tinctures  of  aconite, 
digitalis,  nux-vomica,  cantharides,  and  iron  perchloride,  and 
a  few  unofficial  tinctures  are  sufficiently  concentrated  to 
require  special  care  in  their  administration. 

Medicated  Spirits,  are  solutions  of  volatile  oils,  ethers  or 
other  substances  in  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  The  average 
strength  is  one  in  ten.  The  simple  spirits  are  represented 
by  those  of  peppermint,  anise,  camphor  (1  in  10),  jumper, 
chloroform  (1  in  20)  and  ether.  The  official  compound 
spirits  (nitrous  ether,  sal  volatile,  etc.)  are  five  in  number. 

Medicated  wines,  such  as  vinum  antimoniale  and  vinum 
ipecacuanhae,  made  with  sherry  or  orange  wine,  are  merely 
weak  tinctures.  Elixirs  are  tinctures  mixed  with  aromatics 
and  syrup. 

WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES,   IMPERIAL   AND 
METRIC 

Two  systems  of  weights — the  imperial  and  the  apothe- 
caries'— were  formerly  employed  by  medical  men,  veter- 
inarians, and  chemists.  The  avoirdupois  or  imperial  weight 
was  used  by  wholesale  druggists,  and  also  by  retailers 
in  buying  their  drugs,  and  usually  in  selling  quantities 
amounting  to  or  exceeding  an  ounce.  In  dealing  with 
smaller  quantities,  and  in  making  up  prescriptions,  apothe- 
caries' weight  was  employed.  To  avoid  the  ambiguity 
occurring  from  the  use  of  these  two  systems,  the  framers  of 
the  B.P.  in  1864  abolished  the  apothecaries'  weight,  adopted 
the  avoirdupois  ounce  as  the  standard,  divided  it  into  437' 5 
grains,  and  ignored  entirely  drachms  and  scruples.  But  so 
great  is  the  inconvenience  arising  from  the  want  of  some 
denomination  between  the  grain  and  the  ounce,  that 
medical  and  veterinary  authorities  still  use  the  symbols 
£)  (scruple)  and  3  (drachm),  the  former  representing  20 
and  the  latter  60  grains. 

APOTHECARIES'   MEASURES   OP   WEIGHT 

1  grain,  gr.j. 

1  scruple,  5j.  .  .  =20  grains. 

1  drachm,  3j.  .         .  ;  =   3  scruples  =     60  grs. 

1  ounce,  §j.  »-••-.  .  =   8  drachms  =  480    „ 

1  pound,  Ib.j.  .        *  .  =12  ounces    =5760    „ 


THE   CAPACITY   OF   DOMESTIC   UTENSILS        735 

PHARMACOPOEIA   MEASURES   OF   MASS 

1  grain,    gr.j.  =  0'064S  gramme,  or  64'8  milligrammes. 

1  ounce,  oz.j.  5].     =437 '5  grains  =  28'35  grammes. 

1  pound,  Ibj.  =16  ounces  =  7000  grains  =  453 -5825  grammes. 

MEASURES   OF   CAPACITY 

minim,  min.,         T7|J. 

fluid  drachm,         foj.  =60  minims. 

fluid  ounce,  f§j.  =   8  fluid  drachms        =     480  minims. 

pint  (octarius),     O.j.  =20  fluid  ounces  =   9600       „ 

gallon  (congius),  C.j.  =   8  pints  =76800 

It  is  often  useful  to  recollect  the  weight  of  different 
measures.  Of  water,  one  minim  (T1\j.)  weighs  nine-tenths 
of  a  grain  ;  a  fluid  ounce  at  62°  Fahr.  weighs  exactly  437' 5 
grains,  or  an  ounce  avoirdupois  ;  hence  a  pint  is  equal  to 
a  pound  and  a  quarter,  and  a  gallon  to  ten  pounds  imperial 
weight. 

To  prevent  mistakes,  medicines  for  external  and  internal 
use  should  be  sent  out  in  differently  shaped  and  differently 
coloured  bottles,  properly  labelled  ;  while  all  potent  pre- 
parations should  further  be  labelled  '  Poison.' 

When  standard  measures  cannot  be  obtained,  the  practi- 
tioner has  often  occasion  to  use  some  of  the  ordinary 
domestic  utensils,  with  the  capacity  of  which  he  ought 
therefore  to  be  familiar.  Common  tumblers  contain  from 
eight  to  ten  fluid  ounces  ;  teacups,  five  to  seven  fluid 
ounces  ;  breakfast  cups,  about  eight  to  ten  fluid  ounces  ; 
wine-glasses,  two  to  two  and  a  half  fluid  ounces ;  tablespoons, 
half  a  fluid  ounce  ;  dessertspoons,  two  fluid  drachms  ;  and 
teaspoons,  one  fluid  drachm  of  sixty  minims.  Such  measure- 
ments, however,  are  merely  approximate.  The  common 
teaspoon  often  holds  one  and  a  half  to  two  drachms,  so  that 
its  use  for  potent  and  toxic  agents  is  dangerous.  The  pint 
and  quart  bottles,  subdivisions  of  the  old  wine  measure, 
contain  respectively  about  13  and  27  fluid  ounces,  and  not, 
as  their  names  might  indicate,  20  and  40  fluid  ounces.  A 
Scotch  pint  contains  60  fluid  ounces.  Medicines  are  some- 
times measured  by  the  drop,  which  varies,  however,  ex- 
ceedingly with  the  density  and  viscidity  of  the  fluid,  and 
the  form  and  size  of  the  vessel  from  which  it  falls. 


736  MEASURES    OF   MASS   AND    CAPACITY 

The  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures,  now  legalised 
in  this  country,  is  everywhere  extensively  used  in  scientific 
observations,  and,  from  the  simplicity  of  its  decimal  grada- 
tions, is  certain  to  become  general.  The  metric  tables  of 
weight,  capacity,  and  length,  with  their  relations  to  the 
corresponding  English  tables,  are  appended  : — 


MEASURES   OF   MASS 

1  milligramme  =       O'OOl  gm.  =  0'015432  gr.  =approx. /T  grain. 
1  centigramme  =       O'Ol      „   =0'15432     „    =      ,,         ^     „ 
1  decigramme    =       O'l        „   =1*5432       grs.  =      „        Ingrains. 
1  gramme  =       1-0        „   =15-4323     „    =      „      15|     „ 

1  decagramme  =     10*0        „   =0*022046  Ib.   =      „    154J     „ 
1  hectogramme  =   100-0        „   =0-22046  .  „ 

1  kilogramme    =1000*0        „   =2-2046,  or  2  Ibs.,  3  ozs.,  and  120 

grains  nearly. 

In  commerce  the  kilogramme  is  calculated  as  2  and  one- 
tenth  pounds. 

The  gramme,  taken  as  the  unit  of  weight,  is  a  cubic  centi- 
metre of  water  at  4°  C.  or  39- 2°  Fahr. 


MEASURES   OF   CAPACITY 

1  c.cm.,  or  1  millilitre  =        1  gramme  of  water  =   0-0610  c.  in. 

= nearly  17  minims. 
10     ,,       ,,1  centilitre  =     10  gramme  of  water  =  0-610    c.  in. 

=  nearly  170  minims. 
100      „       ,,1  decilitre    =   100  gramme  of  water  =   6'10      c.  in. 

=  nearly  3J  ounces. 

1000      „       „  1  litre          =1000  gramme  of  water =61 '0        c.  in. 

=  nearly  35J  ounces. 

A  litre  is  equal  to  1'  75980  pint,  or  1  pint,   15  ounces, 
1  drachm,  and  34  minims  nearly. 


MEASURES   OF   LENGTH 

1  millimetre  =0'001  metre  =  0-039370,  or  ^  English  inch. 

1  centimetre  =0-01        „     =  0-39370,  or  f  English  inch. 

1  decimetre  =0'1          „     =   3-9370,  or  nearly  4  English  inches. 

1  metre          =1'0          „     =39-370113,  or  1  yard,  3'37  ins.  nearly. 


THE    FAHRENHEIT    THERMOMETER  737 

The  Fahrenheit  thermometer,  the  measure  of  temperature 
still  retained  by  the  B.P.,  and  in  many  works  on  human 
materia  medica,  is  the  measure  again  adopted  in  this  book. 
The  Centigrade  scale,  however,  is  also  extensively  used. 
It  is  often  requisite  to  ascertain  the  corresponding  numbers 
on  each  scale,  and  for  this  purpose  the  following  rule  is 
useful.  To  convert  any  number  of  Centigrade  into  Fahren- 
heit degrees,  multiply  by  9,  divide  by  5,  and  add  32.  For 
the  converse  process,  subtract  32,  multiply  by  5,  and  divide 
by  9. 


INDEXES 


INDEX  OF  DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES 

ABORTION. 

Expulsion  of  the  young  before  viability  ;  Slipping  ;  Premature  birth. 
(1)  Occasional  or  accidental  cases  caused  by  rough  treatment,  falls, 
railroad  journeys,  acute  indigestion,  ergotised  food,  occur  in  all 
females.  (2)  Contagious  abortion  depending  upon  specific  infection 
of  the  womb  ;  the  microbe  is  present  in  the  uterine  discharges  and 
amnial  fluid  of  aborting  cows,  ewes,  and  mares.  Contagium  may 
be  transmitted  by  the  bull. 

Isolate  aborted  from  pregnant  animals  and  burn  litter. 
Burn,  thoroughly  disinfect,  or  deeply  bury  foetus  and  its  membranes. 
Cleanse  and  thoroughly  disinfect  premises  in  which  animal  has  aborted. 
Irrigate,  with  germicides,  uterus,  vagina,  external  organs,  and  tail  root 

of  every  animal  aborting. 

One  part  corrosive  sublimate,  40  common  salt,  4000  clean  rain-water,  or 
one  part  each  mercuric  iodide  and  pot.  iodide  in  1000  water,  safe  and 
effectual. 
With  this  solution  irrigate  vagina,  external  genitals,  and  tail  root  of 

animals  that  exhibit  premonitory  symptoms. 
Postpone  breeding  with  cows  that  have  been  affected  with  contagious 

vaginitis. 

Wash  frequently  external  genitals  and  tail  of  gravid  animals  that  have 
herded  with  those  aborted,  with  5  per  cent,  solution  ferrous  sulphate. 
Animals  which  have  aborted  should  be  fed  off,  for  the  microbes  are  dis- 
lodged with  difficulty,  and  fresh  generations  are  liable  in  subsequent 
conceptions  to  repeat  their  attack  (Nocard). 
Prohibit  use  of  bulls  that  have  served  aborted  cows. 

ABSCESS. 

A  circumscribed  swelling  containing  pus. 

Fomentations,  poultices,  water  dressings  relieve  tension  and  pain. 
When    maturing    tardily,   apply  counter-irritant — mercury  oleate    or 

iodide  over  small  area. 

Open  immediately  with  knife,  and  provide  drainage. 
When  deep-seated,  open  by  Hilton's  method  under  local  anesthesia. 
After  evacuation  dress  antiseptically. 
Healing  of  chronic  abscess  cavity  hastened  by  antiseptic  injection  ;  as 

10  per  cent.  sol.  of  iodine. 
Belladonna  inunction  relieves  pain. 

ACARI.     MITES.     See  MANGE  and  SCAB. 

They  produce  skin  irritation,  itching,  and  eruption. 
Soft  soap,  alkalies,  and  hot  water  cleanse  skin,  remove  scales,  and  lay 

bare  burrows. 
Soaking  with  oil  and  alkali  facilitates  removal  of  crusts. 


740  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

ACARI— continued. 

As  parasiticides  rub  in  sulphur,  or  sulphur  iodide  ointment,  mercury 

oleate,  tar  oils,  stavesacre,  or  creolin  solutions. 
For  dogs — aniseed  or  other  volatile  oil,  wood  tar  oils,  or  creolin. 
For  sheep — solutions  of  tar  oils,  arsenic,  tobacco.      Separate  affected 

from  healthy.    Narrowly  watch  suspected.    Disinfect  premises,  racks, 

rubbing  posts,  etc. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS. 

A  disease  caused  by  the  ray  fungus  found  on  barley  and  other  plants, 
thence  introduced  into  the  bodies  of  animals,  probably  through 
abrasions    in    the    mucous    membranes,    producing    granulomata, 
nodules  or  tumours  ;  found  chiefly  in  the  tongue  and  jawbones  of 
cattle,  udder  of  sows,  etc. 
In  early  stage  excise  diseased  structures. 
Scrape  and  dress  with  iodine  tincture  or  a  mixture  of  iodine,  carbolic 

acid,  and  glycerin. 
Administer  full  doses  pot.  iodide  for  a  month  ;  iodopin,  or  small  doses  of 

mercury  biniodide. 

Precautions  to  prevent  transfer  of  parasite  to  man  or  other  animals. 
Generous  diet ;  tonics. 

ACIDITY  OF  STOMACH. 

Pyrosis.      Occurs    in    all    animals,    notably    when    under    artificial 

conditions. 
Change  of  food,  which  should  be  digestible,  unstimulating,  and  rather 

restricted  in  amount. 

Half  dose  of  physic  will  remove  any  irritant. 
Mineral  acids,  given  before  or  with  food. 
Alkaline  bicarbonates  as  palliatives. 
Lime  water  and  chalk  when  diarrhoea  present. 
Magnesia  or  the  carbonate  when  constipation  present. 
Place  a  piece  of  rock  salt  in  horse's  manger. 

Conjoin  antiseptics  with  antacids  when  associated  with  flatulence. 
Bismuth  and  opium,  with  liquorice  when  accompanied  by  irritation. 
G-entian,  nux-vomica,  and  other  bitters  when  resulting  from  atony. 
Silver  oxide,  tannates,  lead  acetate,  when  associated  with  gastric  catarrh. 

ACNE. 

Inflammation  of  sebaceous  follicles  and  sweat  glands,  with  retention 
of  secretion  and  eruption  of  pimples,  usually  produced  in  horses  by 
badly  fitting  or  dirty  harness. 
Wash  and  disinfect  skin  ;  hot  fomentations ;  water  dressing ;  alkaline 

solutions,    such   as   saturated   solution   sodium    bicarbonate,    borax, 

glycerin  and  water,  or  sulphur  iodide.      Touch   each   pimple  with 

undiluted  carbolic  acid. 

See  to  fitting  and  proper  lining  of  harness  ;  zinc  shield  for  collar. 
Sulphur,  both  locally  and  internally.     Belladonna  extract,  or  Goulard's 

extract  relieve  local  irritation. 
Salines  and  arsenic  internally  in  chronic  cases. 

AFTER-PAINS. 

Post-partum  pains  ;  Heaving  ;  Septic  metritis. 

Remove  foetal  membranes  and  clots  from  uterus  ;  raise  hind-quarters. 
Syphon  into  uterus  warm  solution  of  antiseptics  and  anodynes,  or  solution 

of  carbolic  acid,  potassium  permanganate,  or  mercuric  iodide,  with 

belladonna  and  opium. 

Ergotin  hypodermically,  if  uterus  flaccid  and  dilated. 
Administer  chloroform  or  chloral,  with  cannabis  indica  or  belladonna. 
Morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically  in  persistent  cases. 
Laxatives  and  enemata  to  empty  bowels  ;  remove  milk  from  udder. 
Disinfect  attendants  and  lambing  pens. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  741 

ALOPECIA. 

Baldness  depending  on  faulty  nutrition  of  skin  and  atrophy  of  hair 

bulbs.     Often  parasitic. 

Oleaginous  diet,  tonics,  sulphur  iodide.     Antiparasitics. 
Stimulate  skin  with  ammonia  liniment ;  cantharides  tincture,  one  part, 

soap  or  camphor  liniment,  eight  parts  ;  or  castor  oil. 
Shave  and  rub   in   vaseline   daily,  dressing    occasionally  with   above 
stimulants. 

AMAUROSIS.     BLINDNESS. 

Paralysis  of  optic  nerve  and  retina  with  constantly  dilated  pupil ;  may 

follow  contagious  equine  pneumonia  and  canine  distemper. 
Except  when  depending  upon  loss  of  blood,  debility,  or  lead-poisoning, 

it  is  incurable. 

Strychnine  in  traumatic  cases  and  those  of  nerve  atrophy,  but  unsuit- 
able where  there  are  brain  symptoms. 

ANEMIA. 

Diminution  of  red  corpuscles  and  other  essential  constituents  of  the 
blood. 

Pernicious  anaemia,  probably  dependent  on  a  microbe  (Friedberger), 
frequently  infectious,  and  accompanied  by  fluidity  and  redness  of 
bone  marrow.  In  dogs  may  be  due  to  worms. 

Generous  diet,  containing  suitable  proteids  and  fats. 

Comfortable  quarters,  pure  air,  exercise  ;  clip  horses  with  heavy  coats. 

Iron  salts  and  occasional  laxatives.     Malt  extract  ;  haemoglobin. 

Gentian,  quinine,  and  other  bitters  where  appetite  faulty ;  strychnine. 

Mineral  acids  where  gastric  mucous  membrane  soft  and  relaxed. 

Arsenic,  after  iron  has  been  given  for  ten  days,  or  where  iron  disagrees. 

Calcium  phosphate  in  growing  young  animals  ;  Squires'  syrup,  alter- 
nated with  Donovan's  solution,  or  cod-liver  oil. 

ANEURISM. 

A  localised  dilatation  with  partial  rupture  of  an  artery. 

Equable  pressure,  truss,  bandages,  acupressure,  cat-gut  ligatures  above 
and  below  sac. 

Aconite  relieves  pain  and  lowers  circulation. 

Ergotin  locally  injected  contracts  vessel. 

Pot.  iodide  encourages  absorption.     Rest,  quiet ;  rather  low  diet. 

Electrolysis,  injection  of  ferric  chloride,  lead  acetate,  or  sterilised  solu- 
tion of  gelatine  may  cause  coagulation  within  sac. 

Radical  cure  and  obliteration  of  vessel  by  double  ligature  or  by  con- 
tinuous acupressure. 

ANGLE  BERRIES.     See  WARTS. 

Remove  by  knife,  torsion,  caustic,  or  ligature  ;  dress  antiseptically. 

ANTHRAX.  CHARBON. 

Depends  upon  the  Bacillus  anthracis,  and  is  communicable  by  inocula- 
tion from  one  animal  and  from  one  species  to  another.  Cattle, 
horses,  and  sheep  are  most  frequently  attacked.  Bacilli  and  spores 
are  taken  up  by  animals  in  their  food  and  water  ;  are  occasionally 
inhaled,  or  may  be  introduced  through  skin  abrasions.  The  char- 
acteristic lesions  are  accompanied  by  acute  pyrexia,  and  are  usually 
localised — 

(1)  In  the  subcutaneous  structures,  corresponding  to  the  malignant 
pustule  of  man. 

(2)  In  the  pharynx  and  respiratory  passages  of  pigs,  horses,  and  other 
animals. 

(3)  In  the  intestine  of  horses. 

(4)  In  the  spleen,  chiefly  of  adult  cattle  and  sheep,  recognised  as 
splenic  apoplexy  ;  very  sudden  in  its  onset,  and  killing  sometimes 
within  an  hour. 


742  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

ANTHRAX.     CHARBON — continued. 

Curative  treatment  in  animals  is  dangerous  and  inadvisable. 

Preventive  treatment  consists  in  protection  from  access  of  bacillus  and 

spores. 
Cremate  or  bury  deeply  infected  discharges  and  carcases,  which  should 

neither  be  skinned  nor  opened  ;  fence  off  graves. 
The  flesh  of  animals  dead  from  anthrax  has  produced  by  ingestion  the 

disease  in  pigs  and  dogs. 
Thoroughly  disinfect  premises. 

Keep  susceptible  animals  off  pastures  where  disease  has  occurred. 
Inoculation  with  attenuated  virus  ensures  temporary  protection. 

ANURIA. 

Dysuria;  Retention   of    urine.     Results    from    calculi,    or    urethral 

obstruction,  paresis  or  spasm  of  the  bladder,  and  other  causes  ;  more 

common  and  distressing  in  horses  and  dogs  than  in  cattle  or  sheep. 

The  bladder  in  the  horse  may  be  gently  pressed  by  the  hand  introduced 

into  the  rectum  ;  warm  hip  bath  for  dogs  ;  pass  catheter. 
Friction  and  warm  applications  to  the  perineum  may  overcome  paralysis 

or  spasm. 

Anti-paralysants  or  antispasmodics  administered. 
Surgical  treatment  for  calculus  ;  urinary  antiseptics. 

APHTHA. 

Vesicles  in  the  mouth  ;  Thrush.     Associated  with  epiphytes,  oidium 

albicans,  etc.     Most  common  in  young  animals. 
Alum,  hydrogen  peroxide,  borax,   sulphurous  or   boracic  acid,   or  pot. 

chlorate  solution  applied  locally. 

Oxymel,  glycerin  and  water,  or  glycerin  of  starch,  or  of  tannic  acid. 
When  connected  with  gastric  derangement,  give  laxatives,  salines,  or 

grey  powder. 

When  patient  reduced  prescribe  tonics. 
Soft  digestible  food. 

APHTHOUS  FEVER  or  VESICULAR  EPIZOOTIC. 

Foot-and-mouth-disease  ;  A  contagious  eruptive  fever  affecting  cattle, 
sheep,  pigs,  and  occasionally  poultry.  The  infective  agent,  contained 
in  the  discharges  from  the  vesicles  and  ulcers,  is  transmissible  by 
direct  or  by  mediate  contagion. 

Segregate  affected  ;  disinfection  ;  green  forage  or  soft  digestible  food. 
Keep  inflamed,  abraded  surfaces  clean,  and  moisten  occasionally  with 
alum,  borax,  or  zinc  sulphate,  made  up  with  treacle,  honey,  or  glycerin 
and  water. 
Lead  or  zinc  acetate  solution  or  ointment,  Goulard's  extract,  or  potassium 

permanganate  diluted,  applied  to  udder  and  feet. 
Milk  affected  cows  frequently,  preventing  lodgment  in  udder  of  stale 

milk. 

The  milk  unsafe  unless  boiled  for  fifteen  minutes  ;  better  destroyed. 
Pot.  nitrate  arid  chlorate,  mixed  with  mash  or  drinking  water,  when 

fever  high. 

One  attack    does    not    protect    the    subject    exposed    to    subsequent 
infection. 

APOPLEXY,  CEREBRAL. 

Rupture  of  blood-vessel  occasionally  fromatheroma,  causing  pressure, 
and    sometimes    softening   of   brain   substance.     Not   common   in 
domestic  animals. 
Blood-letting,  pot.  iodide,  lower  arterial  pressure  where  attack  threatened 

or  in  earlier  comatose  stage. 
Active  purgative,  laxative  enemas,  cold  water  and  ice  to  head  relieve 

congestion. 
Nitro-glycerin  and  bromides  also  diminish  cerebral  congestion. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  743 

APOPLEXY,  CEREBRAL— continued. 

Alcohol  and  other  stimulants  may  be  needful  to  combat  subsequent 

anaemia. 

Massage,  electricity,  strychnine,  relieve  paralysis. 

Digestible  laxative  food  ;  avoid  over-exertion  or  exposure  to  heat  of  sun. 
Iodine  and  pot.  iodide  promote  absorption. 
Recurring  attacks  in  robust  subjects  prevented  by   careful  diet  and 

regular  work. 

APOPLEXY,  PULMONARY. 

Hyperaemia  and  oedema  of  lungs.     Occurs  especially  in  horses  out  of 

condition,  usually  from  violent  over-exertion. 
Cool  air  to  breathe  ;  smart  hand- rubbing  of  body  and  limbs,  which  must 

subsequently  be  warmly  clothed. 
Small  repeated  doses  of  alcohol,  ether,  or  ammonia  stimulate  cardiac 

and  respiratory  centres. 
Abstraction  of  blood  from  jugular  relieves  congestion  of  right  heart. 

APOPLEXY,  SPLENIC.     See  ANTHRAX. 

APPETITE,  IMPAIRED. 

Varied  and  tempting  diet. 

Food  removed  if  not  eaten,  and  fresh  supply  presented  at  next  meal. 
Acids,  bitters,  imx-vomica,  quinine,  glycerophosphates. 
Examine  teeth,  mouth,  and  throat,  and  look  for  gastric,  cardiac,  or 
other  cause. 

ARTHRITIS.     See  also  NAVEL  DISEASE. 

Inflammation  of  joint.  Occurs  in  all  animals  ;  in  young,  from  pysemic 
infection,  or  rheumatism  :  in  horses,  from  strains,  injuries,  or  from 
open  joint.  Synovial  membrane  primarily  affected,  but  other 
structures  become  involved,  and  in  chronic  cases  periosteum,  ends 
of  bones,  and  ligaments  are  attacked. 

Rest,  anatomical  and  physiological,  fomentations,  hot  compress. 
Antipyretics,  with  analgesics  subcutaneously,  to  reduce  pyrexia  and  pain; 

counter-irritation  in  some  cases  after  abatement  of  acute  symptoms. 
Slings,  splints,  and  adhesives  needful  for  horses  in  acute  attacks. 
Antiseptics  in  treatment  of  open  joint.     Injection  of  sterilised  glycerin, 

or  solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide. 
Sodium  salicylate  in  rheumatic  cases. 

ASCARIDES.     See  WORMS. 

ASCITES. 

Abdominal  dropsy :  Accumulation  of  fluid  in  cavity  of  peritoneum, 
depending  on  disease  of  some  important  internal  organ  obstructing 
return  of  venous  blood  to  the  heart.  More  common  in  dogs,  sheep, 
and  cattle  than  in  horses. 

Remove,  if  possible,  conditions  on  which  it  depends. 
Diuretics,  salines,  milk  sugar,  pot.  iodide,  pilocarpine. 
Digitalis,  especially  in  cardiac  complications,  infusion  of  buchu. 
Generous  diet  and  tonics  in  anaemic  or  tuberculous  disease  of  peritoneum. 
Concentrated  dietary,  iron  salts,  and  turpentine  in  sanguineous  form 

appearing  in  impoverished  sheep  and  lambs. 
Tapping,  even  when  it  does  not  cure,  relieves  distressing  symptoms. 

ASTHMA. 

Dyspnoea  depending  on  intermittent  bronchial  spasm.    Rare  in  horses 

and  cattle,  more  frequent  in  dogs. 
Paroxysm  checked  by  cautious  inhalation  of  anaesthetics,  amyl-nitrite, 

or  nitro-glycerin,  or  by  chloral  given  by  mouth. 
Bromides  ;  strong  coffee  internally. 
Emetics  relieve  many  canine  cases. 

Inhalation  of  terebene  with  or  without  steam  :  of  stramonium  with  pot. 
nitrate  and  chlorate,  or  amm.  chloride. 


744  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

ASTHMA — continued. 

.  Belladonna,  sometimes  with  eucalyptus,  internally  or  inhaled. 
Alkalies,  amm.  chloride,  pot.  iodide  ;  inhalations  of  sulphur  fumes  when 

associated  with  dry  bronchial  catarrh. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  asafoetida,  benzoin,  eucalyptus  oil  when  discharges 

profuse. 

Strychnine  internally  or  hypodermically  when  respiratory  centre  weak. 
Acids  and  arsenic  when  complicated  with  gastric  derangement. 
Occasional  dressing  of  throat  with  stimulant  embrocation,  especially  in 

old  dogs  with  severe  bronchial  symptoms. 
Regular  digestible,  rather  concentrated,  diet ;  exercise. 

ATHEROMA. 

Degeneration  of  arteries,  with  calcification.     Not  common  in  lower 

animals. 

Avoid  over-exertion  ;  prescribe  digestible  oleaginous  diet. 
Iron  salts,  phosphates,  Easton's  syrup  in  debilitated  patients. 
Phosphorus  in  small  doses  where  brain  vessels  implicated. 

ATROPHY. 

Wasting ;    Emaciation.     Results  from  imperfect  nutrition,  nervous 

lesion,  pressure,  disease,  or  inaction. 
Suitable  diet ;  fitting  use  of  wasted  part ;  tonics,  arsenic,  and  strychnine 

internally. 

Friction,  massage,  electricity  locally.     Counter-irritation, 
luunction  of  oil,  cantharides,  or  mercuric  iodide  in  muscular  atrophy. 

AZOTURIA.     See  H^MOGLOBINURIA. 

BALANITIS. 

Inflammation  of  the  glans  of  penis.     Common  in  dogs  ;  contagious. 

Penis  withdrawn,  examined,  cleansed,  and  dressed  with  astringent. 

Injection  of  sheath  with  mild  astringent  daily  for  a  week.  Zinc  chlor. 
grs.  ij.  to  grs.  iv.  in  an  ounce  of  water  ;  solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide. 

Any  fungoid  or  vascular  formations  scraped  or  cut  off. 

In  persistent  cases  horse  or  bull  must  be  cast  and  secured,  thorough 
examination  made  ;  inflamed,  ulcerated,  or  fungoid  surfaces  cauterised 
or  dressed  with  silver  nitrate  solution  containing  grs.  x.  to  the  ounce 
of  distilled  water  ;  or  douched  with  2|  per  cent.  sol.  of  lysol. 

Zinc  sulphate  or  lead  acetate  injections  repeated  daily. 

Perfect  rest,  dose  of  physic,  laxative  diet. 

BARRENNESS.     STERILITY. 

Congenital,  sometimes  from  hermaphrodism.  Also  caused  by  disease 
of  organs  of  generation  and  faulty  general  health,  with  acid  or  septic 
vaginal  discharges.  (See  Vaginitis.) 

Improve  condition  of  debilitated  by  diet  and  tonics.     Wash  out  and 
disinfect  vagina ;  vaginal  injections  of  yeast,  one  cake  in  a  quart  of 
tepid  water. 
Dilatation  of  os  uteri  if  it  be  constricted  ;  change  male.      Artificial 

insemination  may  be  tried. 
Alteratives;  pot.  iodide;  yohimbine ;   or  phosphorus  and  damiana  in 

small  doses. 
Gradual  lowering  of  fat  plethoric  subjects. 

BITES  OF  INSECTS. 

Ammonia  or  pot.  bicarbonate  solution.     Eucalyptus  oil. 

Creolin,  carbolic  acid,  prussic  acid,  chloroform,  cold  water  dressings. 

BLACK- LEG  or  BLACK  QUARTER. 

Quarter  evil.  Consists  in  phlegmonous,  emphysematous  swellings, 
usually  about  the  hind-quarters,  occasionally  on  the  shoulders, 
neck,  or  fore-quarters,  caused  by  the  Black-quarter  bacillus.  Cattle, 
sheep,  goats,  and  rabbits  are  readily  inoculated ;  the  horse,  ass, 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  745 

BLACK-LEG  or  BLACK  QUARTER — continued. 

and  white  rat  exhibit  only  local  swelling  at  the  point  of  inoculation  ; 
the  pig,  dog,  cat,  black  rat,  and  man  are  immune.     The  disease 
is  endemic  ;  the  bacterium,  from  the  infected  pasture  or  water, 
probably  enters  the  body  by  wounds  of  the  legs  or  feet.     Cattle 
from  four  to  twenty  months  are  most  liable  to  attack. 
Curative  treatment  very  unsatisfactory.     Free  scarification  of  limited 
external  swellings  and  moistening  with  antiseptics  arrest  a  few  slight 
cases. 
Prevention  is  effected  by  keeping  young  cattle  and  sheep  off  pastures 

known  to  be  infected ;  and  by  inoculation  with  special  vaccine. 
Animals  dying  from  the  disease  should  be  burned  unskinned  and  un- 
opened, or  deeply  buried  with  lime. 

Disinfection  of  premises  is  adopted  as  for  contagious  diseases. 
Setons  have  been  credited  with  some  preventive  power. 
Administration  once  or  twice  weekly  of  pot.   chlorate  or  other  saline 

antiseptic  advised. 

Black-quarter  vaccine  used  hypodermically  as  a  preventive  in  France, 
Germany,  and  England  ;  stated  to  be  effectual.  See  p.  697. 

BLADDER,  URINARY,  INFLAMMATION  OF.     See  CYSTITIS. 

BLADDER,  IRRITABLE. 

Diluents,  linseed  tea,  suitable  diet.  Interdict  heated  grain  or  fodder, 
or  other  acrid  food. 

Laxative  relieves  any  gastro-intestinal  irritation.  Urinary  disin- 
fectants. 

Belladonna  or  henbane  as  anodyne  used  internally  and  locally. 

Benzoate  of  soda  or  ammonium  benzoate  when  urine  alkaline. 

Alkaline  bicarbonate  when  urine  acid  ;  bromide  of  potash  or  camphor. 

Salol  and  benzoic  acids  as  antiseptics  in  chronic  cases  ;  urotropine. 

Sulphuric  and  salicylic  acids  with  iron  sulphate,  where  irritation  in 
horses  is  connected  with  influenza  or  purpura. 

Anodyne  enemata  benefit  reflexly. 

Cleanse  with  soap  and  water  prepuce  and  external  meatus  of  male. 

BLADDER,  PARALYSIS. 

Prevent  accumulation  of  urine  by  use  of  catheter,  or  in  horse  by  gentle 

pressure  on  viscus  from  within  rectum. 
Prescribe  cantharides,  ergot,  or  cannabis  indica  ;  nux-vomica  or  eserine 

when  atonic  ;  and  urinary  antiseptics. 

BLEEDING.     See  HAEMORRHAGE. 

BOG  SPAVIN. 

Distension  of  tibio-tarsal  capsule  ;  in  some  cases  acute  synovitis. 
Rest ;  high-heeled  shoe. 
In  acute  cases  rest  best  secured  by  slinging. 
Foment  when  joint  hot  and  tender. 

Cold  water  and  refrigerants  when  acute  inflammation  abated. 
Spring  truss  sometimes  used  in  simple  cases  to  give  equable  pressure. 
Counter-irritation  encourages  absorption  in  chronic  cases. 
Removal  of  fluid  by  aspirator  or  special  trocar  may  be  tried. 

BOIL  or  FURUNCULUS. 

A   localised   infective   inflammation,    with   suppuration   and   limited 
necrosis  of  the  cutis,  and  caused  by  a  staphylococcus.     A  carbuncle 
is  a  boil  on  a  larger  scale. 
Mercuric  nitrate  or  belladonna  ointment,  or  painting  with  silver  nitrate, 

sometimes  aborts  inflammation  in  early  stages. 
Fomentations  and  poultices  hasten  maturation  and  relieve  pain. 
Counter-irritants  hasten  suppuration. 
Anodynes  locally  relieve  irritation  and  pain. 


746  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

BOIL  or  FURUNCULUS— continued. 

Laxative  diet,  alkaline  sulphites  and  chlorates,  and  calcium  sulphide 
internally. 

When  opened,  treat  antiseptically. 

Arsenic  internally  sometimes  prevents  recurrence. 
BONE  SPAVIN.     See  SPAVIN. 

BOTRYOMYCOSIS. 

A  local  disease  of  horses  and  sometimes  of  cattle  and  pigs,  caused  by 
a  fungus,  the  Botryomyces  equi.  Infection  leads  to  formation  of 
cutaneous  or  subcutaneous  suppurating  growths  of  variable  size, 
hard,  movable,  and  not  very  painful ;  occur  on  shoulder,  withers, 
jaw,  scrotum,  sheath,  tail,  etc.  ;  sometimes  inside  the  body. 
Early  excision  ;  pot.  iodide  administered  daily  for  a  month  or  longer. 

BOTS  IN  HORSES. 

Larvae  of  oestrus  equi  developed  in  stomach. 
Turpentine  and  oils,  bitters,  hydrochloric  acid,  iodine,  naphthol,  copper 

and  iron  sulphates,  arsenic,  followed  by  purgatives. 
Carbon  bisulphide  75  grains,  in  gelatin  capsule,  repeat  dose  in  twelve 

hours,  and  next  day  give  a  dose  of  physic. 

Green  fodder ;  destroy  larvae  as  they  are  expelled  in  spring,  and  the  fly. 
BOWELS,  INFLAMMATION  OF.     See  ENTERITIS. 
BRAXY  IN  SHEEP. 

An  infective  gastro-enteritis  characterised  by  patches  of  inflammation 

and  ecchymoses  chiefly  affecting  the  mucous  and  serous  membranes 

and    skin.      Pathology   undetermined.      (Consult   Report    by   Dr. 

Hamilton   on  Braxy  and  Louping-Ill,  Board  of  Agriculture   and 

Fisheries,  1906.) 

Most  cases  prove  fatal. 

Prevent  by  carefully  regulated  dietary. 

Removal  from  exposed,  undrained,  infected  grazings. 

BROKEN  KNEES  IN  HORSES. 

Where  skin  not  broken,  tie  up  head  and  apply  diluted  zinc  or  lead 

acetate  solution  for  two  or  three  days. 

When  skin  cut,  cleanse  thoroughly,  dress  antiseptically,  bring  edges 
together  with  pin  sutures,  plaster,  styptic  colloid,  or  shellac  paste ; 
retain  them  in  position  with  light  calico  bandage  ;  dress  with  mild 
astringent  solutions. 

When  skin  considerably  lacerated,  the  tendon  and  its  sheath  bruised  and 
exposed,  or  the  knee-joint  opened,  the  limb  should  be  put  in  splints 
and  animal  in  slings  ;  several  folds  of  antiseptic  lint,  retained  in  place 
by  a  calico  bandage,  over  which  cold  water  is  made  to  trickle  con- 
tinuously. 

When    tendon   much  bruised,   knee-joint    laid  open,    bones   seriously 
injured  or  fractured,    anchylosis   must  ensue,   and   the  animal  had 
better  be  destroyed. 
BROKEN  WIND  IN  HORSES. 

Pulmonary  emphysema,  associated  with  indigestion  and  characterised 
by  expiratory  dyspnoea  and  peculiar  cough.  Of  nervous  origin  and 
connected  with  the  vagus. 

Seldom  curable,  but  relieved  by  careful  dietary;  good  concentrated 
food  given  damped  ;  feed  and  water  frequently,  in  small  quantity  at 
a  time,  but  withhold  before  hard,  fast  work. 

Reasonable  restriction  of  water  specially  needful  when  heart  affected. 
Laxatives  and  salines  given  occasionally. 
Rock  salt,  chalk,  or  whiting  in  manger.     Two  or  three  ounces  linseed 

oil  in  the  food  twice  a  week. 
Arsenic  (Fowler's  solution)  given  daily  or  every  second  day,  may  be 

continued  for  months. 
Sedative  cough  balls  occasionally. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  747 

BRONCHIAL  CROUP.     '  Fat  stock  show  disease. ' 

Fibrinous  exudation  on  tracheal  and  bronchial  mucous  membrane. 
Frequent  in  cattle  and  sheep,  and  in  other  animals  which  have 
breathed  smoke  and  hot  air,  especially  during  fogs. 
Rapid  progress  renders  treatment  nearly  hopeless. 
Inhalation  of  vapour  medicated  with  phenols,  terebene,  eucalyptus  oil, 

or  amm.  chloride.     Fresh  air. 
Apomorphine  in  carnivora. 
Tracheotomy  essential  to  prevent  asphyxia. 

BRONCHIAL  FILARI.E.     See  WORMS. 

BRONCHITIS,  ACUTE. 

Inflammation  of  mucous  membrane  lining  bronchi.    Sometimes  extends 
into  the  bronchioles,  alveoli,  and  lung  parenchyma.     Horses  and 
dogs   attacked    more  frequently   than   cattle   or   sheep.      Usually 
classified  as  (1)  Acute  ;  (2)  Croupous  ;  (3)  Chronic  ;  (4)  Verminous. 
0       Place  horse  in  comfortable  box,  60°  to  65°  Fahr.,   cool,  pure  air  to 
breathe  ;  body  and  limbs  clothed. 

Inhalation  of  watery  vapour  from  steam-kettle,  large  mashes,  or 
buckets  of  boiling  water  promote  exudation  in  dry  stage. 

Inhalation,  medicated  as  required  by  antiseptics,  anodynes,  or  ex- 
pectorants. 

Fomentations  and  mustard  to  throat  and  sides. 

Salines  in  drinking  water,  and  antifebrin  or  antipyrine  relieve  fever. 

Aconite,  a  few  doses  early  in  robust  subjects,  where  symptoms  acute. 

Ammonium  acetate  solution,  ipecacuanha,  and  squill  while  membrane 
dry  and  congested. 

Apomorphine,  pilocarpine,  benzoic  acid,  eucalyptus  oil,  terebene,  mineral 
acids  dimmish  excessive  secretion. 

Soap  liniment  and  laudanum  rubbed  into  throat  and  down  neck  twice 
daily  relieve  difficult  breathing,  especially  when  secretion  excessive. 

Belladonna  eases  cough,  conjoined  with  camphor,  ether,  or  chloral 
hydrate,  and  in  debilitated  patients  with  small  repeated  doses  of 
alcohol. 

Electuaries  or  gargles  of  opium,  chloral  hydrate,  with  glycerin  and 
liquorice,  also  relieve  cough.  Pot.  chlorate  and  amm.  chloride  promote 
fluid  secretion.  Lobelia  and  opium  where  there  is  much  discharge  and 
paroxysms  of  cough. 

Ammonium  carbonate  when  mucus  abundant  and  viscid,  and  patient  low. 

Mash  and  milk  diet ;  regulate  bowels  if  possible  by  enemata  ;  cathartics 
dangerous  in  horses. 

For  dogs,  emetic  in  early  stage ;  apomorphine,  ipecacuanha,  and  anti- 
monial  wine,  where  membrane  dry  and  congested  and  fever  high  ;  in 
weakly  subjects  and  advanced  stages,  bronchi  cleared  by  emesis  pro- 
duced by  ipecacuanha,  squill,  and  ammonium  carbonate ;  milk  and 
flesh  diet. 
BRONCHITIS,  CHRONIC. 

Frequently  follows  acute  attacks.     Sometimes  of  verminous  origin. 
See  WORMS  and  HOOSE. 

Equable  temperature  ;  pure  fresh  air  ;  comfortable  clothing  which  must 
be  removed  and  patient  wisped  over  night  and  morning. 

Salines,  with  or  without  mercurials,  relieve  congestion  and  fever. 

Terebene  and  eucalyptus  oil  as  stimulants  of  bronchial  secretion. 

Belladonna,  balsams,  and  mineral  acids  diminish  excessive  secretion. 

Ammonium  carbonate  and  chloride  useful  where  secretion  viscid  and 
irritating. 

Belladonna  and  ether  stimulate  respiratory  and  cardiac  centres. 

Chloroform,  chloral,  and  opium  abate  cough. 

Mustard  and  other  counter-irritants,  carefully  used,  lessen  congestion, 

irritation,  and  cough, 
Soap  liniment,  with  or  without  laudanum,  frequently  relieves  cough. 


748  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

BRONCHITIS,  CHRONIC— continued. 

Alcohol,  caffeine,  ether,  volatile  oils,  digitalis,  maintain  heart-action  in 
weakly  subjects. 

Inhalations  of  sulphurous  acid,  creosote,  eucalyptus,  and  other  anti- 
septics, when  secretions  foetid.  Intratracheal  injections  in  parasitic 
cases. 

Arsenic  occasionally  relieves  emphysema. 

Careful  dietary,  nutritive  oleaginous  food,  cod  liver  oil. 

Iron  and  other  tonics  promote  convalescence. 
BRONCHOCELE.     GOITRE. 

Hypertrophy  of  thyroid  gland.  Rare  in  horses  and  cattle,  more  com- 
mon in  dogs.  Often  harmless. 

Local  stimulation,  iodine,  pot.  iodide.  The  milk  of  goats  which  have 
been  deprived  of  their  thyroid  glands. 

Puncture  and  inject  with  iodine  (Cagny). 

Liberal  dietary  ;  full  proportion  of  fatty  matters.  Extirpation  may  be 
necessary. 

BRUISES  :  CONTUSIONS. 

Medicated  fomentations  or  poultices,  water-dressing,  refrigerants,  car- 
bolic and  other  antiseptics.     Massage  and  subsequent  inunction  with 
oil. 
Lead,  zinc,  and  other  astringent  solutions  limit  swelling  and  promote 

absorption. 

Belladonna,  opium,  and  aconite  are  useful  to  relieve  the  pain. 
BRUSHING  or  INTERFERING. 

Occurs  in  horses  with  faulty  action,  and  in  others  when  leg  weary  or 

out  of  condition. 

Careful  shoeing.     A  plain  shoe  unnailed  on  the  inner  branch.     A  three- 
quarter  shoe,  or  a  shoe  thin  on  inside  web,  without  heel  on  outside. 
Well-fitting  boot  on  the  fetlock  liable  to  be  struck. 
Improved  condition  often  the  most  effectual  remedy. 
BULL.E. 

Pemphigus :  Herpes :  Eruption  of  large  vesicles  in  irregular  patches 
about  junction  of  skin  and  mucous  membranes,  usually  connected 
with  gastric  derangement,  especially  in  young  patients.  Rare  in 
animals. 

Vaseline,  '  Sanitas '  solution,  carron  oil. 

Laxatives  and  salines  when  connected  with  gastric  derangement. 
Adult  horses  subject  to  an  inflammatory  form  passing  to  pustulation, 
treated  by  laxative,  alkaline  wash,  and  zinc  ointment. 

BURNS  AND  SCALDS. 

Protect  immediately  from  air  and  irritants  by  layers  of  cotton  wool  or 
application  of  carron  oil. 

Liniment  of  oil  and  litharge,  with  two  per  cent,  boric,  or  carbolic  acid, 
or  peppermint  oil. 

Whiting  and  water,  or  fuller's  earth  and  oil,  about  consistence  of  cream, 
applied  repeatedly,  until  tolerable  coating  formed. 

Zinc  oxide,  with  about  ten  parts  of  vaseline,  or  of  glycerin  and  water. 

Alkaline  solutions,  soap  lather,  saturated  solution  sodium  bicarbonate 
relieve  irritation  in  slighter  cases. 

Where  discharges  are  foul,  add  antiseptics  to  above  dressings. 

Where  there  is  irritation  or  pain,  add  chloroform  or  laudanum,  or  both. 

Combat  constitutional  symptoms  with   antiseptics  and   anodynes  in- 
ternally.    Anticipate  collapse  and  necrosis  in  severe  cases. 
BURSATTEE. 

Kunkur  :  A  mycosis  of  the  skin  and  siibcutaneous  tissue,  characterised 
by  the  formation  of  small  hard  growths  which  eventually  ulcerate 
and  suppurate  ;  affects  horses  and  other  animals  in  India  and  other 
tropical  countries. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  749 

BURSATTEE — continued. 

Improved  sanitary  conditions  ;  change  of  food  and  surroundings. 
Kunkur  growths  excised  ;  wounds  and  ulcers  treated  antiseptically. 

CALCULI,  BILIARY. 

Purgatives,  salines,  olive  oil. 

Chloroform,  chlorodyne,  belladonna  internally. 

Morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically. 

Nitric  acid,  nitro-hydrochloric  acid. 

Hot  fomentations,  counter-irritation. 

CALCULI,  INTESTINAL. 

Dust  balls ;  Concretions. 

Rectal  exploration  :  use  long  tube  for  injections  ;  Laparo-enterotomy. 
Avoid  active  cathartics,  but  give  enemas  and  anodynes.     Restrict  to 

soft,  concentrated  food. 
Morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically,  chloral  or  Indian  hemp,  most 

prompt  and  effectual  means  of  relieving  spasm  and  pain. 

CALCULI,  URINARY. 

Lithiasis ;  Gravel. 
Dilute  mineral  acids  in  horse.     Try  piperazine  or  lithium  carbonate  in 

dogs. 
Alkalies  or  alkaline  bicarbonates  diminish  tendency  to  urinary  deposits 

common  especially  in  highly-fed  rams  and  wethers. 
Ammonia  benzoate  helps  resolution  of  phosphatic  deposits  of  sheep. 
Diluents,  cooling  laxative  food  ;  raise  feeding  sheep  thrice  daily,  and 

drive  them  a  few  hundred  yards,  ensuring  their  urinating. 
Sheep  affected  must  be  placed  on  buttocks,  and  by  manipulation  the 

sabulous  matter  in  urethra  is  gradually  moved. 
Where  canal  hopelessly  blocked  it  must  be  opened  either  at  the  ischial 

arch  or  by  amputation  of  appendix. 
Lithotomy  or  lithotrity  only  means  of  removing  cystic  calculi  of  any 

considerable  size  in  male  animals. 

CANCER. 

Carcinoma :  A  malignant  growth  of  epithelial-like  cells  contained  in 

an  alveolar  stroma.     Affects  all  classes  of  animals. 
In  early. stage,  excision  of  localised  accessible  growths ;  when  tumour 

large  or  diffuse,  operation  inadvisable. 

Destruction  by  chromic  acid  or  other  caustic  seldom  successful  or  safe. 
Carbolic  acid,  bromine,  or  iodoform  may  retard  growth  and  lessen  risk 

of  secondary  infection. 
Generous  diet  retards  exhaustion  caused  by  absorption  from  disintegrated 

tissues. 
Analgesic,  antiseptic,  and  deodorant  dressings. 

CANKER  OF  HORSE'S  FOOT. 

A  disease  affecting  the  keratogenous  membrane  of  the  foot,  and  pro- 
ducing disorganisation  of  the  horn  of  the  sole,  frog  and  laminal 
sheath,  and  foetid  discharge. 

Mr.  Malcolm,  Birmingham,  has  shown  canker  to  be  purely  local,  occur- 
ring in  all  breeds  and  descriptions  of  horses,  possibly  depending  on  an 
epiphyte,  and,  while  confined  to  the  frog  and  sole,  curable  (Jour. 
Comp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  1891). 

In  all  cases,  the  degenerate  horn,  fungoid  growths,  and  every  portion 
of  unhealthy  tissue  must  be  excised  with  the  knife  or  cauterised  with 
the  hot  iron. 

Dress  with  salicylic  acid,  chromic  acid  on  carbolised  cotton- wool, 
chinosol,  or  formalin  solution ;  or  with  equal  parts  of  sulphates  of 
copper,  iron,  and  zinc,  with  crude  carbolic  acid,  and  vaseline  to  form 
a  paste.  This  is  covered  with  tow  and  a  leather  or  iron  sole,  and  the 
Bhoe  replaced. 


750  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

CANKER  OF  HORSE'S  FOOT— continued. 

Daily,  or  every  second  day,  the  horse,  either  standing  or  cast,  examina- 
tion is  made  for  any  canker  specks,  which  are  removed  and  the  foot 
dressed  as  before. 

Mineral  acids,  iodoform  in  ether,  or  silver  nitrate  sometimes  serviceable. 

Calomel  used  dry  encourages  growth  of  horn. 

Examination  and  dressing  repeated  at  longer  intervals. 

After  first  few  days  many  cases  are  best  at  work. 

CANKER  OF  EAR.    See  OTORRHCEA. 

CAPPED  HOCK,  KNEE,  AND  ELBOW  IN  HORSE. 

(a)  A  collection  of  fluid  immediately  underneath  the  skin  of  the  point 
of  the  hock. 

(6)  Chronic  synovitis  of  the  bursa  of  perforatus  cap. 

Capped  Knee — (1)  Effusion  beneath  the  skin  or  annular  ligament. 
(2)  Distension  of  sheath  of  extensor  metacarpi  magnus. 

Capped  Elbow — Subcutaneous  infiltration  from  bruising. 
Hot  fomentations  ;  subsequently  stimulate  with  cantharides  liniment  or 

mercuric  iodide  ointment ;  soft  soap  rubbed  in  daily. 
If  swelling  recent  and  fluctuating  puncture  with  aspirator  needle  ;  inject 

cavity  with  iodine  solution. 

In  bursal  form  of  capped  hock  use  shoe  raised  at  heel ;  apply  a  charge. 
In  indurated  capped  elbow  excision  is  the  only  satisfactory  remedy. 

Prevent  recurrence  by  heel-pad,  ring-pad,  or  by  felt  attached  to 

horse-rug. 

CARDITIS.     MYOCARDITIS. 

Rare  in  lower  animals.      Inflammation  of  muscular  fibres  of  heart 
with  (1)  infiltration  or  induration,  or  (2)  suppuration,  as  in  puerperal 
metritis  in  cattle,  or  omphalo-phlebitis  of  foals. 
Concentrated  good  food. 

Digitalis,  caffeine,  alcoholic  stimulants  as  heart  tonics. 
Stimulant  embrocations  to  chest. 
Combat  pysemic  infection  with  antiseptics  and  quinine. 

CATARACT. 

Definite  opacity  of  the  lens. 

Extraction  of  the  lens  ;  or  needling  to  promote  its  absorption. 

Chloroform — and  locally,  atropine  and  cocaine— for  diagnosis  and  opera- 
tion ;  mercurials  internally. 

CATARRH. 

Inflammation  of  any  mucous  membrane,  with  serous  or  muco-purulent 
discharge.  But  the  term  is  specially  applied  to  inflammation  of  the 
membrane  lining  the  nasal  chambers  and  upper  respiratory  passages, 
constituting  Cold  in  head  or  Coryza.  More  frequent  in  horses  than 
other  animals  ;  contagious. 

House  comfortably  ;  clothe  body  and  head ;  bandage  legs. 
Equable  temperature  of  60°  to  65°  Fahr. 
Steam  head  with  vapour  of  water  alone,  or  medicated  with  antiseptics 

or  anodynes. 

Warm  or  vapour  bath  ;  patient  quickly  dried  and  re-clothed. 
Mash  diet  or  green  food  ;  laxative  enemata  ;  laxatives  if  required. 
Amm.  acetate  solution  ;  pot.  nitrate  or  chlorate  ;  other  saline  electuaries. 
Hot  fomentations;    stimulating   embrocations   to   throat.      Antiseptic 
insufflations. 

CATARRH,  CHRONIC,  OF  HORSES. 

Isolate  patient  until  tested  for  glanders. 

Nasal  douche  or  spray. 

Wash  out  nasal  passages,  and,  if  necessary,  trephine  and  disinfect  the 

sinuses. 
See  to  faulty  teeth.     Examine  guttural  pouches. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  751 

CATARRH  CHRONIC,  OF  HORSES — continued. 

Fresh  air,  rest,  or  gentle  work  ;  if  coat  rough  clip  or  singe. 
Green  fodder  ;  feed  on  floor,  or  graze  by  day. 
Inhalation  of  sulphurous,  carbolic,  or  iodine  vapour. 
Administer  iron,  arsenic,  terebene,  or  copaiba. 
CATARRHAL  FEVER,  MALIGNANT,  or  CATTLE. 

An  acute  contagious  fever,  with  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  eyes  and  respiratory  organs,  occasionally  involv- 
ing the  gastro-intestinal  and  urinary  membranes,  usually  of  two  to 
four  weeks'  duration ;    the  mortality  70  to  90  per   cent.      More 
frequent  in   Europe  and  America  than  in  Great  Britain,  chiefly 
affecting  young  animals  in  spring  (Friedberger  and  Law). 
Antipyretics,     saline     expectorants,     and     antiseptics  ;    in    Germany 
intravenous  injection  of  one  per  cent,  solution  of  colloid  silver  said 
to  be  beneficial. 
Combat  formidable  symptoms  and  maintain  strength. 

CEREBRAL  ANEMIA. 

Occurs  in  all  animals. 

Stimulants  to  combat  syncope.     Sterilised  salt  solution  hypodermicallj'. 
Mustard  and  other  cutaneous  irritants. 
Phosphorus,  phosphates,  quinine,  strychnine. 

CEREBRAL  HEMORRHAGE.     See  APOPLEXY. 

CEREBRO-SPINAL  MENINGITIS  IN  HORSES. 

Inflammation  of  the  cerebro-spinal  meninges.  Horses  and  sheep  more 
frequently  affected  than  cattle,  hogs,  or  dogs  ;  horses  in  America 
attacked  more  frequently  than  in  Great  Britain ;  enzootic  and 
epizootic  ;  but  special  infecting  agent  has  not  been  discovered. 

Slings  essential  where  horse  cannot  stand. 

Half  dose  of  physic,  oil,  and  a  few  grains  calomel. 

Salines,  laxative  enemas,  mash  diet. 

Where  urine  not  freely  passed  use  catheter. 

Strychnine  thrice  daily. 

Cold  or  ice-bag  to  head  and  neck  ;  counter-irritation  to  spine. 

Ergotin  and  atropine  hypodermically. 

Pilocarpine,  ten  grains  hypodermically  (Friedberger). 

CHOKING. 

Usually  from  obstruction  of  oesophagus.     Common  in  cattle  feeding  on 

roots. 
Repeated  small  quantities  slowly  given  of  linseed  gruel,  oil,  or  other 

lubricant. 
Secure  wooden  gag  in  mouth,  which  evokes  swallowing  movements, 

eructation,  and  discharge  of  saliva. 
Move  foreign  body,  upwards  if  possible,  by  introducing  hand  into  mouth, 

or  by  external  manipulation  of  gullet. 

Failing,  carefully  pass  the  probang,  cup  end  first ;  emetics  and  expand- 
ing probang  for  dogs  and  pigs. 

Other  means  unsuccessful,  cut  into  gullet  and  extract  obstruction. 
Where  hoven  becomes  serious  puncture  rumen  with  trocar  or  knife. 
In  horses  symptoms  less  urgent,  and  treatment  not  always  satisfactory. 
In  pharyngeal  choking,  explore  pharynx  and  remove  obstruction. 
In  cervical  cases,  manipulate  upwards  or  pass  the  probang. 
In  thoracic  cases  use  probang. 
COCCIDIOSIS. 

A  disease  of  the  intestine  and  liver,  caused  by  Coccidia,  cystlike 
parasites,  which  invade  the  epithelial  cells  of  the  mucous  membrane 
and  biliary  canals.  Occurs  in  cattle,  sheep,  pig,  dog,  rabbit,  fowl, 
duck,  pheasant,  etc. 

Prevent  extension  by  disinfection  of  premises,  excreta  and  litter  ;  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  (3  per  cent.)  or  formalin  ;  pure  drinking  water. 


752  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

COOCIDIOSIS—  continued. 

Curative  treatment, — disinfect  intestine  by  purgative,  followed  by 
antiseptics  ;  glycerin  and  ferrous  sulphate  in  drinking  water  ;  sodium 
hyposulphite,  sulphur,  lysol,  cyllin  ;  often  incurable. 

COLIC. 

Gripes  ;    Spasm  of  intestines ;  Irregular  inordinate  contractions  of 
muscular  walls  of  intestines.     Occurs  in  all  animals  ;  presents  two 
forms — (a)  spasmodic  ;  (b)  flatulent. 
Place  horse  in  spacious,  well-littered  box. 
Purgative  to  remove  irritant :  in  horse,  aloes  ;  in  cattle  and  sheep,  oils 

and  salines  ;  in  dog,  castor  oil. 
Catharsis  hastened  and  pain  relieved  by  copious  laxative  enemas,  hot 

fomentations  and  friction  to  abdomen,  and  gentle  exercise. 
Barium  chloride  or  eserine  and  pilocarpine  if  bowels  continue  torpid. 
Ether,  oil  of  turpentine,  other  volatile  oils,  ammonia,  and  ammonium 

carbonate  combat  flatulence. 
Ether,  alcohol,  and  chloral  hydrate,  conjoined  with  opium,  belladonna, 

cannabis  indica,  control  spasms  and  pain. 
Morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically  or  inhalation  of  chloroform  quiets 

violent  spasm. 
Repeated  recurring  attacks  in  influenza  in  horses,  often  connected  with 

hepatic  derangement,  treated  with  half  dose  of  aloes  and  a  little 

calomel,  vspirit  of  chloroform,  and  mustard  embrocation  to  abdomen. 
In  flatulent  colic  in  horse  the  distended  bowel  may  be  punctured  by 

trocar  and  canula. 
Similar  treatment  in  other  classes  of  patients. 

CHOLERA  OF  FOWLS  AND  HOGS.     See  FOWL  CHOLERA  and  SWINE  FEVER. 

CHOREA. 

Irregular,  involuntary,  convulsive  contractions  of  voluntary  muscles, 
or  groups  of  muscles.  Stated  to  be  sometimes  dependent  on  localised 
sclerosis  of  spinal  cord. 

Occurs  in  all  animals,  usually  in  the  young,  feeble,  or  anaemic. 

In  horse  most  common  in  the  form  of  stringhalt,  which  see. 

In  dog  as  sequel  of  distemper,  or  from  intestinal  worms. 
Remove  gastro-intestinal  derangement,  worms,  or  other  cause  of  reflex 

irritability  ;  potassium  bromide. 

In  weakly  dogs  or  convalescents  from  distemper,  generous  diet,  fair  pro- 
portion of  good  milk  or  fatty  matters. 
Iron,  arsenic,   other  tonics,    ether,  and  spirit  of  camphor ;    glycero- 

phosphates. 

Sponging  or  affusion  with  water,  at  first  tepid,  subsequently  cold. 
Violent  spasms  relieved  by  full  doses  chloral  hydrate  or  Indian  hemp 

internally,  or  chloroform  inhalation. 
Counter-irritants  over  spine  in  long-standing  ^ases. 
Momentary  immersion  in  cold  bath  and  drying  quickly  with  friction  ; 

electricity,  interrupted  current,  two  to  five  minutes  daily. 

COMA. 

Stupor,  symptomatic  of  impaired  brain  function. 
Affusion  alternately  with  warm  and  cold  water  :   ice-bag  to  head. 
Ammonia  given  by  inhalation  and  subcutaneously. 
Mustard  to  extremities  ;  stimulating  enemata,  eserine  and  pilocarpine. 
Cautious  bleeding  ;  endeavour  to  promote  action  of  bowels  and  skin. 

CONJUNCTIVITIS. 

Inflammation  of  mucous  membrane  of  eye.     See  also  OPHTHALMIA. 

Remove  any  irritant :  foment ;  castor  oil  between  lids  relieves  irrita- 
tion. Poppy-head  infusion  as  fomentation. 

Boracic  acid,  zinc  sulphate  or  acetate,  with  aqueous  solution  of  opium 
suitably  diluted. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  753 

CON  J  TJNCTI  VITIS — continued. 

Shield  from  light ;  try  cold  applications. 

Atropine  and  cocaine  as  local  anodynes. 

Mercuric  nitrate  ointment  when  lids  inflamed  and  granular. 

Ergot  fluid  extract  undiluted  relieves  vascular  engorgement. 

Dose  of  physic  ;  shade  both  eyes. 
CONSTIPATION. 

Torpidity  of  bowels.     Insufficient  intestinal  secretion  and  movement. 

Laxative  diet,  diluents,  salines,  regular  exercise. 

Purgatives  in  moderation,  especially  when  liver   deranged  ;  repeated 
laxative  clysters  ;  massage  of  abdomen. 

Aloes,  oils,  calomel,  small  doses  Epsom  salt  for  horses. 

Salts,  croton,  gamboge,  veratrine,  calomel  for  cattle. 

Calomel  and  jalap,  castor  and  linseed  oils,  and  emetics  for  dogs  and  cats. 

Gentian,  quinine,  and  other  tonics  when  associated  with  debility. 

Oil  of  turpentine  by  mouth  and  rectum  where  there  is  flatulence. 

Physostigmine  and  pilocarpine  in  obstinate  cases  ;  euonymin. 

Soap  suppository  in  young  animals. 

Nux-vomica,  belladonna  :  electricity  or  ergot  to  give  tone. 

Where  bowels  obstructed  by  concretions  or  twist,  cathartics  are  danger- 
ous, and  diluents,  laxative  enemata,  and  anodynes  are  indicated. 

In  dogs  use  aloes,  or  oil  and  grey  powder,  or  jalap  and  calomel. 

In  poultry  clear  out  the  rectum  and  give  castor  oil. 

CONSUMPTION,  PULMONARY.     See  TUBERCULOSIS. 
CONTAGIOUS  VAGINITIS.    See  VAGINITIS. 

CONVALESCENCE. 

Easily  digested  nutritive  food,  malt  extract,  milk  and  eggs,  cod-liver  oil, 

fresh  air,  exercise. 

Alcoholic  stimulants,  bitters,  mineral  acids,  arsenic. 
Pepsin  for  dyspeptic  dogs  and  young  herbivora  feeding  on  milk. 
Iron  salts,  phosphates,  baths,  cold  sponging. 
CONVULSIONS. 

Fits  produced  usually  by  irritation  of  motor  centres  of  brain  or  spinal 
cord;  they  may  be  (1)  cerebral  or  (2)  spinal,  and  these  again  (a) 
central  or  (b)  reflex. 

Chloral  hydrate  or  potassium  bromide;  chloroform  inhaled  and  swallowed. 
Morphine  subcutaneously  ;  spinal  ice-bag. 
When  of  cerebral  origin,  bromides  or  ammonia  internally  ;  cold  affusion  ; 

ice  to  head. 

When  reflex  remove  source  of  irritation. 
CORNEAL  OPACITIES. 

Paint  spot  with  silver  nitrate,  1  part  to  100  distilled  water,  or  corrosive 
sublimate  1  part,  common  salt  7^  parts  to  3000  water,  and  afterwards 
spray  or  douche  with  solution  sodium  hyposulphite,  grs.   5  or  10  to 
the  ounce  of  boiled  water,  or  1  per  cent,  solution  of  protargol. 
Sodium  chloride  injected  under  conjunctiva. 

Iodine  and  pot.  iodide  internally  and  locally  promote  absorption. 
CORNEAL  ULCER. 

Stimulant  and  astringent  collyrium,  silver  nitrate  grs.  iij.  to  one  ounce 
distilled  water,  apply  with  camel-hair  brush.    When  ulcer  small,  instil 
2  per  cent,  solution  fluorescein,  which  stains  ulcer  and  facilitates  its 
location. 
CORNS  IN  FOOT  OF  HORSE. 

Bruise  of  sensitive  sole. 
Remove  shoe  and  any  cause  of  irritation,  pare  to  relieve  pressure,  ensure 

exit  of  any  pus,  and  disinfect. 
Poultices  soften  horn  and  abate  tenderness. 
Use  light  wide-webbed,  bar,  or  f  shoe. 
Shoe  strong  feet  with  tips. 

3B 


754  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

COUGH. 

An  expiratory  explosion  forcing  open  the  glottis  and  following  a  deep 
inspiration.    More  common  and  serious  in  horses  than  other  animals. 

Comfortable  housing  and  clothing,  pure  air,  careful  feeding. 

Catarrhal.  — Steam  head ;  ammonium  acetate  solution,  salines,  ether, 
mustard  to  throat. 

Bronchial. — Ammonium  acetate,  ipecacuanha,  squill,  nitrous  ether, 
counter-irritants. 

Dry ,  with  scant,  secretion. — Amm.  acetate  or  chloride,  pot.  bicarbonate 
and  chlorate,  borax. 

With  profuse  discharge. — Balsams,  eucalyptus  oil,  tar,  terebene,  creosote, 
astringent  sprays  or  inhalations. 

Irritable. — Demulcents,  camphor  and  belladonna,  conium,  opium,  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  cocaine. 

Reflex. — Bromides,  chloral  hydrate  ;  remove  cause  of  irritation. 

Verminous.—  Frequent  in  calves  and  lambs.     See  WORMS. 

COUGH,  CHRONIC,  OF  HORSES. 

Careful  dieting,  food  damped,  linseed  mash  or  oil. 
Expectorant  and  anodyne  electuaries. 
Intralaryngeal  injection  of  antipyrine  solution. 
Epsom  salt  or  other  salines  occasionally. 
Belladonna,  camphor,  alcohol,  tar,  creosote,  arsenic. 
Counter-irritants  :  mustard,  mercuric  iodide  ointment. 

CRIB-BITING  AND  WIND-SUCKING. 

Iron  stable  fittings.     Feed  on  the  ground. 

If  manger  used  turn  when  empty  into  recess  in  wall. 

Use  muzzle,  bib,  or  spiked  neck  strap  ;  concentrated  digestible  food. 

Chalk,  antacids,  and  occasional  laxative  relieve  the  indigestion  from 

which  crib-biter  usually  suffers. 
Crib-biter  should  be  placed  by  himself,  as  other  horses  imitate  and 

acquire  the  habit. 

CRURAL  PARALYSIS. 

Loss  of  power  in  the  extensor  muscles   of    the   stifle ;    frequently 

incurable. 

Slings,  fomentations,  massage  ;  intramuscular  injections  of  nerve  stimu- 
lants, strychnine,  veratrine ;  electricity  (Faradic  current),  blisters, 
setons,  increasing  exercise. 

CURB. 

Sprain  or  injury  of  calcaneo- cuboid  ligament  of  hock,  or  of  perforatus 

tendon. 

Foment ;  refrigerants. 
Counter-irritants ;  mercuric  iodide  ointment ;  if  necessary,  firing  and 

blistering. 

High-heeled  shoe,  without  toe-piece. 
Rest,  especially  in  young  horses. 

Cow-Pox.     See  VARIOLA. 

CYSTITIS. 

Inflammation  of  urinary  bladder  ;  of  several  forms — catarrhal,  puru- 
lent, hsemorrhagic,  chronic. 

Oleaginous  laxatives  ;  aconite,  calomel  and  opium  abate  acute  fever. 
Emollient  anodyne  enemata  and  suppositories  of  hyoscyamus,  opium  or 

belladonna ;  urinary  disinfectants. 
Rugs  wrung  out  of  boiling  water  to  horse's  loins. 
Mashes,  linseed,  boiled  barley,  diluents  ;  urinary  antiseptics,  camphoric 

acid. 
Benzoic,  boric,  or  salicylic  acid,  borax,  or  pot.   chlorate  when  urine 

alkaline,  fermenting,  or  offensive. 
Pot.  bicarbonate  or  other  alkalies  internally  when  urine  acid  and  acrid. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  755 


CYSTITIS— 

Syringe  female  bladder  with  alkaline  solutions  when  urine  acrid  ;  when 

foetid,  with  benzoic  acid  or  dilute  copper  sulphate. 
Astringents,  buchu,  eucalyptus  oil  in  chronic  vesical  catarrh. 
Irrigation  with  solution  ferric  chloride,  adrenalin,  alum,  or  tannin  in 

hsemorrhagic  cases. 

DEBILITY. 

Weakness.     Endeavour  to  remove  cause. 
Easily  assimilated  nutritive  food,  cod-liver  oil,  milk,  malt  extract  ;  suit- 

able hygiene. 

Acids,  bitters,  quinine  when  gastric  digestion  weak. 
Alcoholic  stimulants  when  heart  action  feeble. 
Laxatives  when  elimination  of  waste  defective. 
Calcium  phosphate  and  fatty  matters  useful  in  young  animals. 
Nux-vomica  and  glycerophosphates  in  nervous  debility. 
Iron  salts  when  associated  with  anaemia. 

Arsenic,  pepsin,  or  liq.  pancreatis  when  assimilation  is  at  fault. 
Cold  sponging  and  baths  for  dogs. 

DELIRIUM. 

Perversion  and  inco-ordination  of  brain  functions. 
For  vigorous  patients  cold  affusion  applied  cautiously. 
Ice  and  refrigerants  to  head. 

Perfect  quiet,  cathartics,  salines,  digestible  cooling  diet. 
Chloroform,  cannabis  indica,  bromides,  internally. 
Alcohol,  ammonia,  belladonna,  camphor,  when  associated  with  exhaus- 

tion. 
Blood-letting  in  delirium,  resulting  from  injuries,  in  earlier  acute  stages 

of  phrenitis,  and  in  robust  subjects. 

DENTITION  FEVER. 

Not  infrequent  in  horses. 
Soft  laxative  food,  rest,  salines,  febrifuges. 
Lance  gums  if  absolutely  needful. 

Remove  temporary  teeth  interfering  with  eruption  of  permanent. 
When  dentition  of  dogs  delayed  or  defective  give  calcium  phosphate. 

DIABETES  INSIPIDUS. 

Polyuria  ;  Excessive  secretion  of  urine.     Peculiar  to  horses.     Caused 
apparently  by  some  toxic  material  derived  frequently  from  faulty 
food,  as  heated,  musty  grain  or  fodder,  or  produced  in  connection 
with  such  diseases  as  influenza  and  glanders  ;  seldom  fatal. 
Half  dose  physic,  especially  when  digestion  out  of  order. 
Iodine  with  pot.  iodide,  either  in  bolus  or  solution. 
With  iodide  alternate  or  conjoin  iron  salts  or  sodium  bromide. 
Chalk  or  whiting  in  manger,  or  sodium  bicarbonate  in  water,  counteracts 

acidity  frequently  present. 
Phosphoric  acid  and  bitters  lessen  thirst. 

Careful  feeding  ;  change  food.     Avoid  stale,  damp,  badly-saved  fodder, 
or  musty,  unsound  grain.     Allow  moderate  supply  of  water. 

DIABETES,  SACCHARINE. 

Diabetes  mellitus.     Pathology  not  explained.     Occasionally  occurs  in 

dogs,  very  rarely  in  horses  or  cattle. 
Relief  afforded  by  withholding  carbo-hydrates,  substituting  soup,  cooked 

animal  food  and  milk. 
Codeine  and  iodine  ;  antipyrine  ;  sodium  salicylate. 

DIAPHRAGMATIC  SPASM. 

Usually  resulting  from  over-exertion  or  acute  gastric  derangement  ; 
specially  observed  in  horses  and  dogs  ;  intermittent,  seldom  lasting 
many  hours. 
Chloral  hydrate  and  alcohol  per  oa  ;  rest  patient. 


756  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

DIAPHRAGMATIC  SPASM— continued, 

Dogs,  an  emetic,  especially  if  of  gastric  origin. 
Stimulant  embrocation  applied  to  chest. 

DlABRHCEA. 

Scouring  ;  frequent  discharge  of  fluid  faeces. 

Symptomatic  of  tuberculosis,  Johne's  disease,  strongylosis  ;  ascertain 

cause. 

Laxatives  in  first  stage  to  remove  irritant. 
Perfect  rest ;  keep  patient  comfortable  and  warm. 
Restrict  water  ;  diet  carefully  ;  wheaten  flour  gruel ;  boiled  milk. 
Alkalies  ;  chalk  where  dejections  acid. 
Lactic  acid,  grains  150  to  grains  750,  in  three  pints  of  boiled  water  for 

cattle  with  profuse  thin  discharges. 

Enemata  of  starch  gruel  at  100°  Fahr.,  with  lead  acetate  and  opium. 
Volatile  oils,  ether,  chloroform,  chlorodyne  in  moderate,   frequently 

repeated  doses  relieve  flatulence  and  spasm. 
Ammonium   carbonate   where   watery   discharges   continue   and    heart 

action  weak.     If  due  to  strongyles,  carbolic  acid,  thymol,  lysol,  iodine, 

and  salol,  or  other  intestinal  antiseptic. 
Copper  sulphate ;   corrosive  sublimate  with  creosote  and  opium  when 

chronic  discharges  contain  mucus  and  blood. 
Ergotin  and  opium  administered  with  keratin  where  discharges  profuse 

and  continued. 
Antiseptics,  sodium  salicylate,  tannalbin,  naphthol,   lysol,    sulphites, 

sulpho-carbolates  where  discharges  foul. 

Nitric  acid  and  nux-vomica  when  complicated  with  hepatic  derangement. 
In  young  animals  castor  oil  with  a  few  drops  laudanum. 
Grey  powder  in  young  patients  where  discharges  pale  and  foetid. 
While  patient  fed  on  milk,  if  it  disagree  when  given  with  lime  water, 

in  cautiously  regulated,  restricted  amount,  substitute  cooked  starch 

food,  or  beef  tea  and  white  of  egg,  with  a  little  wine  or  spirit  if  animal 

reduced. 

DIPHTHERIA. 

A   dangerous    epizootic    of  fowls.      Attacks  poultry,    water  fowls, 
turkey,  pheasant,  partridge,  parrot,  etc.     Caused  by  two  distinct 
species  of  fungi  (Rivolta).     Affects  chiefly  the  mouth,  throat,  nasal 
cavities,  larynx,  bronchi  and  lungs  ;  sometimes  the  eyelids,  alimen- 
tary canal  and  skin  ;  incubation  period  a  few  days. 
Isolate  affected  birds  ;  enjoin  thorough  cleanliness  and  disinfection. 
Moisten   external  eruptions  with  1  part  corrosive  sublimate,  10  parts 
salt,  and  1000  water,  or  with  dilute  sulphurous  acid  and  cover  with 
sulphur. 

Where  mouth  or  throat  affected  give  every  two  hours  electuary,  1  part 
tannoform,  5  each  borax,  pot.  chlorate,  glycerin,  and  100  simple  syrup. 
Feed  liberally  to  sustain  strength  ;   antiseptics  internally, 

DISINFECTION  PRIOR  TO  OPERATION. 

Skin :  remove  hair  by  clipping  or  shaving ;  wash  and  scrub,  using 
soap  and  warm  water ;  then  douche  the  parts  with  mercuric 
chloride  sol.  1:  1000;  carbolic  acid  sol.  5  per  cent.;  tincture  of 
iodine;  or  sol.  hydrogen  peroxide  3  per  cent.  In  dog  and  cat, 
where  usually  operation  area  is  small,  after  shaving  and  washing 
the  seat  of  operation,  douche  with  alcohol,  or  sublimate  sol.  (1  :  1000). 

Eye  :  Asepsis  may  be  obtained  by  frequently  douching  with  4  per  cent, 
sol.  boric  acid,  or  1  to  5000  sublimate,  or  2  per  cent.  sol.  hydrogen 
peroxide. 

Foot :  remove  shoe,  trim  hoof,  wash  and  brush  well,  using  antiseptic 
soap,  then  immerse  foot  in  antiseptic  bath,  or,  better,  place  foot  in 
antiseptic  compress,  which  is  only  removed  at  the  time  of  operation. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  757 

DISINFECTION  PRIOR  TO  OPERATION — continued. 

Vagina  :  wash  the  mucous  lining  with  4  per  cent,  warm  sol.  of  boric 

acid,  then  with  potassium  permanganate  (1  :  2000),  and  just  before 

operation  with  5  per  cent.  sol.  sodium  bicarb. 
Uterus:  irrigate  with  water  boiled  and  cooled  to  blood  heat ;  syphon 

out  fluid  if  not  expelled  ;  and  finally  irrigate  with  sol.  iodine,  grains 

8  to  the  quart  of  tepid  water,  or  with  2  per  cent.  sol.  carbolic  acid. 

DISLOCATIONS. 

Luxations.     Not  common  in  the  lower  animals. 
Bring  bones  into  natural  position. 

Retain  in  position  by  splints,  bandages,  plasters  ;  sling  if  necessary. 
Abate  inflammation  by   either   hot   or   cold    applications,   as   may  be 

suitable. 

DISTEMPER  IN  DOGS. 

A  contagious  eruptive  fever  affecting  the  mucous  membranes,  skin, 
and  glands,  and  frequently  the  cerebro-spinal  axis.    It  attacks  dogs, 
cats,  foxes,  wolves,   hyenas,  jackals,  and  monkeys.     Evidently  of 
organismal  origin  ;  cultivations  to  the  seventh  generation  produce  the 
disease  when  inoculated  in  dogs  and  cats  ;  but  the  distinctive  microbe 
has  not  yet  been  demonstrated. 
Prevent  spread  by  early  isolation  and  disinfection. 
Good  nursing  and  cleanliness  as  important  as  medicines. 
An  emetic  and  mild  laxative  if  required  in  early  stage. 
Ammonium  acetate  solution  and  ipecacuanha,  steaming  and  sponging 

nose  and  eyes  relieve  catarrh. 

Boric  acid,  two  per  cent,  solution  in  conjunctivitis,  which  see. 
Hot  compresses,  embrocations,  stimulant  expectorants  in  laryngeal  and 

bronchial  cases. 

Combat  fever  with  antipyrine  or  quinine. 

Injections  of  polyvalent  antistreptococcic  serum,  recommended  by  Joly. 
Chlorodyne,  or  bismuth  salicylate  allays  gastro-intestinal  irritation. 
Boric  acid  and  tannoform  powder  with  ten  parts  kaolin  or  starch  abate 

skin  irritation  ;  strophanthus  in  heart  weakness. 
Sodium  sulphite  as  antiseptic  and  antipyretic. 
For  nervous  complications  see  CHOREA,  EPILEPSY,  CONVULSIONS. 
If  food  not  spontaneously  taken  give  beef  tea  and  milk,  beef  tea  with 
white  of  egg,  or  finely  minced  lean  beef  uncooked,  and,  if  required, 
wine  or  spirit. 
During  convalescence  give  phosphates,  and  heematinics,  cod-liver  oil ;  and 

a  generous  diet. 

Preventive  treatment  uncertain  :  vaccines  and  antidistemper  sera  intro- 
duced by  Copeman,  Phisalix  and  others  may  be  tried. 

DROPSY. 

Symptomatic  serous  effusion.     See  ASCITES. 
Endeavour  to  restore  functions  of  heart,  kidneys,  or  liver,  the  impaired 

action  of  which  usually  causes  the  effusion  ;  Turkish  baths. 
Digitalis  infusion  and  strychnine  useful  in  most  dropsies,  especially  in 

cardiac,  in  which  give  with  salines  or  milk  sugar. 
Copaiba  in  cardiac  and  hepatic  cases. 
Laxatives  and  pot.  iodide  in  renal  dropsy. 

Encourage  vicarious  functions  of  bowels  and  skin  if  kidneys  affected. 
Iron  and  salines  in  cases  associated  with  anaemia. 

Restrict  quantity  of  fluid  ;  friction  ;  shampooing  ;  external  stimulants. 
Trocar  and  canula,  or  aspirator  for  cases  requiring  tapping. 

DYSENTERY. 

Contagious  specific  inflammation  of  mucous  and  glandular  structures 
of  intestine,  occurring  in  foals,  calves,  lambs,  and  dogs,  within  a 
few  days  after  birth.  In  muco-purulent,  blood-stained  discharge 


758  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

DYSENTERY — continued. 

are  numerous  bacteria.     Mortality  10  to  80  per  cent.     Observed  to 

concur  with  epizootic  abortion  (Friedberger). 
Isolation  of  infected  ;  thorough  disinfection. 

Antiseptic  treatment  of  females  aborting  and  parturient.  See  ABORTION. 
At  first,  sodium  sulphate,  then  ipecacuanha  in  linseed  tea. 
Castor  oil  and  grey  powder,  intestinal  antiseptics,  tannates. 
Well-boiled  starch  gruel  or  other  mucilage,  with  a  few  drops  laudanum. 
Salicylic  and  tannic  acids  with  chamomile  infusion. 
Rhubarb,  magnesium  carbonate,  and  opium. 
Chlorodyne,  tannoform,  or  resorcin,  with  laudanum  ;  acetate  of  lead. 

DYSPEPSIA.     INDIGESTION. 

Treatment  varies  with  cause  and  nature  of  attack.     Suitable  dietary. 
Avoid   indigestible  food   and   long  fasts.      Rectify  irregularity  of 
bowels.     Enjoin  exercise. 
Resulting  from  over-eating,  an  emetic  for  dogs  ;  cathartic  for  animals 

that  do  not  vomit. 
For  flatulence,   essential   oils,   ginger,   hydrochloric  acid,   ether  ;   pass 

probang  in  cattle. 

For  gastric  catarrh,   ammonium   chloride,  sodium  hyposulphite,  frag- 
ments of  ice. 

Alkalies,  chalk,  magnesia,  given  before  feeding  or  with  food. 
For  atonic  forms,  in  cattle,  mineral  acids,  usually  more  permanently 

useful,  are  given  with  bitters  and  pilocarpine. 

Pepsin  with  glycerin  for  dogs  and  young  animals  while  living  on  milk. 
Where  food  irritates,  provoking  diarrhoea,  bismuth  salts  or  arsenic  with 

morphine. 

Depending  upon  worms — appropriate  vermicides. 
In  chronic  dyspepsia,  obviate  errors  of  diet  or  management,  examine 

teeth,  change  food. 
Provide  horses  with  whiting  and  rock  salt  to  lick.     Try  daily  A  Ib. 

linseed  cake  or  hay-tea. 
Restrict  cattle  to  mash  diet  for  two  days,  and  add  salt  and  treacle  to 

drinking  water,  pilocarpine  subcutaneously. 
Both  in  hoven  and  overloading  with  dry  food  rub  left  Hank  and  belly  ; 

soap  and  water  enemata  ;  rumenotomy. 

DYSPNCEA. 

Difficult  breathing. 

Discover  and,  if  possible,  remove  cause. 
Fresh  air  ;  chloroform,  inhaled  or  swallowed. 
Chloral  hydrate  in  spray  or  draught. 
Belladonna  extract  and  ether. 
Amyl-nitrite  ;  nitro-glycerin  in  angina  pectoris. 

Counter-irritants  if  due  to  congestion  or  inflammation  of  air-passages. 
Tracheotomy  where  obstruction  occurs  in  upper  air-passages. 

ECLAMPSIA. 

Epileptiform  spasms,  cause  unknown.     Most  common  in  very  young 
subjects,  dogs  during  teething,  and  from  worms,   occasionally  in 
bitches  nursing.     Cases  in  milch  cows  have  been  recorded. 
Remove  any  exciting  cause  ;  attend  to  general  health. 
Pot.    bromide,    chloral,    morphine    hydrochloride    hypodermically,    or 
chloroform  inhalation  where  excitement  considerable. 

ECTHYMA. 

American  skin  disease  ;  eruption  of  papules  and  subsequently  pustules. 

Affects  horses,  sheep,  and  dogs. 

Laxative  salines  remove  gastro-intestinal  or  other  irritants. 
Exercise  further  hastens  removal  of  waste  products. 
Digestible,  rather  laxative,  dietary. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  759 

ECTHYMA — continued. 

Mineral  acids,  iron  salts,  bitters,  arsenic,  act  as  antiseptics  and  altera- 
tives. 

Pustules  treated  by  water  dressing,  boric  acid,  zinc  oxide  ointment,  or 
by  cauterisation. 

Contagious  ;  hence  patients  isolated  and  disinfection  adopted. 

ECZEMA. 

Cutaneous  catarrh.  A  dermatitis  presenting  localised  eruption  of 
papules,  vesicles,  or  pustules,  appearing  consecutively  or  together, 
with  itching,  thickening,  and  discharge,  and  subsequently  scales 
or  scabs.  The  earlier  or  acute  stages  may  continue  one  to  three 
weeks,  the  later  for  months.  Affects  particular  regions,  chiefly 
the  back,  tail,  and  extremities.  Young,  old,  and  delicate  subjects 
most  susceptible.  A  frequent  disease  of  dogs,  in  which  the 
several  varieties  usually  well  marked.  It  occurs  about  the  heels 
of  horses,  causing  ulceration  and  constituting  a  variety  of  grease. 
Friedberger  records  six  varieties  : — 

(1)  Erytkematous. — The  skin  hot,  tender,  red,  and  swollen. 

Cleanse  skin  with  soap  and  water.    Apply  vaseline  or  lead  subacetate, 

glycerin,  and  olive  oil. 
Endeavour  to  prevent  rubbing  and  biting. 
Laxative  salines,  cooling  diet,  correct  gastric  derangement. 

(2)  Papular. — Patches  of  small,  soft  swellings,  varying  in  size  from  a 

millet  to  a  pea. 

With  treatment  as  above,  moisten  with  boro-glycerin  or  borax  solution. 

Itching  abated  by  strong  solution  of  pot.  bicarbonate,  or  sod.  hypo- 
sulphite. 

(3)  Vesicular. — Eczema  simplex.     Tetter.     Patches  of  minute,  crowded 
vesicles. 

Whether  in  dogs  or  horses,  trim  or  shave  all  hair  from  irritable  spots. 

Wash  with  soap  and  water. 

Moisten  several  times  daily  with  saturated  solution  pot.  bicarbonate. 
Zinc  oleate  or  ointment  soothes  and  softens. 
Dry  dressings,  such  as  zinc  oxide  and  bismuth  nitrate,  one  part  each, 

six  or  eight  parts  kaolin  or  starch,  preferable  when  skin  tender  or 

puffy. 

(4)  Humid. — Eczema  rubrum.     Red  mange  of  dogs.     Inflammation  ex- 

tended and  exudation  greater. 
Remove  irritating  discharges,  and  wash  skin  once  with  solution  of 

creolin. 

Soak  limited  areas  with  mercurous  oxide  wash. 
Subsequently  dress  with  zinc  oleate  or  sulphur  ointment. 
Paint  limited  inflammatory  spots  with  5  per  cent,  silver  nitrate  solution. 
Tannin  with  ten  parts  paraffin  oil ;  dust  with  boric  acid  or  iodoform. 
After    abating    pyrexia,    administer  mineral   acids,    bitters,    tonics, 

arsenic  ;  linseed  for  herbivora.     In  dogs  avoid  oatmeal  and  heating 

animal  food,  and  give  cod-liver  oil. 
Mercuric  nitrate  or  oxide  ointment  in  eczema  of  eyelids. 

(5)  Pustulous. — Impetiginous.     Inflammation  more  deeply  involving  the 

skin,  with  free  pus  formation,  as  in  grease  in  horses  ;  liable  to 

assume  chronic  form. 

Cleanse  and  soften  scabs  with  soap  and  warm  water. 
Soak  suppurating  surfaces  with  zinc  chloride  in  aqueous  solution. 
Alternate  these  dressings  with  mercurous  oxide  wash,  copper  sulphate 

ointment,  carbolic  acid,  naphthol. 

Paint  inflamed  spots  with  silver  nitrate  or  dilute  nitric  acid. 
Attend  to  state  of  bowels  and  kidneys. 
Digestible  nutritive  food,  tonics,  arsenic,  mineral  acids. 

(6)  Squamous. — Desquamating.  Sometimes  termed  Pityriasisor  Psoriasis. 
Soak  crusts  or  scabs  with  oil  for  some  hours  and  remove  them. 


760  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

ECZEMA— continued. 

Salicylic  acid  in  strong  borax  solution  also  removes  scabs ;  ichthyol 
ointment. 

Dress  with  four  parts  each  pot.  carbonate  and  sublimed  sulphur,  one 
oleum  picis,  thirty  each  lard  and  olive  oil,  leaving  dressing  on  for  three 
or  four  days,  then  washing  off  with  soap,  alkali,  and  water. 

Carbolic  acid  and  paraffin  ointment,  sulphur  iodide  ointment. 

Mercuric  nitrate,  or  iodine  ointments  where  skin  thickened. 

A  blister  in  inveterate  cases  sometimes  re-establishes  healthy  action. 

Many  cases  of  eczema  in  dogs  are  speedily  cured  by  giving  a  full  dose 
of  purgative  medicine,  dressing  the  skin  with  sulphur  ointment  or 
one  per  cent,  lysol  solution,  and  by  restricting  the  diet. 

ELEPHANTIASIS  OF  HORSES. 

Chronic  dermatitis  with  dermal  and  sub-dermal  hypertrophy,  vascular 
stasis,  and  surface  deformation.      Affects  the  limbs,  and  follows 
repeated  attacks  of  lymphangitis. 
When  the  papillae  are  seriously  enlarged  and  skin  folds  formed  cure  is 

hopeless. 
Slighter  cases  cured  and  others  ameliorated  by  antiseptic  treatment. 

See  GREASE. 
Green  food,  laxatives,  diuretics,  salines,  iodine,  and  pot.  iodide;  exercise. 

EMPYEMA. 

Pus  in  the  chest,  facial  sinus,  or  other  natural  cavity. 
Remove  by  operation  under  antiseptic  precautions. 

Wash  out  cavity  with  warm  saline  solution,  boric  acid,  hydrogen 
peroxide,  protargol,  or  other  antiseptic. 

EMPHYSEMA,  SUBCUTANEOUS. 

Air  swelling.     Often  disappears  spontaneously. 
May  puncture,  apply  pressure,  or  counter-irritation. 
Prevent  entry  of  air  if  emphysema  due  to  wound. 

EMPHYSEMA,  PULMONARY.     (See  Broken  Wind. ) 

Occurring  in  old  hard-worked  horses. 

Careful  dietary,  concentrated  damped  food,  occasional  linseed  mash. 
Treatment  only  palliative. 
No  water  given  within  an  hour  of  work. 

Arsenic  and  belladonna  relieve  dyspnoea  ;  laxatives  occasionally. 
Strychnine  stimulates  the  respiratory  centre. 

ENDOCARDITIS. 

Inflammation  of  membrane  lining  heart  cavities  and  covering  valves. 
More  frequent  than  myocarditis  ;  occurs  especially  in  horses,  cattle, 
and  pigs ;  usually  as  sequel  of  contagious  fevers  depending  on 
infection.  Acute  cases  frequently  affect  left  heart,  chronic  and 
infective  the  right. 

Perfect  rest  and  quiet.     Seldom  curable. 
Digitalis  to  steady  heart ;  quinine  and  other  antipyretics. 
Frequently  repeated  stimulants  maintain  heart  action  in   exhausted 

patients. 
In  rheumatic  complications  salicylates  or  pot.  bicarbonate. 

ENTERITIS. 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels,  is  produced  by  irritants,  bacteria,  toxins, 
strongyles.  In  dogs,  cattle,  and  sheep,  the  small  intestines  are 
chiefly  affected.  Horses,  especially  hard-worked,  irregularly -fed 
animals  of  the  heavier  breeds,  are  subject  to  rapid,  usually  fatal, 
haemorrhagic  effusion  into  the  submucous  tissues  of  the  colon  and 
caecum,  and  the  subserous  structures  of  the  attached  mesentery. 
In  these  equine  cases  morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically  every  two 

hours.     Ergotin  sometimes  conjoined  with  the  view  of  contracting 

blood-vessels ;  antiseptics,  salol,  tannoform,  lysol. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  761 

ENTERITIS— continued. 

Half  drachm  each  opium,  belladonna  extract,  and  camphor  in  pint  of 

gruel,  repeated  every  two  hours. 
Where  cardiac  action  violent,  one  or  two  small  doses  of  aconite  tincture 

may  be  added  to  the  anodyne  draught. 

Occasional  laxative  enemas.     Purgatives  aggravate  morbid  conditions. 
From  the  outset  rugs  wrung  out  of  hot  water  placed  for  two  hours 

around  the  trunk,  and  soap  linament  with  opium  subsequently  rubbed 

over  abdomen  give  temporary  relief. 

Enteritis  in  other  animals  not  so  sudden  in  onset  or  so  rapidly  fatal. 
Hot  fomentations,  mustard  and  soap  liniment. 

ENTROPIUM. 

Inversion  of  eyelid  and  eyelashes.     Dogs  more  frequently  affected 

than  horses. 

Excision  of  elliptical  portion  of  skin  of  inturned  lid ;  edges  secured  by 
fine  sutures ;  antiseptic  adhesive  dressing. 

EPILEPSY.     FITS. 

Unconsciousness  associated  with  spasmodic  movements.  Excitation 
of  motor  centres  of  cranial  cortical  substance.  Results  from  (a) 
tumours,  morbid  conditions,  or  parasites  in  the  brain  or  meninges  ; 
(6)  reflexly  from  irritation  of  bowels  or  lesions  of  peripheral 
nerves  ;  (c)  fright,  anger,  excitement.  Most  common  in  young  dogs. 
Hold  head  of  small  animal  firmly.  Protect  eyes  from  light.  Maintain 

normal  position. 

Take  care  that  animal  is  not  injured  during  convulsions. 
Regulate  bowels.    Remove  worms  or  irritation  connected  with  teething. 
Digestible  nutritive  diet ;  healthy  surroundings. 
Pot.  bromide  twice  daily  persisted  with. 
Iron  salts  in  anaemia  ;  zinc  salts  where  gastric  derangement. 
Copper  ammonia  sulphate  ;  silver  nitrate  and  iodine  sometimes  useful. 
EPISTAXIS. 

Bleeding  from  nostrils. 
When  from  injury  rupturing  small  blood-vessel,  plug  one  nostril,  raise 

head. 

If  a  polypus  present  remove  it. 

When  from  inflammation  or  ulceration  of  nasal  membrane  apply  ice  to 
frontal  surface  and  head  ;  spray  with  ferric  chloride  tincture,  or  solu- 
tion of  adrenalin. 
When  from  purpura  give  by  mouth  ergot,  ferric  chloride,  or  ergotin 

subcutaneously. 

Relieve  any  determining  cerebral,  cardiac,  or  respiratory  congestion. 
Warm-water  bag  to  spine. 

EPIZOOTICS. 

Contagious  diseases  attacking  large  numbers  of  animals  in  a  short 

space  of  time  and  spreading  widely. 
Endeavour  to  destroy  disease  germs  by  carbolic  acid,  chlorine,  formalin, 

sulphurous  acid  gas,  or  other  disinfectants. 
Isolate  infected  subjects.     Enjoin  cleanliness. 
Sponge  sick  and  healthy  with  sulphurous  or  carbolic  solutions. 
Administer  quinine,  sodium  sulphite,  glycerin  carbolate,  or  other  anti- 
septics. 

EPIZOOTIC  LYMPHANGITIS. 

A  contagious  eruptive  disease  of  the  horse,  caused  by  the  Gryptococcus 
farciminosns,  and  characterised  by  suppurating  nodular  swellings 
of  the  superficial  lymphatics. 
Eruption  usually  appears  on  the  limbs,  sometimes  on  the  trunk,  or  on 

head  and  neck. 

May  be  mistaken  for  farcy  or  cutaneous  glanders.    E.  lymphangitis  and 
glanders  may  coexist.     Affected  horses  should  be  slaughtered. 


762  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

ERYSIPELAS. 

A  specific  febrile  disease,  characterised  by  diffuse  sloughing  inflamma- 
tion of  the  skin  and  subjacent  tissues,  usually  of  the  head.  Occurs 
occasionally  in  horses  ;  on  head  of  sheep,  spreading  as  a  contagious 
epizootic  (Cagny) ;  and  in  swine,  known  in  France  as  mal  rouge, 
and  caused  by  a  minute  bacillus.  See  SWINE  FEVER. 
Isolate  and  disinfect ;  generous  diet. 

Aperients,  salines,  pot.  chlorate  conjoined  with  spirit  of  camphor. 
In  horses  hot,  medicated  fomentations  persevered  with  for  several  hours, 

and  affected  surfaces  moistened  with  borax  solution  and  laudanum. 
Subcutaneous  peripheral  injection  of  antiseptics  sometimes  limits  swell- 
ing and  extension. 

Abscesses  should  be  opened,  but  scarification  of  swellings  rarely  justifi- 
able. 

Milk  and  eggs,  beef  tea,  alcoholic  stimulants  sustain  strength. 
Ferric  chloride  solution,  both  locally  and  internally,  especially  in  weakly 
patients,  for  whom  also  prescribe  quinine. 

ERYTHEMA. 

Congestion  of  the  skin  with  infiltration  of  its  layers.     Occurs  in  all 
patients  from  friction,  irritants,  and  exposure  to  cold  winds  in  wet 
weather.     Intertrigo  and  mud  fever  common  varieties  in  horses. 
Cleanse  thoroughly.     Dust  with  starch,  fuller's  earth,  or  zinc  oxide,  one 

to  six  or  eight  of  starch  ;  appty  zinc  or  lead  salts  in  solution  or  oint- 
ment. 
Zinc   oxide   or   other  antiseptic   desiccant  with   kaolin   or   starch,    in 

exudative  forms,  in  which  moisture  to  be  avoided. 
Horses  liable  to  '  mud  fever '  should  not  have  the  hair  removed  from  their 

legs,   and  washing  should  be  forbidden.     Apply  Goulard's  extract, 

glycerin  and  olive  oil. 

Salines  in  drinking  water  ;  pot.  bicarbonate. 

Laxatives,  especially  when  connected  with  gastro-intestinal  irritation. 
Chronic  forms,  such  as  cracked  heels  in  horses,  painted  over  with  silver 

nitrate,  one  part  to  twelve  water  :  or  dressed  with  astringents,  copper 

sulphate,  alum,  or  zinc  sulphate. 
Arsenic  and  quinine  in  persistent  cases. 

EXOSTOSIS. 

Outgrowth  of  bone. 

Fomentations  or  refrigerants  allay  inflammation  and  pain  of  early  stages. 
Counter-irritants  when  heat  and  tenderness  have  been  removed. 
Mercuric  iodide  ointment  ;  needle  firing  ;  seton  ;  periosteotomy. 
Laxatives,  with  iodine  and  pot.  iodide  internally,  promote  absorption. 
FAINTING. 

Syncope.     Results  from  enfeebled  action  of  heart. 
Fresh  air  ;  remove  any  pressure  from  neck  ;  inhalations  of  oxygen. 
If  horse  down  do  not  attempt  to  raise  him. 
Increase  blood -pressure  by  sterilised  salt-solution  (80  grains  to  the  pint) 

subcutaneously. 

Ammonia  inhaled,  or  adrenalin  solution  injected  hypodermically. 
Alcohol  and  ether,  swallowed  or  in  enema,  especially  when  heart  action 

weak  or  fluttering.  . 

FALSE  QUARTER. 

A  permanent  defect  of  the  wall.     The  deficiency  results  from  injury  of 

secreting  coronary  band. 

Endeavour  to  restore  secretory  function  of  coronary  band. 
Dress  and  promote  healing  of  wound  in  band  ;  dead  horn  trimmed  away  ; 

equable  pressure  applied. 

Apply  bar  shoe  to  relieve  concussion  ;  prevent  dirt  getting  into  fissure 
by  filling  with  guttapercha  and  ammoniacum  or  other  horn  substitute. 
Blisters  to  coronet  sometimes  useful. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  763 

FAK.CY.     See  GLANDERS. 

FAVUS. 

Honeycomb  ringworm,  produced  by  various  dermatophytes  ;  Achorion 
Schdnleinii  (man  and  rabbit),  A.  quinclceanum  (cat),  and  Oospora 
Canina  (dog).  The  so-called  favus  or  whitecomb  disease  of  poultry 
is  due  to  a  special  fungus,  Lophophyton  gallince.  Occurs  in  man, 
dogs,  cats,  and  poultry.  Favus  is  less  common  than  Trichophytosis. 
See  RINGWORM. 
Soft  soap  and  warm  water,  or  alkalies  with  bland  oils,  soften  and  remove 

crusts. 

As  parasiticides — iodine  tincture,  iodoform,  silver  nitrate  ointment  1  to 
5  per  cent.,  ferric  chloride  solution,  thymol,  creosote,  copper  sulphate, 
or  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  carbolic  acid,  iodine  tincture,  and 
chloral  hydrate. 
In  weakly  subjects  give  internally  mineral  acids,  bitters,  tonics. 

FEVER,  ACUTE. 

Concurring  with  acute  local  inflammation. 

Aconite  ;  occasionally  blood-letting  in  earlier  stages  in  robust  subjects. 
Aperients,  salines,  magnesia  sulphate,  quinine,  Glauber's  salt,  laxative 

enemata. 

Remove  any  cause  of  irritation  ;  attend  to  wounds. 
Warm  clothing,  but  cool  air  to  breathe. 
Warm  bath  or  sponging  with  tepid  water. 

Antifebrin  and  other  antipyretics  ;  sodium  sulphite  and  antiseptics. 
Alcohol  and  digitalis  sustain  cardiac  tone. 
Salicylic  acid  and  sodium  salicylate  in  rheumatic  fever. 
Acids  and  bitters  allay  thirst  and  aid  digestion. 
Light,  easily  digested  food  ;  diluents  ;  salines  in  drinking  water. 

FEVER,  Low. 

Occurs  in  most  epizootics,  in  connection  with  septicaemia,  in  inflamma- 
tion of  mucous  membranes,  and  in  debilitated  subjects. 
Mild  laxatives  and  enemata  when  required. 
Antipyretics,  antiseptics,  salines,  acids,  bitters. 
Quinine,  especially  in  intermittent  types  ;  arsenic  in  infective  cases. 
Alcohol,  ether,  or  caffeine  promote  excretion  and  cardiac  action. 
Turpentine  and  iron  salt  indicated  in  hsemorrhagic  cases. 
Suitable  clothing,  diet,  hygiene,  sponging,  baths. 
FEVER,  SIMPLE. 

Continued    fever.       Occurs  independently  of  local   inflammation  or 

septicaemia ;  common  among  horses  brought  into  dealers'  stables. 
Comfortable  box  ;  fresh  air  and  sunlight ;  perfect  quiet. 
Clothe  body,  bandage  legs,  mild  laxative,  mash  diet,  gruel,  diluents. 
Salines,  ammonium  acetate  solution,  pot.  chlorate  or  nitrate,  antifebrin, 

spirit  nitrous  ether. 

Alcohol,  ether,  bitters,  acids,  tonics  so  soon  as  acute  symptoms  abate. 
Catarrhal,  gastro-intestinal,  or  other  specialsymptoms  receive  appropriate 
treatment. 

FISTULA  OR  SINUS. 

A  chronic  discharging  wound. 

Remove  necrosed  tissue  or  other  irritant.     Render  wound  aseptic. 

Open   sinuses   with  knife  ;  curette  and   provide  drainage  by   counter 
opening. 

Encourage  healing  of  wound  by  granulation. 

Where  knife  impracticable,  inject  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  sul- 
phate of  copper  or  zinc  chloride. 

Milder  treatment  failing,  destroy  ulcerating  surface  and  fibrous  lining 
with  corrosive  sublimate  or  by  actual  cautery. 

Dress  with  antiseptics. 

FLATULENCE.     See  DYSPEPSIA  and  HOVEN. 


764  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

FLEAS. 

Pulex  irritans  and  others.     Infest  dogs,  cats,  pigeons,  and  poultry. 
Soap  and  water  ;  cleanliness  of  skin  and  surroundings. 
Turpentine,  aniseed,  or  other  volatile  oils.     Sassafras  oil  effectual. 
Insect    powders ;    stavesacre    decotion ;    tobacco    water ;    warm   lysol 

solution  one  per  cent. 
Pine  shavings  or  sawdust  for  dog's  bed. 

FLYBLOW. 

Affecting  wounds  ;  specially  troublesome  in  sheep. 

Prevent    fly   striking    by   dressings   of  corrosive    sublimate   solution, 
turpentine,  tar  oil,  or  tar. 

FOOT-ROT  IN  SHEEP. 

(1)  Abrasions  of  horn  from  injuries,  rough  ground,  long  journeys;  the 
exposed  secreting  surfaces,  especially  of  the  sole,  becoming  inflamed  by 
dirt  and  grit  insinuating  under  the  damaged  crust.     Non-contagious. 

(2)  A  specific  contagious  inflammation  caused  by  the  bacillus  necrophorns. 
It  commences  at  the  sole  or  between  the  claws  and,  gradually  extend- 
ing, causes  changes  in  the  bones  and  tendons,  with  degeneration  of 
horn,  suppuration  and  sloughing.    The  discharge  in  contact  with  sound 
feet,  or  introduced  by  inoculation  into  the  bodies  of  healthy  sheep, 
produces  the  disease  in  fourteen  to  twenty-one  days. 

The  non-contagious  form  cured  by  placing  diseased  sheep  on  dry  soils, 

removing  loose  horn,  dressing  fungus  growths  with  mild  caustics. 
The  contagious  form  necessitates  separation  of  affected  sheep,  dressing 

them  daily  or  thrice  a  week. 
One  part  carbolic  acid,  ten  glycerin,  applied  between  the  claws  ;  loose 

and  diseased  horn  removed  by  knife. 
Fungous  growths  cauterised  with  mixture  of  copper  sulphate  and  crude 

carbolic  acid  made  into  paste  with  vaseline. 
Mercuric  nitrate,  zinc  or  iron  chloride  solutions  also  useful. 
Protect  surfaces  with  tar  dressing  or  guttapercha  varnish. 
Drive  sheep  twice  a  week  over  ground  strewn  three  inches  thick  with 

freshly-slaked  lime. 
Walk  sheep  through  astringent  foot-bath,  one  part  copper  sulphate  to 

fifty  parts  water. 
Prevent  introduction  of  disease  by  three  weeks'  quarantine  of  fresh 

purchases. 

'  FOUL  IN  FEET'  OF  CATTLE. 

A  popular,  somewhat  indefinite  term  applied  to  chronic  disease  with 
necrosis  of  the  feet  of  cattle,  usually  resulting  from  neglected 
injuries,  or  from  tuberculous  inflammation. 

Cleanse,  foment ;  remove  loose  and  diseased  horn,  and  disinfect. 
Dress  with  copper  sulphate,  carbolic  acid,  or  other  antiseptic. 
Keep  foot  dry  by  tarred  bandages. 
Where  disease  is  deep-seated,  or  intractable,  amputate  claw. 

FOUNDER.     See  LAMINITIS. 

FOWL  CHOLERA. 

Affects  all  species  of  birds,  and  by  inoculation  is  produced  in  rabbits, 
pigeons,  and  white  mice.  Its  essential  features  are  croupous  and 
haemorrhagic  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  and  follicles  of 
the  intestine,  similar  conditions  usually  attacking  lungs  arid  heart. 
It  runs  its  course  in  thirty-six  hours  ;  90  per  cent.  die.  It  is  caused 
by  a  minute  bacterium. 

The  premises  should  be  swept ;  all  litter,  manure,  and  dead  birds  burned. 

Walls,  woodwork,  cribs,  repeatedly  washed  with  boiling  water,  contain- 
ing carbolic  acid,  corrosive  sublimate,  or  5  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid. 

Fumigate  with  sulphurous  acid  or  chlorine. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  765 

FOWL  CHOLERA — continued. 

Preventive  vaccination  advised  by  Pasteur  ;  but  some  birds  die.  and  two 

or  three  operations  necessary  to  secure  immunity. 
Ferrous  sulphate  with  a  few  drops  of  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  every 

three  hours,  sometimes  beneficial ;  or  add  one  drachm  of  sulphuric 

acid  to  four  pints  of  the  drinking-water. 
Carbolic  acid  5  per  cent,  solution  subcutaneously  used  by  Nocard. 

FRACTURES. 

Broken  bones. 

Bones  brought  into  apposition. 

Splints  of  leather,  lath,  block-tiu,  poroplastin,  or  guttapercha. 
Encase  in  plaster  of  Paris,  or  starch  bandages. 
Ends  of  bones  may  be  kept  together  by  metallic  sutures. 
A  blister  promotes  union  by  increasing  reparative  materials,  and  by 

limiting  movement. 
Slings  advisable  in  many  cases. 

Wounds  in  compound  fractures  treated  antiseptically. 
Calcium  phosphate  internally  in  weakly  subjects. 

FRONTAL  AND  MAXILLARY  SINUSES  ;  INFLAMMATION  OF  LINING  MEMBRANE. 
Caused  by  nasal  catarrh,  carious  teeth,  injuries,  tumours,  strangles, 
and  glanders ;  often  unilateral.     More  common  in  horse  than  in 
other  patients. 

Trephine.      Wash  out  cavities  with  warm  antiseptic  :    boracic  acid, 
hydrogen  peroxide,  potassium  permanganate,  or  iodine  solution. 

Irrigation  should  if  possible  be  done  while  animal  standing. 

Frontal  and  maxillary  sinuses  of  sheep  the  seat  of  the  Iarva3  of  oestrus 
ovis. 

These  larvae  also  sometimes  occupy  the  chambers  at  base  of  horns  ;  pro- 
ducing chronic  catarrh  and  cerebral  excitement. 

Washing  with  an  antiseptic  solution  the  nostrils  of  sheep  shortly  after 
the  ova  have  been  deposited  may  prevent  the  mischief. 

Fumigations,  nasal  injections,  and  insufflations. 

Subsequent  treatment  very  hopeless,  even  when  the  sinus  is  trephined, 
as  it  is  difficult  to  wash  out  all  the  larvse. 

FROST -BITE. 

Necrosis  of  the  coronet. 

Raise  temperature  of  frozen  parts,  and  inject  antiseptics. 
Stimulants  to  affected  parts,  turpentine  and  oil,  soap  liniments. 
Treat  sores  antiseptically. 

FUNGUS  H^MATODES. 

Vascular  sarcomatous  growth,  usually  protruding  from  orbit.     More 

common  in  cattle  and  sheep  than  horse. 
Extirpation  of  eyeball. 
Speedy  feeding  and  slaughter  of  patient. 

GANGRENE. 

Mortification.    Necrosis  with  putrefaction,  caused  by  micro-organisms. 
Remove  textures  already  dead  by  knife  or  silver  nitrate,  chromic  or 

carbolic  acid,  iodoform  or  bromine. 
Inject  antiseptics  at  margin   of  dead  part,  and   endeavour  to  limit 

extension  of  gangrene. 

Maintain  wounds  aseptic.     Stimulate  circulation  in  surrounding  parts. 
Sustain  general  strength  by  generous  diet ;  tonics  and  stimulants. 

GAPES  IN  FOWLS. 

Caused  by  Syngamus  trachealis.     See  WORMS. 
GASTRITIS. 

Inflammation  of  stomach — generally  from  action  of  irritants  ;  occurs 
in  badly-fed  foals  and  calves  ;  occasionally  in  horses  ;  and  in  older 
cattle  as  abomasitis.  In  dogs  as  hsemorrhagic  gastritis. 


766  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

GASTRITIS — continued. 

In  dogs  foreign  bodies  or  irritants  removed  by  apomorphine  solution 

hypodermically  ;  purgatives  contra-indicated.     Give  enemata. 
Ice  by  the  mouth,  or  morphine  hypodermically,  relieves  irritation  and 

pain  ;  creosote,  magnesia,  sodium  bicarbonate. 
Antacids  and  bismuth,  with  or  without  small  doses  opium,  in  young 

animals  and  dogs ;  antiseptics ;  hot  fomentations  to  abdomen ;  milk 

and  soda  water. 
The  brain  symptoms  and  paralysis  occurring  in  cattle  usually  relieved 

by  full   doses  of  oil,  followed  by  demulcents,  treacle,  salines,  and 

laxative  enemata. 
Patients  nourished  with  milk,  eggs,  well-boiled  gruel,   and  nutritive 

enemas. 

GASTRO-ENTERITIS. 

Occurs  in  all  the  domestic  animals.     Causes  very  varied;    poisons, 

foreign  bodies,  parasites,  irritants,  defective  food  or  water,  etc. 
Gentle  laxatives  ;  emetic,  apomorphine  for  dog  or  pig  ;  demulcents. 
Allay  prominent  symptoms  with  analgesics,  antispasmodics,  styptics,  or 

special  antidotes. 

Hot    applications    externally ;    soothing  enemas ;    fluid  or   semi-fluid 
digestible  food. 

GID.     See  WORMS. 

GLANDERS  IN  HORSES. 

A  specific  contagious  disease  of  the  horse,  ass,  and  mule,  caused  by 
the  bacillus  mallei  entering  the  body  with  the  food,  inspired  air, 
or  by  inoculation  through  a  wound  ;  specially  affecting  the  lungs, 
respiratory  mucous  membranes,  and  lymphatic  system,  and  trans- 
missible to  man  and  many  animals. 
Incurable.  May  exist  without  nasal  discharge,  ulcers,  or  sub-maxillary 

swelling.      Glandered    horses   should    be    slaughtered ;    notification 

compulsory.     Suspected  or  incontact  animals  should  be  isolated,  and 

tested  with  mallein  (p.  695). 

GLANDULAR  SWELLINGS. 

Counter-irritants  around  or  near ;  iodine,  mercury  oleate,  or  iodide. 
Salines,  iodine,  and  iodides,  calcium  chloride,  and  sulphide  internally. 
Iron  salts  in  anaemic  patients. 
Inject  with  diluted  carbolic  acid,  naphthol,  or  other  antiseptic. 

GLAUCOMA. 

Disease  of  vitreous  humour  of  eye. 

Not  often  amenable  to  treatment ;  iridectomy  affords  relief. 
Physostigmine  diminishes  intraocular  pressure. 

GLOSSITIS. 

Inflammation  of  tongue  with  or  without  a  wound.     Occurs  in  all 

animals. 

Irrigate  with  mild  astringent  solutions. 
Electuary  of  bismuth  and  oxymel,  or  treacle  and  vinegar. 
Furnish  soft  nutritive  food.     If  tongue  lacerated,  amputation  may  be 
necessary. 

GRAPES  IN  HORSES. 

Inflammation,  oedema,  and  hypertrophy  of  the  papillary  structures  of 

the  skin  of  the  pastern  and  fetlock  or  shank. 
Remove  by  knife,  scissors,  hot  iron,  or  caustics. 
Dress  with  mixture  of  zinc  sulphate,  carbolic  acid,  and  vaseline. 
Dry  the  discharges  with  one  part  corrosive  sublimate,  five  to  ten  parts 

hydrochloric  acid,  1000  water. 
Laxative  diet ;  exercise  or  suitable  work. 
Iron  salts,  arsenic,  iodine,  salines' internally. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  767 

GREASE.     SEBORRHOZIC  DERMATITIS. 

Chronic  inflammation  of  the  skin  of  the  horse's  fetlock  and  pastern. 
By  many  authorities  regarded  as  pustulous  or  impetiginous  eczema. 
The    skin    produces    an    excessive    cell    growth,    which    rapidly 
degenerates,    causing    sero-purulent,    greasy,    foetid,    irritant    dis- 
charges.      The  hair  follicles,    cutaneous   glands,    and  papillae  are 
involved.     Often  associated  with  canker  of  the  foot. 
Clip  or  shave  hair,  and  thoroughly  cleanse  with  soap  and  warm  water. 
Wash  daily  with  one  part  corrosive  sublimate,  ten  parts  hydrochloric 
acid,  1000  water,  or  with  5  per  cent,  solution  potassium  permanganate. 
Envelop  in  wood-wool  wadding,  which  absorbs  discharge  and  protects 

denuded  surfaces,  and  is  kept  in  place  with  a  bandage. 
When,  after  a  few  days,  discharge  thus  reduced,  apply  a  pad  of  jute 
saturated  with  one  part  creosote  to  six  parts  spirit  to  disinfect  and 
repress  proliferating  growth,  and  continue  to  keep  dry  with  wood-wool 
wadding. 
Dust  any  ulcerating  spots  with  tannoform  or  iodoform.     Dry  dressings 

usually  preferred. 

With  knife,  scissors,  or  hot  iron  remove  grapes  or  warty  growths. 
When  the  discharge  is  abated,  mercuric  oxide  ointment  or  tar  dressings. 

GROGGINESS.     See  NAVICDLAR  DISEASE. 

H^EMATEMESIS. 

Haemorrhage  from  stomach.     Occasional  in  all  animals. 

Iced  food,  fluid  and  concentrated. 

Calcium  chloride,  adrenalin  solution,  or  gelatin,  10  to  20  per  1000  of 
physiological  salt  solution  ;  or  lactate  of  calcium  5  grains  to  the 
ounce  ;  lead  acetate  and  opium  ;  ergotin  hypodermically. 

When  bleeding  from  bowels  give  styptic  in  pills  coated  with  keratin. 

H^BMATURIA. 

Bloody  urine  from  injury  or  disease  of  urinary  organs.     Occurs  in 

all  animals. 

Oleaginous  laxatives,  sulphuric  acid,  iron  salts,  lead  acetate  internally. 
Ergotin  and  belladonna  hypodermically  ;  spinal  hot-water  bag. 

HAEMOGLOBIN URI A  or  H^EMOGLOBIN^EMIA  OF  HORSES. 

Azoturia.  This  disease  invariably  occurs  in  horses  which  have  been 
rested  for  a  day  or  two.  Cause  unknown,  probably  a  nerve  toxin. 
The  urine,  although  its  specific  gravity  is  unaffected,  is  albuminous 
and  high-coloured  from  suspended  granular  pigment,  probably 
derived  from  extravasated  blood  in  the  voluntary  muscles,  which 
are  suddenly  affected  by  spasm,  and  subsequently  become  pale, 
flaccid,  and  wasted  ;  while  both  the  muscles  and  various  internal 
organs  contain  after  death  a  crystalline  pigment  (Sir  John 
M'Fadyean,  Jour,  of  Com.  Path.  1888). 

Dose  of  physic  ;  action  seconded  by  laxative  enemata  or  by  venesection. 
Physostigmine  hypodermically,  where  prompt  catharsis  required. 
Chloral  hydrate  and  opium,  or  nitrous  ether  and  turpentine  used  as 

antispasmodics.     Large  doses  of  sodium  bicarb,  are  recommended. 
Ammonia  and  turpentine  liniments  applied  over  loins. 
Frequently  repeated  moderate  doses  of  alcohol,   ether,    or  spirit  of 
ammonia,    with   sulphuric   acid   and    quinine,    combat    tendency   to 
cardiac  failure  ;  adrenalin  solution  subcutaneously,  very  useful. 
Where  urine  is  not  regularly  passed  use  catheter  thrice  daily. 
Attacks  prevented  by  regular  work  or  exercise,  and  sloppy,  unstimu- 
lating  food  when  resting. 

H^EMOGLOBINURIA      Or      H^EMOGLOBIN^EMIA      OF      RUMINANTS.         See     PlRO- 
PLASMOSIS. 


768  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

HAEMOPTYSIS. 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs.     Occasionally  in  horses  and  in  other  animals. 
Abundance  of  fresh  air,  and,  where  lungs  congested,  friction  to  skin, 

embrocation     to     legs,    which     subsequently     envelop     in     flannel 

bandages. 

Ice  to  swallow ;  cold  compresses  over  chest ;  ferric  chloride  or  ergot. 
Alcoholic  stimulants,  repeated  every  hour  or  oftener,  to  restore  balance 

of  circulation. 
Ergotin  hypodermically. 

Digitalis  or  solution  adrenalin  where  heart  action  weak  or  irregular. 
In  dogs  and  small  animals  moisten  chest  externally  with  chloroform. 

HEMORRHAGE.      BLEEDING. 

Bleeding  from  superficial  wounds,  when  only  small  veins  are  lacerated, 
usually  arrested  by  pressure,  application  of  cold  water,  ice,  refriger- 
ants, or  styptics. 

A  bleeding  artery,  as  in  castration,  stopped  by  hot  iron,  torsion,  or 
ligature  ;  sometimes  by  severing  a  partially  divided  vessel. 

Bleeding  which  cannot  be  got  at  arrested  by  cold  or  heat  applied  so  as 
to  act  reflexly  ;  by  administration  of  such  styptics  as  calcium  chloride, 
lead  acetate  and  opium,  sulphuric  or  tannic  acids,  ferric  chloride,  or 
by  ergotin  hypodermically.  Morphine  diminishes  blood  pressure,  and 
thus  favours  formation  of  a  firm  clot. 

HEMORRHAGE,  POST-PARTUM. 
Rare  in  animals. 

Promote  uterine  contraction  by  removal  of  foetal  membranes  and  intro- 
duction of  ice  into  uterus  or  rectum,  or  both. 

Contraction  also  produced  by  injection  of  water  at  about  110°  Fahr. 

Injection  into  uterus  of  ferric  chloride  or  ergot  solution,  or  ergotin 
hypodermically. 

Raise  hind-quarters  ;  hot-water  bag  to  dorsal  region. 

Alcoholic  stimulants  with  laudanum  ward  off  collapse.  Prevent  strain- 
ing by  using  a  binder,  and  by  giving  anodynes. 

HEART,  FATTY. 

Common  in  pampered  dogs,  and  in  horses  that  have  suffered  from 

serious  or  repeated  attacks  of  reducing  disease. 
No  over-exertion  ;  suitable  dietary. 
Iron  salts,  arsenic,  strychnine. 

HEART,  HYPERTROPHIED. 

Occurs  in  hard-worked  aged  horses,  generally  due  to  valvular  disease. 
Discover  and  mitigate  producing  conditions. 
Aconite  and  digitalis  in  small  doses  if  heart  action  violent. 
Moderate,  slow  work,  caffeine,  nutritive  diet. 

HEART,  PALPITATION. 

Rest,  perfect  quiet,  generous  diet ;  iron  tonics  where  there  are  anaemic 

murmurs. 

Aconite,  small  doses,  where  cardiac  action  violent. 
Digitalis  or  strophanthus  where  action  weak  and  irregular. 
Bromides  sometimes  useful  where  action  irregular  and  fluttering. 
Laxatives  when  connected  with  digestive  derangement. 
Belladonna  where  condition  associated  with  strain  or  over-exertion. 
Strychnine  acts  as  heart  tonic. 

HEART,  VALVULAR  DISEASE. 

Endocarditis,  in  horses,  sometimes  follows  strangles,  pneumonia,  etc.  ; 

in  dogs  rheumatism  and  distemper,  etc. 
Treatment  only  palliative. 

Over-exertion  and  excitement  avoided  ;  nourishing  diet. 
Steady  circulation  by  digitalis  and  alcoholic  stimulants. 
Purgatives,  nitrites,  arsenic,  lower  vascular  tension. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  769 

HEART,  VALVULAR  DISEASE — continued. 

Relieve  dropsy  by  caffeine,  pilocarpine,  and  diuretics. 
Combat  dyspnoea  and  palpitation  by  morphine  hypodermically,  and  pot. 
bromide  or  arsenic  by  mouth. 

HEPATITIS. 

Inflammation  of  the  liver,  exceedingly  rare  ;  congestion  more  frequent. 
Cathartic,  salines,  amm.  chloride ;  aconite  if  febrile  symptoms  prominent. 
Ipecacuanha  valuable,  especially  in  dogs. 
Fomentation  and  stimulation  over  region  of  liver. 
Digestible,   laxative   diet ;    suitable    exercise  when    acute    symptoms 

relieved. 

Nitro-hydrochloric  acid  in  chronic  cases. 
Salines  and   careful  dietary   safer  than   more  active  remedies   when 

hepatic  inflammation  or  congestion  associated  with  epizootic  or  other 

debilitating  disease. 
Chronic  cases  usually  terminating  in  cirrhosis  or  amyloid  degeneration. 

Treatment  only  palliative. 

HERNIA. 

Protrusion  of  organ  from  natural  cavity. 
Umbilical. — Exomphalos,  chiefly  occurs  in  young  animals. 
Patient,  after  fasting  for  several  hours,  must  be  cast,  placed  on  back, 

and  protruding  portion  of  intestine  returned. 
Retained  in  position  by  sutures,  clamps  of  wood  or  iron,  skewers,  or 

elastic  ligature. 
Cantharides  blister,  or  other  irritant,  applied  to  adjacent  skin,  causes 

swelling,  and  in  slighter  cases  occludes  opening. 
Ventral. — Protrusion  of  bowel  or  omentum  through  rupture  in  abdominal 

wall,  usually  through  staking  or  thrust  of  a  horn. 
Unless  large,  or  liable  to  strangulation,  seldom  causes  inconvenience. 
Radical  cure  effected  by  returning  viscus,   and   cutting  down   and 

suturing  opening  in  abdominal  walls. 
Inguinal  and  Scrotal. — Usually  occurring  in  entire  horse,  sometimes  in 

gelding.     Perineal  in  pig  and  dog  ;  femoral  in  bitch. 
Cast,  and  return  the  bowel  by  taxis,  and  if  need  be  by  application  of 

ice  or  refrigerants. 

If  this  fail,  enlarge  constricting  ring. 
Covered   castration  operation  in  entire  animal.      Ligation  of  cord, 

clamp,  or  sutures. 

HOOSE  IN  CALVES  AND  LAMBS — caused  by  Strongyles.     See  WORMS. 

HOVEN  AND  GASTRIC  IMPACTION  IN  CATTLE  OR  SHEEP. 
When  rumen  distended,  chiefly  with  gas — 
Full    dose    diluted    ammonia,    ether,    turpentine,    alcohol,    or    sol. 

barium  chloride. 

Exercise  with  friction  to  abdomen  hastens  expulsion  of  gas. 
Introduction  of  hollow  probang  allows  escape  of  gas  when  food  in 

stomach  limited  in  amount. 
In  serious  cases  puncture  rumen  through  left  flank  with  trocar  and 

canula,  or  with  butcher's,  or  other  large  knife. 
Administer  cathartic  to  remove  any  irritant,  and  feed  for  several  days 

on  sloppy,  digestible  food. 
When  rumen  distended  with  food — 
A  smart  purge  conjoined  with  an  active   stimulant ;    but  repeated 

purgatives  are  injurious  ;  pilocarpine  subcutaneously. 
Solid  food  interdicted ;  slops,  treacle-water,  and  ginger,  freely  given. 
Water  containing  salines  offered  at  short  intervals. 
Nux-vomica,  emetine  and  veratrine  useful  when  viscus  in  atonic  state. 
When  distension  and  distress  increase,  there  should  be  no  delay  in 

emptying  the  engorged  stomach  by  rumenotomy. 

3c 


770  INDEX   OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

HYDATID  ON  BRAIN  OF  SHEEP  OR  CATTLE.    See  WORMS. 

Ccenurus  cerebralis  ;  tapeworm  scolex  or  cyst. 
Bore  or  trephine  ;  remove  sac  and  contained  heads.    Success  of  operation 

depends  on  position  and  number  of  cysts. 
Effectually  treat  all  dogs  with  tapeworm,  and  prevent  their   eating 

hydatid- affected  brains. 

HYDROCELE. 

Dropsy  of  scrotum.     Rare  in  veterinary  patients. 
Evacuate  by  trocar  and  canula  ;  suspensory  bandage  ;  observe  antiseptic 

precautions. 
Injection  of  dilute  iodine  or  astringent  solution. 

HYDROCEPHALUS. 

Chronic  cranial  dropsy,  occasionally  in  horses,  rare  in  cattle,  dogs,  or 
swine  ;  also  occurs  in  foetus  and  may  hinder  parturition.  Arrests 
brain  development,  producing  gradual  immobilite,  when  appearing 
after  third  year. 

Treatment  unsatisfactory.     Quiet ;  light  but  nutritive  diet. 
Pilocarpine,  calcium  phosphates,  iron  salts. 
Trephine  or  puncture  to  relieve  pressure  and  facilitate  parturition. 

HYDROPHOBIA.     See  RABIES. 

HYDROTHORAX. 

Fluid  (sometimes  pus)  in  the  chest.     Affects  all  patients. 
Digitalis  ;  pot.  nitrate  twice  daily  for  a  week. 
Follow  with  pot.  iodide  and  iron  salts. 
Pilocarpine  hypodermically. 
Iodine  ointment  and  rubefacients  externally. 
When  such  measures  ineffectual,  and  no  diminution  of  fluid,  or  when 

dyspnoea  increases,  tap  with  trocar  and  canula,  or  aspirator ;  operate 

antiseptically. 
When  pus  present  antiseptic  irrigation  of  chest  cavity  may  be  tried, 

using  one  per  cent.  sol.  protargol  or  lysoform,  or  one  per  thousand 

potassium  permanganate. 

INDIGESTION.    See  DYSPEPSIA. 

INDIGESTION,  ACUTE,  OF  HORSES. 

Stomach  or  grass  staggers. 

Aloes  eserine  or  calomel  and  oil  to  unload  stomach  and  bowels. 
Ether  or  spirit  of  ammonia  every  two  hours  overcomes  flatulence  and 

spasm. 
Repeated  copious  laxative  enemata,  vigorous  hand-rubbing  of  abdomen, 

and  walking  exercise,  encourage  action  of  bowels  and  relieve  spasm. 
Hot  fomentations  or  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  in-rubbing  of 

mustard,  abate  spasm  and  pain. 

Where  pain  persists,  morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically. 
One  or  two  small  doses  of  aconite  tincture  sometimes  useful. 
Blood-letting  sometimes  advisable  where  brain  symptoms  or  dyspnoea 

occur. 

Paralysis  resulting,  give  strychnine  and  apply  counter-irritants  to  spine. 
In  young  animals,  where  stomach  overloaded  with  curd,  prescribe  oil, 

followed  by  ether  or  spirit  of  ammonia,  and  intestinal  antiseptics. 

INFLAMMATION,  ACUTE. 

Antipyretics,  small  doses  in  early  stages,  repeated  three  or  four  times 
until  pulse  and  temperature  reduced. 

Place  patient  in  suitable  quarters  ;  ensure  cool,  pure  air. 

Clothe  body,  bandage  legs. 

Hot  fomentations  or  poultices  most  useful  where  inflammation  is  com- 
paratively superficial. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  771 

INFLAMMATION,  ACUTE — continued. 

Mustard  or  other  stimulant  embrocation  applied  to  warm  skin  without 

blistering. 
Ice  or  refrigerants  applicable  where  inflammation  limited  or  superficial, 

and  in  pharyngitis  and  laryngitis. 

Cathartics  to  open  bowels  and  lower  arterial  tension  and  temperature. 
When  more  acute  symptoms  relieved,  salines  in  small  repeated  doses — 

pot.  nitrate  and  chlorate,  magnesium  sulphate,  ammonium  salts,  sodium 

sulphite. 

Simple  digestible  diet ;  diluents. 
Cannabis  indica,  opium,  belladonna ;    other  analgesics  internally  and 

topically. 
Salicylic  acid,  salicylates,  alkalies,  and  salines  in  rheumatic,  and  with 

belladonna  in  cystic  inflammations. 

INFLAMMATION,  CHRONIC. 

Secure  removal  of  morbid  products  by  keeping  excreting  channels,  when 

not  inflamed,  in  good  working  order  by  clothing,  suitable  diet,  diluents, 

occasional  laxatives,  etc. 

Salines  and  antiseptics.     See  INFLAMMATION,  ACUTE. 
Where  patient  reduced  give  digestible  nutritive  food. 
Bitters,  acids,  and  alcohol  promote  appetite. 
Alcohol  and  volatile  oils  most  useful  in  worn  town  horses,  or  where 

blood-poisoning  has  occurred. 

Iodine  and  pot.  iodide  liquefy  and  remove  exudate. 
Counter-irritants  frequently  valuable — mercury  oleate,    embrocations, 

mustard  occasionally  applied  and  washed  off. 
Opium,  belladonna,  other  analgesics  topically. 
When  joints  or  bones  affected,  mercuric  iodide  ointment,  seton,  or  firing 

after  subsidence  of  urgent  symptoms. 

INFLUENZA.     CATARRHAL  EPIZOOTIC.     HORSE  DISTEMPER.     PINK  EYE. 

Infectious  febrile  epizootic  of  horse,  ass  and  mule,  characterised  by 
sudden  onset,  rapid  development  and  marked  prostration ;  affects 
primarily  the  respiratory  tract,  but  also  involves  the  nerve  centres, 
circulatory  system,  digestive  mucous  membrane,  eyes,  and  sub- 
cutaneous structures.  Communicable  chiefly  directly,  but  also 
indirectly ;  very  contagious. 

Chief  Complications : — pneumonia,  enteritis,  cerebral  congestion,  para- 
plegia, ophthalmia,  synovitis,  laminitis,  paralysis  of  penis. 
Isolate  patients,  for  their  own  comfort  and  safety  of  healthy  subjects. 
Disinfect  premises  daily.     Provide  special  attendant  for  sick. 
Comfortable  box,  temperature  60°  to  65°  Fahr. ,  pure  air. 
Rugs,  hood,  bandages  to  legs  ;  good  hygienic  conditions. 
Enemata,  linseed  mashes,  and,  if  need  be,  occasional  laxative  ;  maintain 

bowels  in  regular  state.     Recovery  may  take  place  without  medicines. 
Liquor  amm.  acetatis,  Epsom  salt,  and  nitre  allay  slight  pyrexia. 
More  acute  fever  treated  by  antifebrin,  antipyrine,  thallin,  digitalis, 

camphor,  alcohol,  and  ether  ;  hypodermic  injections  of  salt  solution  ; 

influenza  antitoxin  may  be  tried. 
Sodium  salicylate,   pot.   iodide,    and  digitalis   conjoined,   advised    by 

Trasbot. 
Restrict  to  milk  and  mash  diet,  with  a  little  green  food,  but  when 

pyrexia  abates  give  digestible  concentrated  nutritive  food. 
Flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  mustard,  or  other  embrocations  to 

throat,  relieve  congestion  of  upper  air-passages. 
(Edema  requires,  with  salines  and  antiseptics,  early  use  of  alcohol,  ether, 

oil  of  turpentine,  or  ferric  chloride  solution. 
Purpura  combated  by  silver  colloid,  pot.  iodide,  chlorate,  and  quinine, 

alternated  with  ferric  chloride  and  oil  of  turpentine. 
Cases  with  lung  complications  are  more  difficult  to  treat.     Liquor  amm. 


772  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

INFLUENZA.     CATARRHAL  EPIZOOTIC.     HORSE  DISTEMPER.     PINK  EYE — con- 
tinued. 

acetatis,  other  stimulating  expectorants,  with  pot.  nitrate  or  chlorate 

and  camphor,  relieve  dyspnoea  ;  oxygen  inhalations. 
Hot  fomentations  to  chest ;  mustard  applied,  but  washed  off  in  fifteen 

to  twenty  minutes ;   reapplied  if  needful ;  influenza  antitoxin  intra- 
venously. 
Cardiac  asthenia  combated  by  alcohol  or  ether  given  early,  in  moderate 

doses,  every  three  hours,  and  conjoined  with  camphor  and  digitalis, 

or  with  subcutaneous  injections  of  caffeine  or  camphorated  oil. 
Diuretics,  alkalies,  and  pilocarpine  prescribed  by  Friedberger. 
When    lung    secretions    are    foetid,   antiseptics,   phenols,   per    ost   or 

inhaled  ;  benzoates. 
Gastro-intestinal  complications  treated  in  earlier  stages  by  a  few  doses 

of  grey  powder  or  calomel,  conjoined  with  laxatives. 
In  later  stages,  and  with  hepatic  symptoms,  by  nitro-hydrochloric  acid, 

sodium  salicylate,  or  hyposulphite. 
Abdominal  pain  relieved  by  chloral  and  cannabis  indica  internally,  or 

by  morphine  hypodermically. 
Rheumatic  symptoms  treated  with  salicylates,  oil  of  turpentine,  diuretic 

doses  of  digitalis  and  salines,  with  stimulation  of  affected  muscles  and 

joints. 
When  strength  reduced,  give  milk,  eggs,  beef  tea,  and  frequent  alcoholic 

stimulants. 
INTUSSUSCEPTION. 

Invagination  of  a  portion  of  intestine. 
No  medicinal  treatment  of  much  avail.    Restrict  to  a  limited  amount  of 

soft  food. 
Avoid  cathartics. 

Opium  and  cannabis  indica  allay  spasm  and  pain. 
In  the  horse  long  enema  tube  may  be  tried. 

Failing  other  means,  open  abdomen  and  endeavour  to  rectify  the  dis- 
placement, or  practise  excision. 
IRITIS. 

Inflammation  of  the  iris.     Occurs  in  specific  ophthalmia  in   horse, 

which  see. 

Dark  box,  cathartics,  salines  :  continuous  cold  irrigation  or  ice-bag. 
Solution  of  atropine,  alternated  with  eserine,  prevent  adhesions. 
Cannabis  indica,  opium,  and  other  anodynes  internally  and  locally. 
JAUNDICE. 

Icterus.      Skin   discoloration    from    bile    pigments.       1.     Catarrhal, 

affecting  the   bile   ducts.     2.    Retention   or   reabsorption   of   bile. 

3.  Hepatic,  from  congestion,  inflammation,  or  degeneration  of  liver. 

Laxatives  clear  away  excess  of  bile  lodged  in  the  bile  tubes  or  duodenum. 

Simple  digestible  food  beneficially  diminishes  formation  of  bile. 

Massage  of  liver  region,  mustard  embrocations,  and  faradisation  relieve 

biliary  torpidity  and  retention ;  subcutaneous  injections  of  sterilised 

salt  solution. 

Amm.  chloride  arid  salines  in  catarrhal  cases. 
Nitro-hydrochloric  acid  ;  where  patient  weak  conjoin  quinine. 
Little  can  be  done  for  cirrhosis  or  fatty  degeneration. 
JOHNE'S  DISEASE. 

A  disease  of  cattle  caused  by  microbes  closely  resembling  tubercle 
bacilli.     The  lesions  occur  in  the  small  intestine   and  mesenteric 
glands.     Usually  fatal. 
KENNEL  LAMENESS.     See  RHEUMATISM. 
KBRATOMA  and  KERAPHYLLOCELE. 

Horn  tumour,  growing  from  sole  or  horny  laminae. 
Relieve  pressure  by   rasping  and  poulticing.      Excise  tumour,  dress 

wound  antiseptically.     Recurrence  frequent. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  773 

LAMINITIS. 

Acute,  subacute,  and  chronic.     Inflammation  of  sensitive  laminae  and 
other  vascular  parts  of  the  feet  of  horses.     Occasionally  in  cattle, 
sheep  and  goats. 
Shoes  removed,  horn  thinned,  feet  poulticed,  loose-box  bedded  with 

several  inches  chaff  or  cut  straw  or  tan. 
Continued  hot  fomentations  or  poultices  soften  horn  and  relieve  tension 

and  pain. 

Large  cold  bran  poultices  sometimes  afford  more  relief  than  hot. 
Purgative  medicines  or  bleed  from  jugular  in  acute  cases. 
Bleeding  more  suitable  when  attacks  result  from  concussion  than  from 

gastric  derangement ;  arecoline  or  pilocarpine  hypodermically. 
Diuretics  in  full  doses  generally  beneficial. 

Repeated  small  doses  of  aconite,  nitre,  and  other  salines  relieve  fever. 
Bowels,  if  need  be,  regulated  by  laxative  enemata. 
Vapour  bath  frequently  serviceable. 
When  inflammation   subdued,   removal  of  exudate  hastened  by  cold 

applications,  by  blisters  to  coronet,  and  exercise. 

Keep  heels  low  and  toe  short ;  use  stout,  wide- webbed,  rocker  bar  shoes. 
Neurectomy  sometimes  subsequently  useful  where  lameness  persistent. 

LARYNGITIS. 

Inflammation  of  mucous  lining  of  larynx. 

( 1 )  Catarrhal.  — Occasionally  epizootic  and  contagious.    Occurs  especially 

in  horses  and  dogs. 
Comfortable  box,  suitable  clothing,  moist  atmosphere  of  60°  to  65° 

Fahr. 
Steam  head  and  throat  persistently  with  medicated  vapour  ;  heat  and 

moisture  externally. 

Aconite  and  laxatives  abate  fever  :  emetics  in  dogs  and  pigs. 
Aminon.  acetate,  kermes,  or  camphor  and  belladonna  in  electuary. 
Counter-irritants  of  soap  liniment,  mustard,  cantharides. 
Intratracheal  injection  of  solution  of  morphine  and  hydrocyanic  acid 

used  successfully  in  200  acute  cases  by  Jelkmann. 
Tracheotomy  where  dyspnoea  becomes  dangerous. 

(2)  Fibrinous. — Occurs  in  cattle  and  cats  ;    rare  in   horses   and  dogs. 

Usually  rapidly  fatal. 
Steam  throat  with  watery  vapour  medicated  with  benzoic  acid  or 

eucalyptus. 

Emetics  for  the  cat  and  dog. 
Hot  compresses  ;  mustard  or  other  counter-irritant ;  tracheotomy. 

(3)  (Edema  glottidis. — (Edema  of  submucous  tissue  of  glottis.     From  (a) 

acute  laryngitis,  from  smoke  or  hot  air,  operations,  choking, 
corrosive  irritant  liquids  ;  (6)  infective,  as  in  anthrax,  glanders,  etc. 

If  not  infective  treat  with  watery  medicated  vapour  ;  hot  fomenta- 
tions ;  blister. 

Tracheotomy  if  suffocation  threatening. 

LEUCORRHCEA. 

Fluor  albus.     Intermittent  catarrhal  discharge  from  the  uterus ; 

occurs  in  cow  and  bitch. 
Usually  arising  from  endometritis  ;  may  be  tuberculous,  or  connected 

with  tumour  formation.     A  cause  of  vaginitis,  perhaps  of  abortion, 

also  of  balanitis  in  male  having  connection  with  affected  female. 
Syphon  or  syringe  daily  the  uterus  and  vagina  with  tepid  solution  of 

potassium  permanganate,  and  subsequently  with  \  of  one  per  cent. 

Bol.  of  lysol,  and  later  with  one  per  cent.  sol.  alum,  zinc  chloride, 

or  protargol. 
Belladonna  or  iodoform  in  suppository,  or  injection,  where  there  is 

excessive  discharge  or  pain. 
Mineral    tonics    internally,   especially  in    delicate    subjects,    or    in 

obstinate  recurring  cases  associated  with  tuberculosis. 


774  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

LICE. 

Pediculi.     Each  of  the  domestic  animals  infested  by  its  own  species. 
Horse :   Hcematopinus  macrocephalus,  Trichodectes  pilosus,  and  T. 

pubescens. 
Cattle  :  H.  eurysternus,  large  ox-louse  ;  H.  vituli,  calf -louse ;  and 

T.  scalaris,  small  ox-louse. 
Sheep  :  T.  sphserocephalus.     The  pupiparous  dipteran,  Melophagus 

ovinus,  ked  or  fag,  also  infests  the  skin  of  the  sheep. 
Dog  :  H.  piliferus,  and  T.  latus.     Cat :  T.  subrostratus. 
Pig :  H.  urius. 

Goat :  H.  stenopsis  and  T.  climax. 
Fowls.     Goniodes  dissimilis,  Gonicoctes  hologaster,  G.  giyas,  Lipeurus 

variabilis,  L .  heterographus,  Menopon  pallidum,  M.  biseriatum. 
Cleanse  skin  with  soft  soap  and  warm  water,  and  rub  in  decotion  of 
stavesacre — one  to  forty  of  water.     For  limited  areas,  one  part  staves- 
acre,  twenty  vinegar  ;  or  creolin  solution,  2  per  cent. 
Oil  of  tar,  one  part ;  oil  of  rape  or  other  bland  oil,  15  parts. 
Carbolic  soft  soap,  and  rape  oil. 

Lysoform,  5  per  cent.,  followed  by  washing  with  soap  and  water. 
Patients  long  and  seriously  infested  should  have  long  coarse  hair  clipped 

and  dressing  well  rubbed  in. 
The  usual  dipping  mixtures  for  sheep. 

Diluted  solution  of  chloroform,  or  oil  of  sassafras,  for  pet  dogs. 
Strong  tobacco  decoctions  and  mercurial  ointments  apt  to  produce  con- 
stitutional effects. 
Isolate  infested  subjects  and  their  belongings,  and  thoroughly  cleanse 

premises  occupied  by  them. 
Birds.     Dusting  skin  with  sulphur,  or  one  of  the  insecticide  powders 

may  be  used. 

Disinfect  floors,  walls,  perches  and  nests ;  lime  dust  has  been  recom- 
mended. 

LICHEN. 

Chronic  papulo-vesicular  eczema. 

Laxatives,  salines,  oleaginous  diet. 

Apply  locally,  night  and  morning,  an  alkaline  wash,  to  which — if  there 
is  itching — add  a  little  thymol,  chloroform,  or  belladonna. 

Tonics  and  arsenic,  with  iodide  of  sulphur  ointment,  and  tar  oils  alter- 
nated in  chronic  cases. 

LITHIASIS  :  GRAVEL.     See  CALCULI  and  URINARY  DEPOSITS. 

LOCKJAW.    See  TETANUS. 

LOUPING  ILL  IN  SHEEP.    See  MENINGITIS. 

LUXATIONS.    See  DISLOCATIONS. 

LYMPHANGITIS  IN  HORSES. 

Weed.     Inflammatory  redema.     Inflammation  (infective  or  toxic)  of 
lymphatic  glands  and  vessels  of  the  limbs ;    usually  affects  the 
inguinal  glands  ;  sometimes  symptomatic  of  glanders. 
Cathartic,  laxative  enemata,  salines  in  drinking  water  remove  irritant 

waste  products.     Bran  mashes  and  wet  food. 
Hot  fomentations  persisted  with   for  several  hours,   and  limb  then 

swathed  in  woollen  or  hay  bandages. 
Where  limb  tender  and  painful  after  fomenting,  moisten  with  soap 

liniment  and  laudanum. 

When  weather  cold,  clothing  needful  to  promote  skin  functions. 
Stimulants  useful  where  preliminary  rigor  severe  or  continued. 
Exercise  serviceable. 
In  hard-worked,  debilitated  subjects,  aconite  unsuitable. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  775 

LYMPHANGITIS  IN  HORSES—  continu ed. 

Give  half  dose  physic  and  salines,  foment  limb,  and  administer  turpentine 
and  alcoholic  stimulants. 

Aid  removal  of  swelling  by  exercise,  and,  subsequently,  moderate  work  ; 
smart  friction  of  limb  daily  with  oil ;  diuretics  and  tonics  ;  iodine  or 
pot.  iodide  internally  ;  laxative  diet  and  green  food. 

Careful  regulation  of  food,  work,  and  rest  prevents  recurrence. 

LYMPHATICS,  INFLAMED. 

Occurs  specially  in  horses  ;  from  pricks,  other  injuries,  infective  as  in 

glanders. 

Remove  if  possible  the  original  cause.  Cooling  diet,  salines,  pot.  iodide. 
Foment  while  heat  and  tenderness  continue  ;  when  tenderness  abates, 
apply  friction,  bandages,  iodine  ointment ;  continue  salines  in  drinking 
water. 

MALADIE  Du  COIT.     DOURINE.     COVERING  DISEASE. 

A  specific  equine  disease  affecting  the  male  and  female  genitals, 
characterised  Jby  catarrhal  discharges,  cedematous  and  phlegmonous 
swellings  and  ulcerations.  There  supervenes  a  vaso-nervous 
urticaria  with  spinal  paralysis.  The  disease  is  communicable  in 
coition  by  affected  horse  or  mare,  and  is  caused  by  the  Trypanosoma 
equiperdum;  the  period  of  incubation  varies  from  eight  to  sixty 
days  ;  the  mortality  in  the  horse  is  greater  than  in  the  mare, 
reaching  70  per  cent. 
Thorough  daily  irrigation  of  affected  parts  with  corrosive  sublimate 

one  part,  common  salt  ten,  water  1000. 

Ulceration  treated  with  strong  solution  silver  nitrate  or  copper  sulphate. 
The  horse  cast  and  penis  thoroughly  examined,  and  treatment  adapted 

to  special  lesions. 
Concentrated  nourishing  food. 
Reduced  iron,   iodides,  atoxyl,  arsenic,  cacodylate  of  soda,  quinine, 

mercuric  chloride. 

Increasing  doses  of  arsenic  up  to  20  grains  per  day  ;  atoxyl  subcu- 
taneously  2  to  4  grains,  gradually  increasing  to  10  or  12  grains  per 
day;  cacodylate  of  soda  subcutaneously  grains  10  to  grains  40  in 
20  per  cent,  solution,  daily  for  five  days,  then  discontinue  for  five 
days  and  repeat  as  before. 

Months  of  patient  treatment  often  elapse  before  cure  effected. 
In  Prussia  no  affected  stallion  can  be  used  in  the  stud  until  three  years 

after  recovery  has  been  reported. 

A  contagious  exanthematous  vesicular  eruption  of  a  comparatively  benign 
type  affects  the  genital  mucous  membrane  of  dogs  and  cattle,  occa- 
sionally of  horses,  and  less  frequently  of  goats,  sheep,  and  hogs.  The 
male  suffers  more  than  the  female.  The  incubation  stage  three  to  six 
days. 
Astringent  lotions  ;  ulceration  treated  as  above. 

MAGGOTS  FROM  FLYBLOW. 

Turpentine  and  oil ;  phenol  solutions  ;  oil  of  tar. 

MALLENDERS  and  SALLENDERS. 

Chronic  squamous  eczema  of  the  skin  in  the  flexures  of  the  horse's  knee 

and  hock.    The  chronic  scaly  condition  preceded  by  an  erythematous 

and  vesicular  stage. 

Soft  soap  and  water,  or  carbonated  alkali  and  vaseline  remove  scales. 
Boro-glycerin  or  zinc  oxide  ointment  relieves  irritation. 
Mercuric  oxide,  or  iodine  ointment  abates  thickening  and  infiltration. 
Tar  oils  or  decoction  of  oak  bark  in  chronic  cases. 
Half  dose  physic,  salines,  laxative  diet  and  regular  exercise. 
In  debilitated  subjects  iron  tonics  and  arsenic. 


776  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

MALNUTRITION. 

Liberal  oleaginous  dietary  ;  change  of  food  ;  cod  liver  oil. 

Acids  and  bitters,  iron  salts,  calcium  phosphate  in  young  animals. 

Alcohol,  arsenic,  nux-vomica,  glycerophosphates. 

MAMMITIS. 

Garget.  Inflammation  of  the  udder :  Catarrhal,  affecting  primarily 
the  mucous  membrane ;  and  Lobular  or  glandular.  Occasionally 
in  all  milking  animals,  but  most  frequent  in  good  dairy  cows.  May 
be  tubercular. 

Cathartic,  diuretics  in  drinking  water  ;  or  orange  sulphide  of  antimony, 
which  is  excreted  in  the  milk. 

Thoroughly  milk  the  affected  quarters  and  hand-rub  the  udder ;  inject 
each  teat  with  warm  solution  boracic  acid  (3  per  cent.)  ;  do  not  repeat 
injection ;  draw  teats  three  hours  after  injection,  and  repeat  the 
milking  every  three  or  four  hours  until  recovery. 

In  cold  weather  clothe  to  promote  skin  functions. 

The  teat  syphon  sometimes  facilitates  removal  of  rnilk,  but  must  be 
used  very  carefully.  Support  udder  by  bandage. 

Apply  heat  and  moisture  by  persistent  fomentations,  or  poultices  of 
spent  hops,  supported  by  suspensory  bandage. 

Belladonna  extract  and  vaseline  applied  several  times  daily  lessens  con- 
gestion, milk  secretion,  and  tenderness. 

When  inflammation  abates  encourage  removal  of  exudate  by  in-rubbing 
iodine  ointment,  and  by  iodine  and  salines  internally. 

When  abscess  forms  and  matures  open  it  and  treat  antiseptically. 

When  gangrene  occurs  excise  dead  tissues  and  dress  with  antiseptics. 

After  earlier  pyrexia  removed  sustain  strength  by  concentrated  food, 
tonics,  and  stimulants. 

Until  udder  again  in  normal  state  restrict  to  dry  food,  so  that  produc- 
tion of  milk  be  minimised. 

MAMMITIS,  CONTAGIOUS. 

Common  in  milch  cows ;  caused  by  a  streptococcus  which  is  trans- 
mitted from  one  cow  to  another  by  the  milker's  hands  ;  infection 
takes  place  through  the  teat.  A  specific  catarrhal  inflammation 
of  the  milk  ducts  and  sinuses  with  induration  of  the  affected 
gland  ;  by  extension  may  involve  the  whole  udder.  Milk  curdles 
quickly,  is  acid,  and  when  mixed  with  normal  milk  produces 
clotting  ;  later  milk  becomes  yellowish,  viscous  and  foetid. 
Prevent  by  washing  and  disinfecting  udder  and  teats,  and  the  hands 

of  the  milkers,  before  and  after  milking. 

Curative  treatment  unsatisfactory  ;  empty  udder  and  inject  teats  with 
5  per  cent,  solution  boracic  acid,  3  per  cent,  sodium  fluoride,  3  per 
cent,  sanitas,  or  5  per  cent,  solution  hydrogen  peroxide. 
Isolate  infected  cows  and  destroy  milk. 
Thoroughly  cleanse  and  disinfect  cowsheds. 

Newly  purchased  cows  should  be  kept  apart  for  a  month  before  entering 
cowshed  or  herding  with  unaffected  stock. 

MANGE.     See  ACAKI. 

Scabies.     Skin  irritation  and  itching  produced  by  various  acari. 

(a)  The  Psoroptes  live  on  the  surface  of  skin,  and  are  distributed 

generally  over  the  body.     Horse,  ox,  sheep. 

(b)  The   Sarcoptes    burrow  in    the    skin,    prefer    the   head  and 

portions  of  body  sparsely  covered  with   hair.     Horse,   ox, 
sheep,  pig,  and  dog. 

(c)  The  Chorioptes  are  more  limited  in  their  distribution,  affect 

chiefly  the  limbs  of  horses  and  sheep,  the  base  of  the  tail  of 
cattle,  and  a  variety,  ch.  cynotis  invades  the  ears  of  the  dog 
and  cat. 
Isolate  infected  subjects. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  777 

MANGE— continued. 

Thoroughly  cleanse,  wash,  and  disinfect  with  carbolic,  or  corrosive  sub- 
limate solution,  clothing,  harness,  stable  fittings,  rubbing-posts,  etc. 

Clip,  collect,  and  burn  hair. 

Crusts  softened  and  removed  by  soap  and  water,  pot.  carbonate,  with 
oil,  vaseline,  or  glycerin  and  water. 

Psoroptes  and  Chorioptes  are  destroyed  without  much  skin  irritation  or 
risk  of  poisoning  by  stavesacre  ointment  or  solution,  sulphur  iodide 
ointment,  or  creolin  solution,  applied  daily  for  a  week. 

Tar  oil  one  part,  palm  oil  six  parts,  laid  on  thickly  and  allowed  to 
remain  undisturbed  for  four  or  five  days. 

Wood  tar  and  sublimed  sulphur  each  one  part,  soft  soap  and  alcohol 
each  two  parts  ;  creolin  solution,  3  per  cent. 

The  dressing  used  must  be  thoroughly  rubbed  in,  and  when  washed  off 
should  within  a  week  be  reapplied. 

To  kill  the  burrowing  Sarcoptes  the  parts  affected  are  lathered  with  soap 
and  water,  soaked  for  some  hours  with  solution  of  pot.  carbonate 
sulphur  and  oil,  and  the  parasiticide  rubbed  in  with  a  brush.  To 
destroy  subsequent  hatchings  a  second,  and  in  bad  cases  a  third 
dressing  may  be  needed,  at  an  interval  of  a  week. 

Oil  of  cade  and  coal  tar,  each  one  part,  mixed  in  a  mortar,  and  three 
parts  benzine  added,  commended  by  Trasbot. 

In  some  cases  dressing  only  one  half  of  the  skin  at  a  time  is  advisable. 

Persistent  spots  over  limited  area  dressed  with  mercurial  ointment. 

Change  dressings  repeatedly. 

For  ears  of  dogs  and  cats  naphthol  ten  parts,  ether  thirty,  olive  oil  100, 
or  warm  solution  of  cyllin,  2  per  cent. 

For  poultry  dust  skin  thoroughly  with  pyrethrum  or  other  insect 
powder  (Cagny). 

Treatment  in  sheep  specially  noticed  under  SCAB. 

MANGE,  FOLLICULAR. 

Caused  by  the  Demodex  folliculorum.  Inhabits  the  hair  follicles, 
sebaceous  glands  and  their  tubes,  usually  about  the  head  and 
extremities ;  produces  erythema  of  adjacent  skin,  atrophy  of  hair 
roots,  muco-purulent  discharge,  formation  of  small  abscesses  ;  often 
assumes  a  squamous  type.  Occurs  in  dogs,  cats,  and  occasionally 
in  pigs. 

Separate  patient  from  other  animals. 
Treatment  uncertain  and  tedious ;  nature  of  remedy  probably  of  less 

importance  than  its  thorough  application. 
Shave  the  parts  affected ;  lather  with  terebene  soap,  and  rub  in  daily 

for  several  weeks  balsam  of  Peru  (Siedamgrotzky). 

Creosote  one  part,  caustic  pot.  solution  two,  olive  oil  fourteen  (Hunting). 
Daily  rubbing  with  ointment  of  cyllin  (5)  and  lanoline  (100  parts). 
Creosote  or  oil  of  cade  and  caustic  pot.  are  rendered  more  penetrating 

by  addition  of  chloroform. 
Solutions  of  benzine,  naphthol,  or  zinc  chloride  1\  per  cent. ,  or  sulphur 

iodide  ointment. 
Creolin  and  ichthyol  are  said  to  be  effective  if  the  dog  is  placed  in  a  bath, 

containing  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  either  remedy,  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour 

daily  for  two  months  (Friedberger). 
Mild  cases  may  be  cured  by  shaving  and  washing  the  affected  skin, 

squeezing  and  scraping  the  pustules,  and  touching  each  spot  with 

undiluted  iodine  tincture. 
Daily  intradermic  injection  of  one  per  cent,  phenol  into  and  around  the 

lesions,  commended  by  Mollereau. 
Subcutaneous  injections  of  vaccine  prepared  from  the  staphylococcus 

pyogenes  albus  successfully  tried  by  Mettam. 
Scrub  thoroughly  every  affected  spot  with  forty  grains  pot.  sulphide  in 

a  pint  of  water,  dress  limited  parts  of  the  legs  or  body  with  cantha- 


778  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

MANGE,  FOLLICULAR— continued. 

rides  ointment,  and  rub  the  head  and  remaining  portions  with  balsam 
of  Peru.  Repeat  daily  for  a  week,  applying  the  cantharides  to  fresh 
spots.  After  a  few  days'  rest  resume  (Brusasco). 

MEGRIMS. 

Vertigo  ;  Giddiness  ;  occurring  in  horses  ;  pathology  undetermined. 
Remove  any  pressure  interfering  with  cerebral  circulation. 
Dash  cold  water  over  head  and  neck. 
Walking  exercise  ;  hand-rubbing  of  body  and  legs  ;  pot.  iodide  to  reduce 

blood-pressure. 

Occasional  dose  of  physic  sometimes  useful. 
Horses  subject  to  megrims  should  be  driven  carefully. 

MELANOSIS. 

Most  frequent  in  grey  horses.    A  pigmented  Sarcoma,  usually  localised 

where  pigment  already  exists. 

When  growth  distinctly  denned,  remove  by  knife  or  caustic. 
Dress  with  antiseptics.     Recurrence  with  increased  activity  of  growth 
frequent  after  operation. 

MENINGITIS. 

Inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord.  The 
intensity  of  the  attack  and  the  parts  specially  affected  determine 
excitement  or  paralysis  of  the  central  nervous  system.  Occurs  in 
all  veterinary  patients  ;  frequent  and  fatal  in  cattle  and  sheep,  in 
which  often  associated  with  gastric  derangement. 
Where  cerebral  excitement  prominent,  dark  box,  active  cathartic ; 

blood-letting  in  robust  subjects  ;  ice  to  head.     See  PHBENITIS. 
Cathartics,  physostigmine,  and  pilocarpine  (Friedberger). 
When   functional  activity  of  cord  exalted  hot  or  cold  compresses  to 

spine  ;  laxatives,  bromides,  or  chloral. 
Remove  retained  contents  of  bladder  or  rectum. 
When  acute  symptoms  relieved,  pot.  iodide  and  salines. 
Chronic  paresis  treated  by  strychnine,  and  embrocations  to  poll  or  spine. 
Epizootic  form  in  horses — cerebro- spinal  meningitis,  which  see. 
Sheep  suffer  from  chronic  spinal  paralysis,  characterised  by  hypersesthesia 
and  convulsive  movements,  general  muscular  feebleness,  paresis  of  the 
hind-quarters,    and  progressive   wasting ;    no    definite    pathological 
lesions ;  popularly  known  as  Louping-ill,  described  by  Friedberger  as 
Lumbar  prurigo,  by  Trasbot  as  Maladie  des  trotteurs. 
Treatment  unsatisfactory.    Remove  affected  animals  from  breeding  flock. 
Feed  young  stock  liberally. 
Improve  poor  pastures  on  which  disease  occurs. 

METRITIS.     METRO-PERITONITIS. 

Inflammation,   usually   septic,   affecting  the  uterus   and    peritoneal 
membrane.     Occurs  in  all  females,  usually  about  three  days  after 
difficult  parturition.     Liable  to  spread  by  contagion. 
Syphon  or  syringe  uterus  and  vagina  with  1  per  cent,   creolin,  1  per 

1000   corrosive   sublimate   solution,    hydrogen  peroxide   one   part  in 

five  of  boiled  water,  or  two  per  cent  solution  lysoform. 
Remove    foetal    membranes    and    blood     clots ;     render    aseptic     any 

wounds. 
Afterwards,  where  walls  of  uterus  dilated  or  flaccid,  inject  solution  of 

ergot,  belladonna  tincture  or  astringent  antiseptic. 
To  facilitate  irrigation  employ  clean  horse  catheter.   See  INTRA-UTERINE 

INJECTIONS. 
Woollen  cloth  or  lint  wrung  out  of  hot  water  applied  over  loins  and 

round  abdomen  relieves  spasms  and  pain. 
As  in  other  septic  cases,  creolin,  ether,  phenols,  naphthol,  or  sulphites 

are  given  internally. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  779 

METRITIS.     METKO-PERITONITIS—  continued. 

If  bowels  torpid  half  dose  physic  with  laxative  enemata. 

Remove  urine  by  catheter. 

Sustain  strength  by  generous  diet,  tonics,  and  stimulants. 

Isolate  patients  from  gravid  or  parturient  animals,  and  use  disinfectants. 

MYOSITIS. 

Inflammation  of  muscle,  usually  from  overwork,  direct  violence,  strains, 
rheumatism.  Occurs  in  all  animals. 

Rest ;  injured  muscles  if  possible  kept  relaxed. 

Fomentation  succeeded  by  application  of  belladonna. or  opium  liniment ; 
antiseptics  and  diuretics  internally. 

Cathartic  and  antipyretics,  especially  when  dependent  upon  rheuma- 
tism. 

Counter-irritation,  galvanism,  regular  exercise  if  atrophy  supervene. 

Free  incision  if  pus  form. 

NAGANA  or  TSETSE-FLY  DISEASE. 

Caused  by  Trypanosoma  Briicei,  which  is  transmitted  from  diseased 
to  healthy  animals  by  the  tsetse-fly,  Glossina  morsitans,  and  pro- 
bably other  species. 

Affects  horses,  cattle,  and  dogs.  So  far  arsenical  preparations,  atoxyl, 
arrhenal,  cacodylate  of  soda  have  given  the  best  results  in  the 
treatment  of  this  disease. 

NASAL  GLEET. 

Ozaena.  Chronic  nasal  discharge  resulting  from  ulceration  of  pituitary 
membrane,  necrosis  of  turbinal  bones,  impaction  of  facial  sinuses,  a 
carious  tooth,  or  a  tumour.  Usually  occurring  in  horse.  See  FRONTAL 
AND  NASAL  SINUSES. 

Sulphurous  acid,  iodine,  iodoform  inhalations. 

Nasal  douches  of  salt  and  water  containing  a  few  drops  of  iodine  tincture. 
Bleaching  powder  scattered  in  box.     Insufflation  of  iodoform  or  chinosol. 
Copper  or  iron  sulphate,  arsenic,  turpentine,  buchu,  and  copaiba. 
Remove  faulty  teeth. 
Trephine   sinuses ;    wash   out   with     antiseptics ;    solution     hydrogen 

peroxide. 
Isolate  all  horses  with  suspicious  nasal  discharges. 

NAVEL  DISEASE.     OMPHALOPHLEBITIS. 

An  infective  inflammation  of  the  umbilical  vein  and  other  structures 
of  the  navel,  with  secondary  suppurating  lesions  of  joints  (poly- 
arthritis), serous  membranes,  intestine,  liver,  kidneys,  and  lungs  ; 
caused  by  various  microbes  (streptococci,  staphylococci,  necrosis 
bacillus,  ovoid  bacteria,  etc. ) ;  affects  foals,  calves,  and  lambs  at  or 
soon  after  birth  ;  often  fatal. 

Prevent,  by  carefully  cleansing  and  disinfecting  the  navel  immediately 
after  birth,  aseptic  ligation  of  the  cord,  and  daily  dressing  of  the 
navel  with  lysoform,  iodoform,  or  Stockholm  tar.  Where  this 
disease  exists,  pregnant  animals  should  be  kept  separated  until  after 
parturition. 

Curative  treatment  rarely  successful ;  douche  navel  with  antiseptics  ; 
sol.  mercuric  chloride,  lysol,  or  carbolic  acid.  Inject  fistula  with 
sol.  zinc  or  copper  sulphate,  or  by  introducing  sublimate  one  part  in 
five  of  collodion ;  repeat  in  three  or  four  days.  Treating  the  mare 
with  sodium  or  potassium  iodide  recommended  by  Eckert. 

NAVICULAR  DISEASE. 

Grogginess.  Rarifying  ostitis  with  chronic  synovitis  of  the  bursa  and 
ulceration  of  the  fibre-cartilage  of  the  navicular  bone.  The  flexor 
pedis  perforans  tendon  is  sometimes  adherent  to  the  navicular  bone. 
Concussion,  constant  hard  work,  and  rheumatoid  diathesis  believed 
to  be  the  chief  causes. 


780  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

NAVICULAB  DISEASE — continued. 

Stand  horse  in  warm  water  bath,  or  apply  wet  swabs  to  coronets  for 

several  hours  daily. 
Apply  at  night  poultice,  but  not  too  unwieldy,  or  it  may  prevent  patient 

lying  down. 

Dose  of  physic  and  cooling  diet. 
After  fortnight  or  three  weeks  blister  coronet. 
If  marked  benefit  does  not  result,  relegate  horse  to  slow  work  and  shoe 

with  wedge-heeled  shoes. 
Lameness   sometimes   diminished   by  shoeing  with  leather,  and  using 

shoes  thick  at  quarters  and  thin  at  toe. 
Where  foot  and  limbs  otherwise  good,  perform  neurectomy  above  the 

fetlock. 

NECROSIS. 

A  general  term,  formerly  restricted  to  death  of  bone  in  whole  or  in 

part ;  but  now  applied  to  local  death  of  any  tissue. 

Necrosis  bacillus  responsible  for  calf  diphtheria  ;  necrosis  of  gastro- 
intestinal mucous  membrane  in  cattle  and  sheep,  and  some  cases  of 
navel  disease  in  calves  and  lambs. 

In  bone,  remove  sequestrum  ;  iodoform  and  other  antiseptic  dressings. 
Encourage  reparative  process  by  local  and  general  antiseptic  treatment. 

NETTLE  RASH. 

Surfeit.     See  URTICARIA. 

NEPHRITIS. 

Inflammation  of  kidneys.     Of  several  forms. 
Absolute  rest,  light  laxative  food  ;  diluents,  milk  diet  for  dogs. 
Maintain  activity  of  other  excreting  channels,  hydrogogue  cathartics, 

sod.  sulphate,  jalap. 
Fomentations,  hot  compresses  ;  fresh  sheep-skin  to  loins  of  horses  ;  hot 

bath  for  dogs. 
Pilocarpine  hydrochloride. 

When  heart  weak  or  irritable,  digitalis  or  caffeine. 
Chronic  cases  require  similar  treatment. 
Digestible  nutritive  food  to  sustain  strength. 
Digitalis,  caffeine,  and  pilocarpine  to  combat  effusion. 
In  purulent  cases  alkaline  sulphites,  copaiba,  eucalyptus  oil,  camphor 

bromide,  and  salol. 

Where  abscess  diagnosed  pus  may  be  withdrawn  by  aspirator. 
Extirpation  of  kidney  has  been  successfully  practised. 

NEURALGIA. 

Pain  along  course  of  a  sensory  or  mixed  nerve. 
Endeavour  to  discover  and  remove  any  cause  of  nerve  irritation. 
Any  wound   likely  to  cause  or  aggravate    the   condition  should    be 

fomented  and  dressed  antiseptically. 

Laxative  beneficially  promotes  action  of  bowels  and  excretory  channels. 
Analgesics   topically ;    morphine  or  aiitipyrine    hypodermically   along 

course  of  nerve. 
Administer  salicylates,  aspirin,   or  salines,    with  pot.  iodide,  quinine, 

arsenic  ;  pot.  bromide  where  patient  irritable. 
Counter-irritants,  mustard,  iodoform,  electricity  in  chronic  cases. 
Nerve-stretching  by  extension  of  parts  or  cutting  down  on  nerve. 
Generous  diet,  with  fair  proportion  of  oleaginous  matters  where  patient 

debilitated. 

NEURITIS  or  PERINEURITIS. 

Inflammation  of  the  sheath  or  tissue  enclosing  the  nerve  fibres.     Occa- 
sionally in  all  patients,  from  injury,  rheumatism,  lead-poisoning. 
Remove  cause  if  possible. 

Rest  of  parts  supplied  by  nerve.     Fomentations,  analgesics. 
In  chronic  cases  blister  along  course  of  nerve. 


INDEX    OP   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  781 

OESTRUS  EQUI.    See  BOTS. 

CESOPHAGEAL  OBSTRUCTIONS.       See  CHOKING. 

Mechanical  tumours  ;  Peri-cesophageal  abscesses. 
Pass  probang  or  sound. 
Remove  obstruction  if  possible. 

(ESOPHAGEAL  DILATATIONS. 

Difficult  to  treat. 

Feed  frequently  in  small  quantity  on  concentrated  or  semi-fluid  food. 
Partial  excision  of  pouch  and  insertion  of  sutures  successful  in  horse. 

CESOPHAGEAL  PARALYSIS. 

Pass  sound ;  embrocations  externally  ;  administer  strychnine  ;  counter- 
irritation. 

(ESOPHAGITIS. 

Inflammation  of  mucous  membrane  or  muscle  of  gullet. 
Give  fluid  soft  food  cold ;  ice. 
Refrigerant  compresses. 
.Antiseptic  and  mild  astringent  electuaries. 
Stimulant  embrocations  to  absorb  hard  circumscribed  swellings. 

OPEN  JOINT. 

Wound  of  joint  with  escape  of  synovia. 
Healing  by  first  intention  promoted  by  fixing  joint,  cleansing  wound, 

and  antiseptic  bandage  or  adhesive. 
Inject  wound  with  antiseptics,  corrosive  sublimate  one  part  to  1000  of 

boiled  water. 
If  wound  suppurating  or  of  several  days'  standing  inject,  two  or  three 

times  a    day,    sterilised    glycerin,    or    3    per    cent.    sol.    hydrogen 

peroxide. 
Protect  wound  by  frequently  dusting  with  iodoform  or  chinosol ;  or  by 

applying  several  layers  absorbent  lint. 
Severed  surfaces  may  be  sutured,  provided  movement  of  joint  and 

tearing  can  be  prevented. 

Splints  and  bandages  secure  support  and  protection. 
Slinging  horse  prevents  movements  which  might  reopen  wound,  and 

removes  weight  which  in  injuries  of  limbs  aggravates  inflammation. 
Inflammation  relieved  by  half  doze  of  physic  ;  cooling  diet,  and  weak 

antiseptic  solution  allowed  continuously  to  trickle  over  a  calico  band- 
age lightly  laid  over  the  joint.     Continuous  irrigation  with  cold  water. 
When  the  wound  is  unlikely  to  close  quickly,  or  simple  treatment  has 

failed,  apply  synovial   styptics   or   a   blister,    with   view   of   closing 

opening,  limiting  motion,  and  relieving  pain. 
Anchylosis  apt  to  result  where  injury  has  been  serious  or  case  neglected 

or  badly  treated. 
OPHTHALMIA. 

(a)  Simple  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  eye  or  conjunc- 

tivitis ;  occurring  in  all  animals. 

(b)  Periodic  or  Specific ;  Specific  inflammation  of  most  structures  of 

the  eyes  of  horses ;  hereditary ;  liable  to  recur,  and  eventually 
causing  cataract,  blindness,  and  atrophy  of  the  eyeball. 
Remove  any  foreign  body.     Douche  eye  with  warm  solution  boracic 

acid,  2  per  cent. 
Fomentation  with   tepid  water  containing  aqueous  solution  of  opium 

abates  irritation  ;  four  per  cent,  solution  cocaine  ;  half  dose  physic. 
Antiseptics,  solution  protargol,  2  per  cent.,  mild  astringents;  vaseline 

to  prevent  lids  sticking  together. 
Eserine  and  atropine,  locally  and  alternately,  diminish  irritation  and 

prevent  adhesion  of  iris  to  lens. 
Protect  the  eyes  from  light. 
Periodic  form  relieved  by  cathartics,  febrifuges,  anodynes,  belladonna 

or  atropine,  locally  and  internally. 


782  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

ORCHITIS  and  EPIDIDYMITIS. 

Inflammation  of  the  testicle  and  epididymis  ;  sometimes  sympto- 
matic of  glanders. 

Fomentations,  scarification,  anodynes,  dose  of  physic  ;  support  testicle. 
Iodine  liniment ;  pot.  iodide  internally. 
If  pus  forms  must  be  evacuated  by  free  incision. 
Tubercular  form  intractable  ;  castrate  in  early  stage. 

OSTEO-MALACIA  Or  MOLLITIES  OSSIUM. 

Fragilitas  ossium.      Softening,   with  deformity,   in    consequence  of 
removal  of  lime  salts,  of  the  bones.     Cause  unknown ;  rare  in  the 
domestic  animals. 
Concentrated  nutritive  food,    cod-liver  oil,   fresh  air,   exercise ;    dry 

healthy  surroundings. 
Calcium  phosphates,  bone  meal ;  remove  any  gastro-intestinal  troubles. 

OSTITIS. 

Chronic  or  subacute  inflammation  of  bone  ;  associated  with  periostitis 

and  producing  exostoses  ;  sometimes  tuberculous. 
Heat  and  moisture  ;  cold  applications  ;  allow  escape  of  any  exudate. 
Cooling  diet,  salines,  alteratives. 
Rest ;  blister  ;  pyro-puncture. 

OTORRHCEA. 

Catarrh  of  external  ear.  Occurs  in  dogs,  as  sequel  to  distemper,  or 
from  being  much  in  water.  May  be  parasitic,  or  caused  by  a 
foreign  body. 

Cleanse  the  ear,  disinfect  with  antiseptic  dissolved  in  spirit. 
Warm  solution  of  boric  acid  or  glycerin  of  tannin  dropped  or  syringed 
into  ear.  Stop  canal  with  absorbent  cotton.  Solution  of  copper 
sulphate,  silver  nitrate,  or  lead  acetate,  10  grains  in  an  ounce  of 
alcohol  or  ether.  Ten  per  cent.  sol.  iodine  in  spirit.  Dry  dressing  of 
ear  often  beneficial. 

Purgative  ;  restricted  laxative  diet ;  soda  bicarb. ,  magnesia. 
If  patient  persist  in  scratching  ear,  apply  net  or  bandage  feet. 

OVER-REACH  IN  HORSE. 

Wound  or  bruise  of  coronet  of  fore-limb,  caused  by  the  shoe  of  the 

hind  foot. 

Foment ;  antiseptic  dressing. 
Protect  coronet  with  pad. 
Use  light  shoes  ;  shorten  and  round  off  offending  shoe. 

PARALYSIS. 

Paresis.  Palsy.  Impairment  or  loss  of  motility  or  sensation. 
Impaired  motility  most  common  in  animals.  Classified  as— (1) 
General ;  (2)  Unilateral  or  Hemiplegia  ;  (3)  Bilateral  or  Paraplegia  ; 
(4)  Local,  as  supra  scapular,  radial,  or  crural  pdralysis. 

Pot.  iodide  and  salines  if  dependent  on  pressure  from  fluid. 

Trephine  and  raise  bone  if  arising  from  depression  of  cranial  bones. 

When  caused  by  embolism  or  thrombosis  treatment  almost  hopeless. 

Remove  gastric,  uterine,  or  other  local  irritation,  or  blood-poisoning. 

Rest,  quiet,  light  digestible  food. 

When  bladder  affected  remove  urine  by  catheter. 

Salines,  tonics,  and  other  remedies  to  improve  general  vigour. 

When  chronic,  strychnine  to  stimulate  motor  centres  and  nerves. 

Friction,  kneading,  and  occasional  application  of  counter-irritants  and 
electricity  impart  nervous  and  muscular  tone  ;  intra-muscular  injec- 
tions. 

In  cattle,  paresis  when  depending  on  gastric  derangement  treated  by  full 
dose  of  physic  and  subsequently  nerve  toniqs.  As  a  sequel  of  milk 
fever,  pot.  iodide  followed  by  nux-vomica,  and  counter-irritants  to 
spine.  Connected  with  anaemia,  liberal  dietary  and  tonics. 

In  dogs,  after  dose  of  castor  oil,  prescribe  pot.  iodide,  and,  if  stomach 
irritable,  bismuth  and  soda  bicarb. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  783 

PAROTIDITIS. 

Inflammation  of  parotid  gland.    Traumatic.    May  be  due  to  strangles, 

pharyngitis,  salivaiy  calculus,  and  in  the  ox  to  actinomycosis. 
Hot  moist  compresses  or  poultices. 

Infriction  as  required  of  mildly  stimulating  or  anodyne  ointments. 
When  chronic  or  indolent,  iodine  or  cantharides  dressings. 

PARTURIENT  PARALYSIS.     MAMMARY  TOXAEMIA. 

Milk  fever  :  A  disease  of  cows  (and  ewes)  occurring  at  parturition,  or 
a  few  days  thereafter ;  characterised  by  loss  of  consciousness,  and 
paralysis  of  niotion  and  sensation  ;  sometimes  ushered  in  by  cerebral 
excitement,  spasms,  and  convulsions  ;  attacking  animals  in  the  prime 
of  life,  in  good  condition,  and  free  milkers.  Formerly  mortality 
ranged  from  40  to  60  per  cent.  No  marked  pathological  changes. 
Those  recovering  do  so  quickly,  and  usually  perfectly.  Cause 
of  disease  still  unexplained,  but  probably  due  to  a  nerve  toxin 
formed  in  the  udder. 

Ever's  treatment: — Subcutaneous  injection  of  50  grains  of  caffeine  dis- 
solved in  six  drachms  of  boiled  water;  then,  after  emptying  the 
udder,  insufflate  each  quarter  with  pure  oxygen  or  filtered  air; 
prevent  escape  of  air  by  rubber  ring  on  each  teat ;  remove  rings  in 
one  or  two  hours  later  ;  knead  the  udder  after  insufflation. 
If  swallowing  difficult,  give  cathartic  and  other  medicine  with  Read's 

pump. 
Prop  on  sternum :  keep  up  head :  turn  patient  from  one  side  to  other 

every  three  hours. 

Schmidt's  treatment:— Dissolve  Sij.  to  3iij.  pot.  iodide  in  35  ounces  of 
boiling  water  ;  cool  to  blood  heat,  empty  udder  and  inject  one-fourth 
of  the  solution  into  each  teat ;  knead  the  udder  after  injection. 
If  urine  retained,  empty  bladder  by  catheter  twice  daily, 
Linseed  gruel  occasionally  by  stomach  pump  and  clyster. 
Rubefacients  to  spine  ;  cold  pack  sometimes  beneficial. 
Until  recovery  fairly  established,  withhold  dry  food,  but  allow  mashes 

and  diluents. 
Purgatives,  counter-irritants  to  the  spine,  pot.  iodide  and  nux-vomica 

relieve  resulting  weakness. 
Prevent  by  sparingly  feeding  susceptible  subjects  for  a  month  before 

calving. 

Cathartic  a  fortnight  before  parturition,  and  another  if  required  imme- 
diately after. 

Milk  cow  a  fortnight  before  calving,  earlier  if  milk  can  be  drawn,  and 
empty  bag  twice  daily. 

PATELLA,  PARTIAL  LUXATION  OF.  ARREST  OF  PATELLA  ON  FEMORAL  TROCHLEA. 

Occurs  in  colts,  occasionally  in  cattle,  and  in  horses  of  any  age. 
After  reduction  keep  limb  extended  and  slightly  forward  for  several 

hours  by  cord  attached  to  the  fetlock  and  carried  round  the  neck. 
Put  on  a  shoe  high  at  the  toe  and  projecting  forward. 
Blister  stifle. 

PERICARDITIS. 

Inflammation  of  serous  covering  of  heart.     Rare  in  horses  and  dogs, 
in  which  usually  rheumatic  or  infective  ;  more  frequent  in  cattle  and 
goats,    from   their    swallowing   sharp-pointed   bodies,   which  pass 
through  the  walls  of  stomach  and  diaphragm,  and  enter  the  peri- 
cardium, producing  pericarditis.     Frequently  fatal. 
Morphine  hypodermically  usually  relieves  acute  pain. 
Woollen  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water  applied  to  the  chest  for  an  hour 

or  two  at  a  time. 

Digitalis,  strophanthus,  caffeine,  moderate  rapid,  violent,  irregular  heart 
action. 


784  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

PERICARDITIS — continued. 

Digitalis,  pot.  iodide,  and  strychnine  assist  absorption  of  fluid  by  promot- 
ing diuresis. 

In  dog  prescribe  milk  diet  and  diuretics ;  may  puncture  pericardium 
and  withdraw  exudate. 

PERIOSTITIS. 

Inflammation  beginning  in  or  chiefly  affecting  the  periosteum ;  may 
be  acute  or  chronic  ;  simple,  as  from  kicks  or  injuries,  or  diffuse  or 
infective.  The  vascular  structures  of  the  bone  are  involved.  Occurs 
in  all  patients. 

Rest,  cold  applications,  analgesics,  astringent  lotions,  iodine  ointment. 
Free  incision  if  pus  form ;  antiseptics ;  treat  enlargements  by  blisters 

or  firing. 
Liberal  diet ;  stimulants  and  quinine  if  blood-poisoning  imminent. 

PERITONITIS. 

Inflammation    of    membrane    covering    the    bowels  and   lining  the 

abdominal  cavity  ;  due  to  infection  and  often  fatal.      May  follow 

castration,    operation    for    hernia,    difficult    parturition,    staking, 

injury  to  abdominal  wall,  perforation  of  bowel,  etc. 

Blood-letting  or  two  or  three  small  doses  aconite  in  early  stages  of  acute 

cases  in  robust  subjects,  antiseptics  and  diuretics  internally. 
Opium   in   full   doses  quiets   movement   of  bowels  and   relieves  pain ; 

morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically  prompt  and  effectual,  quinine 

useful. 
Woollen  rugs  wrung  out  of  hot  water  applied  for  two  hours  continuously, 

surface  thoroughly  dried  and  rubbed  with  soap  liniment  and  opium 

tincture. 
Light  mustard  dressing  applied  for  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  ;  but  active 

counter-irritation  injurious. 
Milk,  eggs,  beef  tea,  and  oatmeal  gruel  support  strength  ;  sterilised 

salt-solution  subcutaneously. 
When  more  acute  symptoms  past,  salines  in  drinking  water  and  enemata 

maintain  natural  condition  of  bowels. 
Alcoholic  or  etherous  stimulants  and  camphor  useful  in  second  stages  and 

in  young  and  weakly  subjects,  and  earlier  in  most  influenza  cases. 
A  cantharides  blister  and  pot.  iodide  where  fluid  remains  unabsorbed. 

PHARYNGITIS. 

Inflammation  of  lining  of  pharynx. 

(a)  Catarrhal  or  from  local  irritants  ;  (b)  Extension  of  neighbouring 
inflammation  ;  (c)  Specific  infection.     Occurs  in  all  animals, 
notably  horses,  under  the  familiar  title  of  Sore-throat. 
Comfortable  quarters,  pure  air,  soft  nutritive  food. 
Drinking  water  impregnated  with  borax,  pot.  chlorate,  or  vinegar. 
Sponge  lips  and  nostrils  ;  syringe  with  mild  antiseptics. 
Combat  acute  inflammation  by  hot  compress  or  poultices. 
Belladonna  and  camphor  relieve  spasms  of  pharyngeal  muscles. 
When  swelling  hard  and  circumscribed  apply  stimulating  embrocations. 
Glycerin  of  tannin  or  ferric  chloride  solution  when  throat  relaxed. 
Medicated  inhalations  ;  astringent  electuaries. 
Pharyngeal  abscesses  are  matured  by  steaming  and  fomentation,  and 

may  be  opened  by  a  guarded  knife. 
Tracheotomy  when  swelling  produces  dangerous  dyspnoea. 

PHLEBITIS. 

Inflammation  of  vein  ;  due  to  bacterial  invasion. 

Antiseptic  irrigations  ;  double  ligation  and  excision  of  obstructed  vein. 
Open  abscesses  ;  give  cathartic  ;  laxative  diet. 
Horse  with  impervious  jugular  should  not  be  turned  out  to  grass, 
antiseptically,  but  rarely  successfully. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  785 

PHTHIRIASIS.     See.  LICE. 

PILES. 

Haemorrhoids.     Swelling   inside  or  around  the  anus,  consisting   of 

dilated  or  varicose  veins .     Occur  in  dogs. 
Remove  hardened  faeces  by  enema  ;  cooling  digestible  diet ;  oily  aperients 

if  needful.     Glauber's  salt  in  small  doses  continued  for  ten  days. 
Gall  and  opium  ointment  or  zinc  benzoate  ointment. 
In  persistent  cases  remove  by  ligature,  clamp,  cautery,  or  knife. 

PIROPLASMOSIS.   RED-WATER.   TEXAS  FEVER.   H^EMOGLOBINURIA  or  CATTLE. 
An  infective  haemoglobinaemia  produced  in  cattle,  sheep,  dogs,  and 
occasionally  in  horses,  by  the  action  of  hsematozoa  (piroplasmata), 
which  destroy  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  reducing  them  to 
one-third  or  one-fourth  of  their  normal  number,  their  colouring 
matters  being  excreted  in  the  urine.     The  piroplasmata  are  trans- 
mitted from  infected  to  healthy  animals  by  various  ticks. 
Salines  and  oils  remedy  the  earlier  constipation. 
Subcutaneous  injections  of  sterilised  salt-solution. 
Intravenous  injection  of  one  per  cent,  solution  of  formalin,  or  colloid 

silver ;  atoxyl,  trypanblue. 
Hypodermic  injection  of  five  per  cent,  solution  arrhenal  recommended 

by  Lignieres. 

Antiseptics,  antipyretics,  and  tonics. 

Prevention    consists    in    inoculation,    destroying    ticks    by   spraying, 
smearing,  or  dipping,  and  in  keeping  cattle  off  tick-infested  pastures. 

PLETHORA. 

Defined  as  a  superfluity  or  hypertrophy  of  blood.     Although  not  a 

disease  it  occasionally  predisposes  to  disease. 

Remedied  by  regulating  diet,  reducing  its  quantity  or  nutritive  quality. 
In  horses  that,  in  stable  language,  are  'gross,'  give  half  dose  physic, 

followed  by  salines  in  drinking  water. 
Reduce  amount  of  corn,  especially  of  beans. 
Substitute  a  little  green  food  for  part  of  hay. 
Secure  sufficient  exercise  or  work. 

PLEURISY. 

Inflammation  of  serous  covering  of  lungs  and  lining  of  chest.  Caused 
by  bacteria.  May  occur  as  a  primary  affection  or  from  wounds, 
foreign  bodies  ;  frequently  secondary  to  strangles,  glanders,  pneu- 
monia, tuberculosis,  etc. 

Hygienic  treatment  as  in  pneumonia  ;  dry  nourishing  diet. 
Emetic  and  antimonials  in  animals  that  vomit. 

Two  or  three  doses  antipyrine,  or  calomel  and  opium,  relieve  pyrexia, 
Salines  and  antipyretics  as  in  bronchitis  and  pneumonia. 
Pot.    iodide  and  salicylate   of  soda  promote  absorption  of  exudate ; 

hypodermic  injection  of  sterilised  salt-solution  containing  caffeine. 
Digitalis  and  nux-vomica  aid  removal  of  fluid. 
Rugs  wrung  out  of  hot  water  to  sides,  or  in-rubbing  of  mustard,  washed 

off  in  twenty  minutes. 

Moderate  counter-irritation  by  cantharides,  repeated  if  necessary. 
Refrigerant  compresses  to  chest  advised  in  early  stage  by  Friedberger. 
Pain  reduced  by  opium,  or  by  morphine  hypodermically. 
Early  tapping  requisite  where  exudate  considerable ;  repeat  in  twelve 

hours  if  required.     Antiseptic  irrigation  of  chest  cavity  of  the  dog. 

See  HYDROTHORAX. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA  EPIZOOTIC. 

Contagious  lung  complaint  of  cattle.  An  infective  inflammation  of 
the  lungs  and  pleurae  of  horned  cattle,  probably  caused  by  an 
anaerobic  micro-organism.  Spreads  generally  by  direct  cohabitation  ; 
incubation  stage  twenty  to  forty  days. 

3D 


786  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA  EPIZOOTIC— continued. 

Treatment  generally  unsatisfactory.     Mortality  30  to  50  per  cent. 

Prevention. — Under  British  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals)  Act,  cattle 
affected,  and  those  in  contact,  immediately  slaughtered.  Slightly 
affected  subjects  in  good  condition  are  passed  for  beef  ;  other  carcases, 
disinfected,  used  for  manure. 

Infected  premises  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected. 

The  value  of  protective  inoculation  doubtful. 

PNEUMONIA.     INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS. 
The  chief  distinctive  forms  are — 

(1)  Contagious,  croupous,   or  gangrenous   pneumonia,  with   secondary 

pleurisy  and  parenchymatous  degeneration  of  principal  organs  ; 
chest  plague.  Depends  upon  a  small  ovoid  bacterium  (Schiitz), 
which  has  been  cultivated,  and  reproduces  the  disease,  not  only 
in  horses,  but  in  rabbits,  mice,  and  pigeons.  The  most  common 
form  in  horses. 

(2)  Catarrhal  or  broncho -pneumonia.      Caused  by  irritants,  including 
worms,  and  characterised  by  exudation  and  epithelial  proliferation 
and  desquamation.     Of  less  definite  and  usually  slower  progress. 
Not  frequent  in  horses,  but  common  in  cattle,  sheep,  and  dogs. 

(3)  Interstitial  or  chronic  pneumonia.     A  sequel  to  the   croupous  or 

catarrhal  affection. 

Contagious  pneumonia  of  horses  is  often  classed  as  influenza. 
General  principles  of  treatment  the  same  in  both  types. 
Suitable  sanitary  conditions,  diet,  and  nursing. 
Hot  compresses  changed  every  twelve  or  fifteen  minutes. 
Antipyretics,  salines,  bowels  regulated  by  enemas;    camphorated  oil 

subcutaneously. 

If  cathartic  needful,  oil  better  than  aloes  or  salines. 
In  neither  form  is  blood-letting  required  or  desirable. 
In  both,  especially  in  catarrhal,  ammonium  acetate  solution,  pot.  chlorate 

or  nitrate,  given  in  draught  or  drinking  water. 
Two  or  three  small  doses  aconite  where  pyrexia  acute  and  horse  or  cow 

robust. 

Emetic  in  outset  of  attack  in  strong  dogs. 
Mustard  applied  to  sides  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  reapplied  as 

required.     More  useful  in  catarrhal  than  croupous  cases. 
Frequent  doses  alcohol,  ether,  or  spiritus  setheris  nitrosi  where  patient 

feeble. 

Digitalis  or  caffeine  if  heart  weak. 
Pot.  iodide  and  moderate  counter-irritation  encourage  absorption  of 

exudate. 

POLL  EVIL.     See  ABSCESS  AND  FISTULA. 

PROLAPSE  OF  THE  RECTUM,  UTERUS,  OR  VAGINA. 

More  common  in  cows  that  have  had  several  calves  than  in  other 

veterinary  patients. 
Remove  any  causes  still  in  action. 
Raise  hind-quarters.     Carefully  return. 
Cleanse  and  wash  organ  with  mild  astringent  solution. 
If  swollen,  support  on  large  linen  towel  or  linen  web. 
Cross  and  twist  in  opposite  directions  ends  of  web,  thus   inducing 

pressure,  and  keep  web  soaked  with  ice-cold  water. 
Knead  repeatedly  with  hands. 

Scarification  not  advisable.     Excision  sometimes  necessary. 
Straining  combated  by  chloral  hydrate  by  mouth,  injection  of  morphine 

hypodermically  and  pressure  on  loins. 
Subsequent  prolapse  prevented  by  clamp,  truss,  or  sutures  ;  the  latter 

most  effectual. 


INDEX   OF  DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  787 

PROSTATITIS. 

Inflammation  of  prostate  gland,  usually  from  gonorrho?a,  cystitis,  or 

calculi.     Occurs  in  dogs. 

Hot  fomentations.  Catheter  if  needful  to  remove  urine. 
Alkalies  and  pot.  iodide,  belladonna  and  eucalyptus  oil. 
If  abscess  forms  free  incision  in  middle  line  of  perineum. 

PRURITUS. 

Itching.     A  cutaneous  neurosis  occurring  in  horses  and  dogs. 
When  resulting  from  exposure  to  sun-heat,  the  animal  is  brought  into 

the  shade,  douched  with  pot.  bicarbonate,  any  specially  irritable  spots 

moistened  with  lotion  of  two  parts  glycerin,  one  each  of  sugar  of  lead 

and  laudanum,  and  sixty  water. 
Belladonna  in  chloroform  solution,  alternated  with  alkaline  washes,  allays 

hyper-sensibility. 

Lotions  of  resorcin  (5  per  cent.)  or  chloral  (1  per  cent.)  often  beneficial. 
Corrosive  sublimate,   thymol,   or  volatile  oils,   locally   when   itching 

depends  upon  parasites. 
Cathartics,    salines,    careful    dietary,    when    associated    with    gastric 

derangement. 
Iron  salts,  oleaginous  food,  alkalies,  arsenic,  internally  when  patients 

impoverished. 

PSOAS  MUSCLE  STRAIN.     Occurs  in  both  horses  and  dogs. 

Rugs  wrung  out  of  hot  water  applied  over  loins  and  round  abdomen. 

Anodyne  enemata  ;  rest. 

Slings  essential  when  both  sides  affected. 

PSORIASIS. 

A  term  applied  to  the  scaly  forms  of  eczema,  such  as  mallenders  in 
horses,  which  see. 

PUMICED  FOOT  IN  HORSES. 

Unhealthy  horn  with  convexity  and  weakness  of  the  sole,  the  result 

of  laminitis. 

Bar  shoe  with  wide  web. 

Lessen  concussion  by  tar  dressing  and  leather  sole. 
Stimulate  coronet. 

PUNCTURED  FOOT. 

Injury  from  nail  in  shoeing  or  from  gathered  nail. 

Remove  shoe,  search  foot,  and  thin  hoof  at  puncture.  May  enlarge 
wound,  then  disinfect  and  bandage  antiseptically. 

PURPURA  H^MORRHAGICA  IN   THE   HORSE. 

Petechial  fever.  A  fever  characterised  by  circumscribed  swellings 
of  the  skin  and  hsemorrhagic  petechise  of  the  mucous  membranes, 
and  their  subareolar  textures.  Similar  extravasations  appear  in 
the  substance  of  muscles,  in  the  lungs,  and  other  organs.  Fre- 
quently a  sequel  of  exhausting  disease,  but  etiology  not  fully 
explained  ;  probably  a  toxaemia. 
Remove  to  spacious  airy  quarters,  clothe  warmly. 

Pot.  chlorate,  three  or  four  drachms  two  or  three  times  daily,  subse- 
quently half  doses ;  usually  given  in  drinking  water. 
Early  injection  of  antistreptococcic  serum  may  shorten  duration  of 

disease. 

Iron  salts  (sulphate,  perchloride),  quinine,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  milk. 
Digitalis  and  cinchona  in  electuary. 

Concentrated  nourishment ;  oatmeal  gruel,  milk  and  eggs,  alcoholic 
stimulants.  Silver  colloid,  solution  of  adrenalin ;  subcutaneous 
injections  of  saline  solution  containing  caffeine. 

Bland  oil  or  vinegar  diminishes  skin  tension  and  tendency  to  slough. 
Limited  swellings  about  head  bathed  with  cold  water  and  refrigerants. 


788  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

PURPURA  H^EMORRHAGICA  IN  THE  HORSE — Continued. 

Inject  intratracheally,  Sviii.  to  3xii-  twice  daily  of  a  solution  containing 
one  part  iodine,  six  pot.  iodide,  100  water  (Dieckerhoff). 

Small  repeated  doses  of  calomel  are  indicated  when  there  is  danger  of 
intestinal  infection. 

Scrupulous  cleanliness  and  antiseptic  dressings  essential  where  portions 
of  skin  ulcerating  or  sloughing  ;  methylene  blue  (2  per  cent.)  in  spirit. 

Tracheotomy  desirable  where  dyspnoea  distressing. 

Pus  IN  FACIAL  SINUSES.     See  NASAL  GLEET. 

PYAEMIA. 

A  disease  caused  by  infection,  and  characterised  by  pyrexia  of  an 

intermittent  type  and  formation  of  secondary  abscesses. 
Any  wound  whence  infective  products  may  arise  must  be  laid  open, 

cleansed,  and  rendered  aseptic. 
Injection  of  iodine  tincture  or  dilute  carbolic  acid  into  inflamed  glands 

sometimes  checks  destructive  suppuration  ;  antistreptococcic  serum 

subcutaneously. 

Sanitary  conditions  must  be  attended  to. 
The  patient  coaxed  to  take  digestible,  nutritive,  concentrated  food  to 

sustain  strength  and  ward  off  collapse  ;  milk,  hay-tea,  gelatin. 
Moderate  doses  of  alcoholic  and  etherous  stimulants  repeated  every  three 

or  four  hours  ;  quinine,  salol,  or  salicylates. 

QUARTER  EVIL.     See  BLACK  QUARTER. 

QUITTOR. 

See  also  FISTULA.     A  sinuous  wound  of  the  horse's  coronet. 
Poultice  to  soften  horn,  thoroughly  cleanse  and  disinfect,  remove  dead 

and  detached  tissue,  provide  dependent  opening ;  excision  of  necrosed 

cartilage  often  required. 
Inject  Villate's  solution,  or  aqueous  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  1  to 

1000.     Get  perfect  asepsis. 
Envelop  foot  in  antiseptic  tow  or  jute,  soaked  in  sublimate  or  other 

antiseptic  solution,  and  carefully  bandage. 
In  four  days  to  a  week  remove  dressing  ;  with  knife  and  curette  remove 

any  necrosing  or  dead  tissue,  and  dress  as  before. 
Where  foot  strong  no  shoe  needed ;  but  if  weak  or  broken,  bar  shoe 

relieves  pressure. 
Stimulant  embrocations  to  the  coronet  promote  reparative  action. 

RADIAL  PARALYSIS  or  *  DROPPED  ELBOW.' 

Lameness  with  loss  of  power  to  extend  the  elbow- joint.  Caused  by 
injury  to  the  extensor  muscles,  the  brachial  plexus,  or  the  nerve 
supplying  the  affected  muscles.  Sometimes  attributed  to  costal 
fracture.  Recovery  protracted. 

Place  horse  in  slings  for  a  few  days,  foment  extensor  region,  massage, 
nerve  stimulants,  deep  injection  of  sol.  strychnine ;  blisters ;  setons, 
exercise. 

RABIES. 

A  specific  febrile  disease,  occurring  especially  in  the  canine  and  feline 
races,  produced  by  a  virus  found  in  the  central  nervous  system  and 
most  organs  arid  secretions,  and  usually  communicated  by  the  bite 
of  a  rabid  dog  or  other  animal.  The  incubation  period  ranges  from 
fifteen  to  sixty  days  in  the  dog,  cat  and  horse,  one  to  three  months 
in  the  ox,  and  fifteen  to  thirty  days  in  the  sheep.  All  warm- 
blooded animals  are  susceptible.  The  disease  is  most  certainly 
and  rapidly  produced  by  inoculation,  and  when  developed  is 
incurable. 

Under  the  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals)  Act,  rabid  dogs  and  animals 
bitten  by  them  are  destroyed. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  789 

RABIES — continued. 

When  a  person  is  bitten  by  a  mad  dog,  circulation  through  the  part 

should,  if  practicable,  be  checked  by  a  ligature,  the  wound  washed 

with  corrosive  sublimate  solution,  and  cauterised. 
Pasteur  has  demonstrated  that  dogs  and  other  animals  inoculated  with 

attenuated  virus  do  not  develop  the  disease  when  bitten  by  a  rabid  dog 

or  inoculated  with  virus  which  would  kill  unprotected  animals. 
Like  protection  is  generally  secured  if  the  man  or  animal,  within  a  few 

days  after  being  bitten,  is  inoculated  with  the  protective  vaccine. 
The  mortality  of  persons  bitten  by  rabid  dogs  previous  to  1886  was  16 

per  cent.     Since  then  many  thousands  of  bitten  persons  have  been 

treated  at  the  Pasteur  Institute,  with  the  result  that  the  mortality 

has  been  reduced  to  less  than  1  per  cent. 

RHEUMATISM. 

Inflammation  of  fibrous  structures  of  muscles,  tendons,  joints,  etc.  ; 
usually  attributed  to  cold  and  damp  ;  but  sometimes  to  specific 
infection ;  by  some  believed  to  depend  upon  accumulation  in  body 
of  some  product  of  nutritive  derangement  (auto-intoxication, 
possibly  lactic  acid,  but  more  probably  a  toxin).  Occurs  in  all 
classes  of  patients. 

Keep  patient  warm  and  dry ;  dry  flannel  bandages ;  pot.  iodide 
internally. 

Alkalies,  pot.  bicarbonate  and  nitrate  in  drinking  water. 

Sodium  salicylate,  salol,  naphthol,  antipyrine,  aspirin. 

Veratrine  or  morphine  hypodermically,  repeated  daily  for  a  week  or  ten 
days.  Potass,  iodide  3ij  daily  for  a  fortnight. 

Amm.  acetate  and  colchicum  ;  pilocarpine  hypodermically. 

When  acute  symptoms  abated,  quinine,  arsenic,  Donovan's  solution. 

Locally,  friction  with  compound  camphor  liniment,  later  blister  or  fire 
and  blister  ;  exercise  beneficial. 

In  strong  dogs  an  emetic  at  outset,  antipyretics,  salicylate  of  sodium. 

Provide  warm  dry  kennel. 

Stiffness  or  swelling  subsequently  removed  by  massage  ;  by  camphor  oil, 
or  soap  liniment  rubbed  in. 

Articular  rheumatism  most  frequent  in  cattle  and  dogs. 

Salicylates,  antipyretics  ;  joints  enveloped  in  cotton  wool. 

Embrocations  of  ichthyol  and  lanoline,  oil  of  wiritergreen,  iodine  solu- 
tion, or  mercury  oleate. 

Cases  simulating  articular  rheumatism  in  foals,  calves,  and  lambs,  some- 
times result  from  infection  of  navel. 

Prevented  by  aseptic  ligation  of  the  cord  at  birth,  and  thorough  disinfec- 
tion of  adjacent  skin,  by  phenol,  or  other  antiseptic,  repeated  daily 
for  a  week.     See  NAVEL  DISEASE. 
RICKETS. 

Rachitis.  Faulty  development  and  softening  of  the  bones  of  young 
animals,  depending  upon  malnutrition. 

Nourishing  diet ;  milk,  crushed  oats  with  linseed  for  herbivora ;  milk, 
meat  soup,  bone  meal,  cod-liver  oil  for  dogs ;  good  hygiene  and 
exercise. 

In  young  animals  sucking,  see  that  mother's  milk  sufficient  in  quantity 
and  quality,  and  that  she  is  well  nourished. 

Aperients  or  antacids  to  rectify  any  digestive  derangement. 

Calcium  phosphate  ;  iron  salts,  lime  water,  glycerophosphates. 

Splints  and  bandages  may  be  requisite  to  support  the  softened  bones. 

RINDERPEST. 

Cattle  plague.  A  specific  malignant  contagious  fever  affecting  the 
bovine  race,  but  communicable  to  sheep  and  other  ruminants, 
depending  upon  a  specific  virus,  and  characterised  by  lesions  chiefly 
localised  in  the  mucous  membranes  and  skin.  Indigenous  to  the 
Asiatic  Steppes  of  Russia  and  other  parts  of  Asia. 


790  INDEX   Or   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

RINDERPEST — continued. 

Treatment  unsatisfactory ;  protective  inoculation  by  various  methods 

practised  in  South  Africa. 

Slaughter  of  infected  animals,  and  those  in  contact  with  them,  and 
effectual  disinfection  promptly  exterminated  the  disease  imported 
into  Great  Britain  in  1865,  as  well  as  the  limited  outbreaks  of  1872 
and  1877. 

RINGBONE,  ARTICULAR  and  NON- ARTICULAR. 

Exostosis  on  a  pastern  bone  or  the  coffin  bone ;  sometimes  in  both 

positions.     Most  serious  when  involving  a  joint. 

When  occurring  in  the  fore-limb,  use  a  thin-heeled  bar  shoe ;  when  in 
the  hind-limb,  a  high-heeled  shoe,  thus  diminishing  pressure  and  con- 
cussion. 

Put  to  slow  work  on  land.     When  in  stable  apply  wet  swabs. 
Where  there  is  lameness — rest,  give  dose  physic,  and  fire  and  blister,  or 
unnerve. 

RINGWORM. 

Tinea.  Circular  elevated  spots,  becoming  itchy,  scaly,  and  hairless, 
appearing  usually  on  the  skin  of  the  head,  neck,  and  body,  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  various  species  of  fungi,  which  invade 
especially  the  hair  bulbs.  More  common  in  cattle  than  in  horses, 
dogs,  or  cats  ;  rare  in  sheep  and  pigs  ;  may  be  transmitted  from  one 
animal  to  another. 

Horse.  Trichophytic  ringworm,  caused  by  Trichophyton  mentagro- 
phytes,  T.  flavum,  T.  equinum,  T.  verrucosum ;  and  Microsporous 
ringworm,  by  Microsporum  Audouini. 

Cattle.  Ringworm  always  a  Trichophytosis  and  due  to  T.  menta- 
grophytes. 

Dog.    Four  varieties  of  ringworm  occur :  (1 )  Trichophytic  ( T.  cani- 
num);  (2)  Microsporous  (M.  Audouini  var,  caninum);  (3)  Eidamellian 
(Eidamella  spinosa)  ;  and  favus  (Oospora  canina).     See  FAVUS. 
Isolate  affected  animals,  and  disinfect  all  brushes,  clothing,  harness,  or 

whatever  the  fungus  may  have  lodged  on  ;  burn  the  crusts. 
Washing  with  soap  and  water,  or  soaking  with  oil  and  pot.  carbonate, 
removes  scabs  and  crusts.     Paint  spots,  after  removing  crusts,  with 
iodine  tincture,  or  apply  solution  or  ointment  of  carbolic  acid,  creosote, 
naphthol,  oil  of  tar,  or  sulphur  iodide. 
If  these  ineffectual,  substitute  mercuric  nitrate  ointment ;  solutions  of 

mercuric  chloride,  ferric  chloride,  or  copper  sulphate  ;  or  iodoform. 
Salines,  tonics,  arsenic,  internally,  help  to  abate  irritation  and  oedema. 
Grooming  or  dressing  of  affected  subjects  should  be  suspended,  as  it 
may  spread  the  disease. 

ROARING  or  WHISTLING. 

May  depend  on  thickening  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  nares,  pharynx, 

or  larynx,  or  on  fibrous  growths  in   these  regions  ;   but  in  most 

instances  roaring  or  whistling  is   due   to    paralysis  of    the    left 

recurrent  nerve,  with  wasting,  and  fatty  degeneration  of  the  dilator 

muscles  of  the  left  side  of  the  larynx.     The  opening  through  which 

the  air  passes  being  narrowed,  the  characteristic  noise  is  produced, 

especially  when  inspiration  is  quickened  by  excitement  or  exertion. 

Spurious  or  temporary  roaring,    depending    upon   cold,    strangles,    or 

influenza,   is  treated  sometimes  successfully  by  stimulation  of  the 

throat,  and  by  pot.  iodide  and  arsenic  internally. 

True  roaring  or  whistling,  depending  on  paralysis  and  muscular  atrophy, 

is  incurable. 
Smart  blistering,  the  actual  cautery,  or  galvanism  in  the  earlier  stages, 

sometimes  proves  beneficial. 

A  pad  fitted  on  the  nostrils  regulating  the  supply  of  air  lessens  the 
noise  in  bad  cases. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  791 

ROARING  or  WHISTLING — continued. 
Tracheotomy  also  affords  relief. 
Strychnine  persisted  with  for  weeks  in  the  earlier  stages  appears  to 

arrest  and  may  prevent  the  muscular  wasting. 
Of  various  surgical  operations  attempted,  excision  of  the  left  laryngeal 

ventricle  has  given  the  best  result. 

ROT  IN  SHEEP.     DISTOMUM  HEPATICUM.     See  WORMS. 

SADDLE  GALLS. 

Bruises  from  badly-fitting  saddles  or  harness. 

Relieve  from  weight  and  prevent  friction. 

Apply  hot  compress  and  antiseptic  dressings. 

Swollen  sebaceous  follicles  in  the  early  stages  are  reduced  by  friction 
with  soap  liniment ;  in  chronic  cases  by  fomenting,  lancing,  or 
cauterising  with  undiluted  carbolic  acid. 

Portions  of  dead  tissue  or  exudate  constituting  sitfasts  should  be  dis- 
sected out,  and  the  wound  treated  in  the  usual  way. 

SANDCRACK. 

Fissure  in  horn  of  horse's  foot,  usually  on  inner  quarter  of  a  fore-  or 

toe  of  a  hind-foot. 

Remove  shoe,  thin  wall  on  each  side  of  fissure,  cleanse  and  disinfect. 
Fomentation,  poultice,  and  rest  relieve  pressure,  inflammation  and  pain. 
When  these  abated,  clamp  or  wedge  the  fissure,  or  groove  the  wall 

transversely  or  obliquely  to  the  direction  of  the  crack,  and  blister 

coronet. 
Bar  shoe,  made  to  relieve  fissured  horn  from  pressure  and  concussion. 

Dress  hoof  frequently  with  wood  tar. 

SEPTIC  INFECTION. 

A  febrile  state,  the  result  of  the  circulation  in  the  blood  of  patho- 
genic organisms  or  the  toxins  to  which  they  give  rise.  The 
organisms  multiply  at  the  seat  of  inoculation,  and  have  the  power 
of  entering  the  circulation,  and  thus  forming  secondary  infective 
foci.  Infection  occurs  in  puerperal  metritis  in  cows  and  ewes, 
in  the  fever  occasionally  following  castration  and  other  surgical 
operations,  as  well  as  accidental  wounds  in  horses  (open  joint, 
gathered  nail,  etc. ). 

Arrest  if  possible  the  primary  source  of  infection. 

Cleanse  and  render  aseptic  any  wound.     Excise  necrosing  tissue. 

Corrosive  sublimate  solution  1  to  1000.     Zinc  chloride  1  to  100. 

Administer  antiseptics,  antipyretics,  creolin,  sulphites,  quinine,  anti- 
streptococcic  serum. 

Generous  dietary  ;  milk,  eggs,  oatmeal  gruel,  beef  tea. 

Alcoholic  stimulants,  acids,  and  bitters. 

SARCOMATOTTS  TUMOURS. 

Are  chiefly  composed  of  embryonic  or  immature  connective  tissues ; 
they  contain  blood-vessels,  but  neither  nerves  nor  lymphatics  have 
been  clearly  made  out ;  they  differ  greatly  in  appearance,  rapidity 
of  growth,  and  malignancy,  and  occur  in  all  the  lower  animals. 
In  the  earlier  stages,  especially  if  likely  to  interfere  with  any  important 
function,  removal  by  the  knife  should  be  attempted. 

SCAB  IN  SHEEP. 

Skin   irritation,   inflammation  and   scabbing,    caused  by   Psoroptes. 

See  ACARI  and  MANGE. 

In  all  bad  cases  the  sheep  should  be  bare  shorn  and  affected  parts  soaked 
with  pot.  carbonate  dissolved  in  twenty  parts  water  before  the 
insecticide  is  applied. 


792  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

SCAB  IN  SHEEP — continued. 

Dress  carefully  every  itching  part  with  creolin  and  alcohol  each  one 

part,  soft  soap  eight  parts.     Non-poisonous  (Frohner). 
Within  a  few  days  immerse  each  sheep  for  three  minutes  in  bath  of  two 

parts  each  of  creolin  and  pot.  carbonate  and  100  parts  water.     Repeat 

bath  in  eight  days. 
Watch  for  any  rubbing,  examine   each    sheep  twice   a  week,   and,   if 

required,  apply  the  creolin  dressing. 
Decoctions  of  tobacco  and  stavesacre  and  solutions  of  arsenic,  tar  oil, 

and  creosote  are  also  used,  both  as  lotion  and  bath. 
The  following  formulae  have  been  selected  from  a  number  tested  in 

Germany: — (1)  Arsenious  acid  10  parts,  alum  200,  water  1000  parts. 

(2)  Arsenious    acid    10  parts,    potash    10  parts,    water   1000   parts. 

(3)  Arsenious  acid  10  parts,  alum  10  parts,  vinegar  1000  parts,  water 
1000  parts.     To  avoid  danger  from  absorption  of  arsenic  by  the  skin, 
sheep  should  not  be  dipped  before  the  tenth  or  twelfth  day  after  shear- 
ing.    Each  sheep  is  immersed  twice  and  brushed  all  over  the  body. 

All  affected  sheep  should  be  isolated  ;  while,  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
the  parasites,  which  remain  alive  for  at  least  a  week,  racks,  rubbing- 
posts,  and  anything  on  which  they  may  have  lodged,  are  washed  with 
warm  lysol  solution  (3  per  cent.). 

SEEDY  TOE  OF  HORSES. 

A  perverted  secretion  of  horn,  with  excavation  between  the  laminal 
sheath  and  outer  wall  of  the  foot,  the  space  being  partly  filled  with 
soft  mealy  horn.  It  frequently  follows  laminitis.  A  similar 
condition  occurs  in  sheep. 

All  diseased  horn  must  be  removed  and  the  cavity  disinfected. 
Healthier  growth  encouraged  by  moisture,   exercise,  and  blisters   to 

coronet. 

A  bar  shoe  relieves  pressure.     If  space  not  large,  recovery  may  follow 
careful  disinfection  of  the  cavity.      In  other  cases  the  outer  wall 
should  be  excised,  and  the  exposed  surface  dressed  with  antiseptics. 
To  prevent  deformation  of  hoof,  the  shoe  must  be  removed  frequently 
and  the  hoof  trimmed  into  shape. 

SHIVERING. 

Chronic  myelitis  with  sclerosis  of  motor  tracts  of  spinal  cord,  and 
characterised  by  a  peculiar  spasmodic  contraction  of  muscles  of 
hind  or  fore  legs. 

Hereditary ;  occurrence  generally  preceded  by  remote  attack  of 
strangles,  influenza,  or  pneumonia.  Frequently  symptoms  difficult 
to  discover.  Incurable.  The  horse  may  do  moderate,  slow  work. 

SHOULDER  SLIP  (SUPRASCAPULAR  PARALYSIS). 

Injury  to  nerve,  or  extensor  muscles  of  the  horse's  shoulder.     Rare  in 

other  animals. 
Foment,   rest,    purgatives,   massage :    induced    current    to    atrophied 

region. 

Blister  when  tenderness  removed. 
Douche  with  cold  water  ;  exercise. 

SIDE  BONE. 

Ossification  of  lateral  cartilage  of  horse's  foot.     When  uncomplicated 

seldom  causes  lameness. 

The  treatment  has  been  bar  shoe,  cold  applications,  rest,  blisters,  firing, 
with  neurectomy  in  chronic  cases  if  feet  otherwise  sound.  In  cases 
with  contraction  the  wall  may  be  grooved  with  knife  or  wedge  firing- 
iron,  or  divided  in  two  or  three  places,  and  the  foot  afterwards  shod 
with  a  bar  shoe. 

SORE-THROAT.     See  PHARYNGITIS. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  793 

SORE  SHINS.     See  OSTITIS  and  PERIOSTITIS. 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  HORSE-SICKNESS. 

An  infective  disease,  peculiar  to  the  equidae,  characterised  by  tissue 
dropsy,  and  proved  to  be  caused  by  an  ultra-visible  organism  (Sir 
John  M'Fadyean).  Believed  to  be  transmitted  by  an  insect ;  can 
be  produced  by  inoculation,  or  ingestion  of  blood  obtained  from  an 
infected  horse.  Very  fatal ;  curative  treatment  unsatisfactory ; 
prevention  by  injection  of  special  serum  more  hopeful. 

SPAVIN,  BOG.     See  BOG  SPAVIN. 

SPAVIN,  BONE. 

(a)  A  bony  outgrowth  on  the  inner  and  lower  part  of  the  horse's  hock, 

arising    from   osteo-arthritis    of    the    cuneiform,    scaphoid,    and 

metatarsal  bones,  terminating  generally  in  anchylosis,  peripheral 

and  central. 

(6)  Articular  disease,  without  appreciable  enlargement,  terminating 

in  anchylosis. 

Rest ;  cathartics  and  fomentation  where  there  is  much  lameness. 
In  young  horses  blister,  pyro-puncture,  seton,  periosteotomy,  or  cunean 
tenotomy.      Anterior  and   posterior    tibial   neurectomy    sometimes 
beneficial. 

SPLENIC  APOPLEXY.    See  ANTHRAX. 

SPLINT. 

A  bony  enlargement  on  a  fore  or  hind  canon  of  the  horse ;    occa- 
sionally of  the  ox. 
In  slighter  cases  stop  fast  work,  give  half  dose  physic,  foment,  and 

subsequently  blister. 

In  more  acute  cases  subcutaneous  periosteotomy,  or  fire  and  blister. 
Pyro-puncture  preferable  to  line-firing  as  it  blemishes  very  little. 
Mercuric  iodide  ointment  to  reduce  enlargement. 

SPEEDY-CUT. 

A  bruise  or  contused  wound  on  the  inner  aspect  of  the  horse's  knee, 

caused  by  the  opposite  foot. 

Fomentations  :  open  any  abscess  ;  antiseptic  dressing. 
Prevent  by  reducing  inner  crust  of  offending  foot,  using  nicely-fitting 

three-quarter  shoes,  and  removing  shoes  every  three  weeks. 
A  boot  sometimes  worn  on  the  leg  liable  to  cutting. 
Avoid  over-pacing  such  horses. 

SPRAINS  or  MUSCLES,  TENDONS,  AND  LIGAMENTS. 

The  fibres  are  severely  stretched,  in  serious  cases  ruptured,  causing 
inflammation  and  subsequent  contraction,  and,  in  case  of  muscles, 
atrophy. 

Endeavour  to  rest  horse  at  once. 

Relieve  injured  parts  from  strain  and  weight ;  in  severe  cases  sling. 

In  strains  connected  with  back  tendons  tack  on  high-heeled  shoe. 

Apply  compress  moistened  with  solution  of  Epsom  salt,  or  foment  until 
tenderness  removed  ;  support  with  elastic  pressure  bandage,  or  with 
subcutaneous  injections  of  filtered  air ;  close  puncture  with  collodion. 

Subsequently  cold  applications  ;  regular  walking  exercise. 

Blister,  or  fire  and  blister,  and  turn  out  to  grass. 

In  bad  or  repeated  tendon  sprains,  contraction  occurs  which  is  incurable. 
Tenotomy  in  selected  cases  may  be  advisable.  Median  neurectomy 
may  be  tried.  Subcutaneous  injection  of  fibrolysin  may  reduce 
thickening  of  tendon. 

STERILITY.     See  BARRENNESS. 

STOMACH  STAGGERS  IN  HORSES.     See  INDIGESTION. 


794  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

STOMATITIS. 

Inflammation  of  buccal  mucous  membrane,  chiefly  occurring  in  young 
animals — (a)  erythematous  and  catarrhal ;  (6)  aphthous,  vesicular, 
pustular,  frequently  contagious  ;  (c)  parasitic  (mycosis). 
Soft  digestible  food,  laxatives,  salines.  Remove  any  gastric  derangement. 
See  to  any  irritation  of  gums,  or  faulty  teeth. 

Give  slowly  pot.  chlorate  or  borax,  1  to  4  per  cent,  in  glycerin  solution. 
In  sucking  foals  and  calves,  besides  local  treatment,  see  that  mother's 

milk  is  sound  and  that  she  is  properly  fed. 
Ulcers  dressed  with  glycerin  of  tannin  or  painted  with  silver  nitrate, 

ten  grains  to  ounce  distilled  water. 

A  contagious  pustular  form  amongst  horses,  is  described  by  Friedberger, 
and  treated  by  pot.  permanganate  or  creolin  solution. 

STRANGLES  IN  HOUSES. 

A  contagious  catarrhal  eruptive  fever,  peculiar  to  the  equine  species, 
caused  by  a  streptococcus.  Usually,  abscesses  develop  in  the 
connective  tissue  in  the  space  between  the  branches  of  the  lower 
jaw,  and  involve  adjacent  glands  :  while  by  extension  or  secondary 
infection  the  disease  may  attack  other  glands,  the  mucous  and 
serous  membranes  and  internal  organs,  producing  pharyngitis, 
laryngitis,  pneumonia,  pleurisy,  pericarditis,  peritonitis,  meningitis, 
synovitis,  arthritis,  etc.  The  disease  occurs  chiefly  in  young 
animals. 

Good  nursing  ;  perfect  sanitary  surroundings. 
Steam  head  where  catarrhal  symptoms  troublesome. 
Fomentations  or  poultices  to  throat  hasten  formation  of  abscess. 
Sodium  sulphite  and  pot.  chlorate  dissolved  in  drinking  water. 
In  early  stage  antistreptococcic  serum,  subcutaneously  injected,  often 

beneficial. 

Horse  at  grass  shelter  at  night,  unless  weather  warm  and  case  slight. 
Supply  mash,  gruel,  grass,  sliced  roots,  malt,  steamed  oats,  or  whatever 

soft  digestible  food  patient  will  eat. 
Milk,  eggs,  beef  tea,  with  ale  or  wine  if  animal  weak. 
Sweet  spirit  of  nitre  or  quinine  if  infection  extend. 
Abscess   should  be  fully  matured  before  it  is   opened  ;   indeed  many 

practitioners  prefer  that  it  be  allowed  to  burst. 
While  discharging,  keep  parts  clean  ;  dress  daily  with  antiseptics. 
Tracheotomy  performed  when  dyspnoea  not  relieved  by  steaming  and 
fomentations  ;  its  timely  performance  may  prevent  roaring,  and  often 
saves  life. 
Isolate  infected  subjects  and  disinfect  premises. 

STRINGHALT  IN  THE  HOUSE. 

Involuntary  spasmodic  contractions  of  the  muscles  of  one  or  both  hind, 
or  fore  (rare),  limbs  ;  not  traceable  to  definite  pathological  lesion. 

Seldom  curable ;  may  become  worse  with  hard  work  and  advancing 
years. 

Relieve  spavin  or  other  condition  which  may  aggravate  reflexly. 

Temporary  benefit  results  from  a  laxative,  a  course  of  bromides,  and 
moderation  of  work.  Peroneal  tenotomy  and  aponeurotomy  some- 
times beneficial. 

Stretching  or  section  of  the  tibial  nerves  of  little  value. 

STURDY.     HYDATID  IN  BRAIN.     See  WORMS. 
SURFEIT.     NETTLE-RASH.     See  URTICARIA. 

SURRA.     ROT. 

A  specific  progressive  fever  associated  with  gastric  ulceration,  anaemia, 
ffidema,  emaciation  and  paralysis,  affecting  horses  and  dogs,  rarely 
cattle,  and  caused  by  a  hsematozoon  (Trypanosoma  Evansi).  Trans- 
mitted by  ingestion  or  by  inoculation. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  795 

SURRA.     ROT — continued. 

Prevent  by  giving  pure  water,  clean  grain  and  forage.  Treat  disease 
by  increasing  doses  of  arsenic,  Fowler's  solution,  cacodylates  or  atoxyl. 
Feed  liberally. 

SWINE  FEVERS.     SWINE  PLAGUES. 

Under  these  titles  are  grouped  two  specific  contagious  epizootic  fevers 
of  the  pig,  each  depending  on  its  special  microbe. 

(1)  Swine  fever  proper.  In  America  termed  hog  cholera.    A  contagious  and 
infectious  disease  of  the  pig,  associated  with  a  necrotic  and  ulcerative 
condition  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestine,  nearly  always 
most  marked  in  the  large  intestine.     The   large  intestine   exhibits 
'ringed5  patches  of  necrosis,  in  more  chronic  cases  nodular  eleva- 
tions ;  the  skin  discoloured.     The  incubation  stage  is  eight  to  ten 
days ;  the  mortality  40  to  50  per  cent.  ;  higher  among  young  pigs ; 
death  occurs  in  eight  to  sixteen  days.     Attacks  swine  of  all  ages  ; 
is  the  disease  of  which  the  British  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals) 
Act  takes  cognisance  ;  notification  compulsory. 

(2)  Swine  erysipelas.    Mai  rouge.    An  acute  septicaemia,  characterised  by 
erysipelatous  inflammation  of  the  skin,  which  at  first  is  bright  red, 
becoming  blue    or  brown-red.     The  gastro-intestinal  mucous  mem- 
brane is  acutely  inflamed,  the  spleen  is  enlarged,  there  is  generally 
nephritis  and  endocarditis,    but  no  pneumonia.      Incubation  stage 
three  to  four  days ;  swine  three  to  twelve  months  chiefly  affected  ; 
mortality  50  to  75  per  cent. 

Principles  of  prevention  and  treatment  the  same  in  both  forms. 
Slaughter,  or  deeply  bury  infected,  especially  first  cases.     Isolate  in- 

contacts.     Disinfect. 
In  erysipelas  form,  vaccination  with  attenuated  virus  (although  causing 

mortality  of  1  or  2  per  cent.)  is  stated  to  render  most  subjects  immune 

for  a  year. 

SYNOVITIS. 

Inflammation  of  a  synovial  membrane  from  injury,  puncture,  or  local- 
isation of  rheumatism  or  tuberculosis.  See  also  ARTHRITIS. 

Fomentations  or  swathing  the  joints  with  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water, 
persisted  with  for  some  hours,  parts  afterwards  rubbed  with  soap  lini- 
ment and  laudanum. 

Anatomical  rest  may  be  helped  by  splints  and  bandages. 

Slings  where  hock  or  other  large  joint  of  horse's  hind  limb  affected. 

If  not  relieved  in  a  few  days,  blister  ;  fire  in  chronic  cases. 

Mercury  oleate  in  rheumatic  and  tubercular  cases,  which  are  specially 
intractable.  Internally  give  potassium  iodide,  salicylates,  alkalies. 

TAPEWORMS.     T&mjE.     See  WORMS. 

TEATS,  OBSTRUCTED. 

The  teats  of  cows  and  ewes  are  obstructed  by  curdled  milk,  calculi, 
tumours  attached  to  mucous  membrane,  inflammatory  thickening, 
or  stricture. 

Where  not  removable  by  careful  manipulation,  concretions  may  be  dis- 
placed or  broken  up  by  bougie  or  teat  syphon. 
Tumours   within  the  teat    not    reducible   by  mechanical    means    are 

excised. 

Warts  on  the  teats  removed  by  scissors  or  ligature. 
Inflammation  treated  by  fomentations  and  poultices  of  spent  hops. 
Stricture,  usually  a  sequel  to  inflammation,  relieved  by  passing  probe, 
syphon,  or  teat  bistoury. 

TENDONS  OR  LIGAMENTS,  RUPTURED. 

Occurs  chiefly  in  horses.     See  also  SPRAINS. 
Fomentations  allay  inflammation. 


796  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

TENDONS  OR  LIGAMENTS,  RUPTURED — continued. 

Treat  as  for  fractured  bones  ;  keep  parts  perfectly  quiescent. 

Splints,  starch  or  plaster  bandages,  slings. 

When  inflammation  moderated  stimulate  externally. 

TETANUS. 

Lockjaw.  Tonic  muscular  spasms  depending  on  a  toxin,  produced  by 
an  anaerobic  bristle-shaped  microbe.  This  organism  is  found  in  many 
soils,  is  inoculable  from  animal  to  animal ;  when  brought  into  con- 
tact with  a  part,  especially  if  bruised  or  injured,  it  produces  its 
tetanising  toxin,  which  acts  like  strychnine  on  the  spinal  cord. 
Horses  and  sheep  are  most  susceptible,  cattle,  swine,  and  dogs  less 
susceptible. 

There  is  hope  of  recovery  if  the  amount  of  toxin  circulated  is  limited, 
if  its  production  by  attention  to  the  wound  can  be  arrested,  and  the 
patient's  strength  sustained. 

The    infected   wound   when  apparent  must    be  rendered   aseptic ;    if 

closed,  may  be  opened,  cauterised,  disinfected,  or  when  practicable, 

excised.     In  lambs  and  other  young  animals  cleanse  and  disinfect  the 

navel  cord. 

Although  the  jaws  are  closed,  most  patients  suck  up  sloppy  food,  which 

is  rendered  as  nutritive  as  possible  and  offered  frequently. 
Action  of  bowels  encouraged  by  mashes,  gruel,  treacle,  and  salines  in 

drinking  water,  which  should  be  within  reach. 
Place  horse  in  darkened  box,  where  he  will  not  be  disturbed  ;  slings  may 

be  required. 
Medicines  are  of  little  avail.     Bromides,  prussic  acid,  and  chloral  afford 

temporary  relief,  especially  where  excitement  considerable. 
Powdered  opium  and   cannabis  indica  extract,   thirty  grains  each  in 

electuary,  placed  thrice  daily  within  the  cheek. 

Occasional  administration  of  chloroform  relaxes  spasms  for  a  time,  and 
may  enable  food  to  be  swallowed ;  but  this  advantage  in  some 
patients  may  be  counterbalanced  by  the  irritation  caused  by  giving 
the  anaesthetic. 

Tetanus  antitoxin  renders  rabbits,  mice,  sheep,  and  horses,  resistant  to 
the  inoculation  of  toxic  doses  of  virus  ;  but  as  a  curative  its  value  is 
doubtful.  Further  trial  desirable.  (See  pp.  7,  697.) 

TEXAS  FEVER.     See  PIROPLASMOSIS. 

THICK  WIND  IN  HORSES. 

May  be  due  to  thickening  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  bronchial  tubes, 

or  imperfect  power  of  emptying,  the  air-cells  (emphysema). 
Seldom  curable,  but  relieved  by  good,  rather  concentrated,  damped  food, 

and  regular  exercise. 

Allow  water  in  moderate  quantity  frequently. 
Believe  gastro-intestinal  irregularity. 

THOROUGH-PIN  or  THE  HOCK. 

A  bursal  enlargement  on  the  lateral  aspect  of  the  horse's  hock,  arising 
from  disease  of  the  sheath  of  the  flexor  pedis  perforans  tendon,  or, 
when  co-existing  with  bog  spavin,  from  dropsy  of  the  true  hock 
joint.     Generally  more  unsightly  than  troublesome. 
Rest,  high-heeled  shoe,  flannel  bandages. 
Equable  pressure  from  a  spring  truss. 

Where  the  swelling  is  not  thus  reduced  apply  a  blister  or  fire  in  lines. 
Other  treatment  failing,  the  distended  bursa  may  be  aspirated. 
Thorough-pin  of  the  knee  consists  in  distension  of  the  sheath  containing 
the  perforatus  and  perforans  tendons  at  the  back  of  the  knee-joint. 
Generally  caused  by  injury  ;  lameness  well  marked. 
Treated  similarly  to  thorough-pin  of  the  hock ;  fomentations,  and  later 
by  mild  blister. 


IISTDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  797 

THROMBOSIS. 

Coagulation  of  blood  in  a  vein  or  artery ;  causing  partial  or  complete 

obstruction. 
Absolute  rest,  in  order  to  diminish  risk  of  a  portion  of  clot  being  detached 

and  obstructing  circulation  in  the  brain  or  pulmonary  vessels. 
When  affecting  main  artery  of  a  limb  causes  intermittent  lameness, 

which  is  incurable. 
The  oedema  frequently  resulting  is  abated  by  carefully  applied  bandages. 

THRUSH  IN  MOUTH.     See  APHTHA. 

THRUSH  IN  HORSE'S  FROG. 

A  foetid  discharge  from  the  cleft  of  the  frog. 
A  leather  sole  is  sometimes  placed  under  the  shoe,  while  the  animal  is 

stabled,  to  keep  the  frog  dry. 
Cleanse  and  disinfect  cleft. 

Calomel  dusted  over  diseased  surface  ;  dressings  of  tar  or  wood-tar  oil. 
Regulate  feeding,  exercise,  or  work. 
Shoe  with  tips  if  feet  strong  and  animal  works  chiefly  on  land. 

TICKS. 

Belong  to  the  family  Ixodidse,  order  Acarina. 

They  have  been  proved  responsible  for  the  transmission  of  certain 

diseases  caused  by  blood  parasites. 

Ixodes  ricinus  and  /.  hexagonus  attack  dogs,  cattle,  sheep,  deer  and 
horses,  and  Hcemaphysalis  punctata  attacks  cattle.  The  parasite  of 
Redwater  or  bovine  paraplasmosis  is  conveyed  from  diseased  to 
healthy  cattle  by  /.  ricinus,  H.  punctata  (United  Kingdom),  Rhipi- 
cephalus  annulatus  (U.S.A.),  Rh.  decoloratus  and  others  (South 
Africa),  Rh.  Australia  or  Scrubtick  (Australia).  Other  ticks  known 
to  carry  disease-producing  germs  are  : — Rh.  Evertsi  (equine  biliary 
fever),  Rh.  bursa  (ovine  piroplasmosis),  Rh.  appendiculatus  (East 
Coast  fever),  Hcumaphy  satis  Leachi  (canine  piroplasmosis),  Ambly- 
omma  hebrceum  (Heart-water  of  cattle  and  sheep),  Rh.  simus,  Rh. 
capensis,  Hyalomma  ^Egyptium,  and  Argas  reftexus,  which  attacks 
birds. 

Destroy  by  volatile  oils  ;  by  smearing,  spraying,  or  dipping. 
When  not  numerous  may  be  picked  off,  or  snipped  with  scissors. 
Bath  of  arsenic,  potashes,  soft  soap  and  water. 

Dress  with  wood-tar,  coal-tar,  or  petroleum  oils,  or  3  per  cent,  creolin 
solution. 

TINEA  TONSURANS.     TRICHOPHYTOSIS.    See  RINGWORM. 

TOOTHACHE. 

Usually  results  from  caries,  attacking  chiefly  the  molar  teeth. 
Extract  diseased  tooth  with  forceps  ;  when  this  cannot  be  done,  in  the 

horse,  the  jaw  may  be  trephined  and  tooth  punched  out. 
In  dogs,  freely  moisten  gum  with  tannin  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  ether, 
or  with  morphine  solution ;  or  after  scraping  and  disinfection,  stop 
carious  tooth  with  dental  amalgam. 

TREAD. 

A  bruise  of  the  horse's  coronet,  usually  caused  by  the  opposite  foot,  or 

by  another  horse.     See  BRUISE. 

Scarification,  medicated  fomentation,  antiseptic  dressings. 
If  sloughing  occur,  apply  antiseptics  and  bandages. 

TUBERCULOSIS. 

A  specific  disease  caused  by  the  bacillus  tuberculosis,  which  develops 

irritation  either  directly  or  by  formation  of  toxins,  or  in  both  ways. 

The  disease  is  distinctly  contagious.     The  bacillus  of  one  mammal 

multiplies  in  the  bodies  of  other  mammals  ;  dogs  have  been  infected 


798  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

TUBERCULOSIS — continued. 

by  the  sputa  of  consumptive  human  patients  ;  the  milk  from  tuber- 
culous cows  has  infected  calves  and  pigs,  and  probably  children.     It 
is  doubtful  if  the  bacillus  of  avian  tuberculosis  is  a  distinct  species. 
Tuberculosis  occurs  in  man  and  all  the  domesticated  animals  ;  cattle, 
swine,  and  poultry  are  most  frequently  affected  ;  horses  stand  next ; 
sheep  and  goats  are  not  so  susceptible  ;  dogs  and  cats  still  less  so. 
The  tubercule  may  be  (1)  localised  in  particular  organs,  or  (2)  general- 
ised, affecting  several  systems,  their  serous  membranes  and  lym- 
phatic glands. 

Tuberculosis  of  the  lungs.     Pulmonary  consumption  is  the  prominent 

form  in  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  cattle,  dogs,  and  cats  attacked. 

Tubercule  of  the  mesenteric  glands,  the  spleen,  and  liver,  is  the  form 

most  common  in  horses,  pigs,  and  poultry. 

Tuberculosis  of  the  mammary  gland  of  the  cow  begins  as  a  slowly 
developing  diffused  induration  of  one  quarter  of  the  udder ;  the 
milk  becomes  thin  or  watery  and  of  a  blue  tint. 

Tubercular  arthritis,  common  in  human  patients,  is  not  so  frequent  in 
the  lower  animals,  but  sometimes  attacks  the  spinal,  knee,  hock, 
digital  and  other  joints  of  cattle  and  horses. 
Preventive    more    important    than    curative  treatment.       Test  with 

tuberculin. 

Affected  animals  isolated.     No  suspects  used  for  breeding. 
Milk  from  cows  with  tuberculous  udders  or  generalised  tuberculosis 
frequently  contains  the  bacillus,  and  is  more  likely  than  the  flesh  to 
communicate  disease. 
Milk  from  affected  subjects  should  not  be  used ;  that  from  suspects 

should  be  boiled  before  use. 

Carcases  showing  generalised  tubercule  to  be  destroyed. 
Diseased  carcases  or  organs  burned  or  deeply  buried. 
Animals  in  earlier  stages  stalled  by  themselves  in  airy,  comfortable 

quarters,  and  fattened. 

Antiseptic  inhalations  relieve  bronchial  irritation. 

Tonics,  alcoholic  stimulants,  iodine,  creosote,  and  antiseptics  relieve 
some  of  the  symptoms. 

TYMPANITES.    See  HOVEN  and  FLATULENT  COLIC. 
UDDER,  INFLAMMATION  OF.     See  MAMMITIS. 

ULCERS. 

A  breach  of  continuity  with  destruction  of  tissue,  leaving  an  indented 
wound,  dry  or  suppurating.    Ulcers  are  classified  as  Simple,  Weak, 
Indolent,  Inflamed,  and  Specific. 
Simple  ulcers  discharge  thick  pus,  and  if  kept  aseptic  and  free  of 

irritation,  they  heal  quickly  by  granulation. 
Weak  or  ozdematous  ulcers  require  mild  astringent  dressings. 

Dust  with  calomel.     Paint  with  solution  silver  nitrate  (5  per 

cent.). 

A  bandage,  where  it  can  be  used,  affords  equable  healthy  pressure. 
Easily  digestible  nourishing  diet ;  the  patient  should  have  suit- 
able exercise. 
Indolent  or  callous  ulcers  should  have  their  hard  edges  excised  or 

cauterised,   and    then    be    dressed  with    antiseptics,   iodine, 

calomel,  or  iodoform. 

Pot.  iodide  sometimes  benefits.     A  purgative  generally  useful. 
Inflamed  ulcers  require  removal  of  any  irritant,  with  medicated 

fomentation,  and  boric  acid  or  mild  astringent. 
Where  there  is  necrosis  use  antiseptics  freely. 
Purgative,  and  digestible  cooling  diet. 
Specific,  occurring  in  tuberculosis,  glanders,  actinomycosis,  and 

cancer  ;  also  caused  by  necrosis  bacillus. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  799 

ULCERS— continued. 

Pare  or  scrape  away  unhealthy  tissue. 

Apply  iodoform,  iodine,  carbolic,  and  other  antiseptics  ;  actual 

cautery. 

Glanders  ulcers  should  not  be  treated. 
URINARY  DEPOSITS.     See  CALCULI. 
URTICARIA. 

Surfeit ;  Nettle-rash.     An  evanescent  erythema  of  the  skin,  occasion- 
alty  of  the  mucous  membranes,  with  circumscribed,  itching,  serous 
elevations  ;  usually  appearing  and  disappearing  with  equal  rapidity. 
Not  infrequent  in  horses,  dogs,  and  pigs  ;  rare  in  cattle  or  sheep. 
Purgative  medicine  ;  damp  the  skin  repeatedly  with  an  alkaline  solution. 
When  rash  persists  or  recurs  give  antacids  ;  attend  to  diet  and  cleanli- 
ness of  clothing,  avoid  washing  with  cold  water. 

URETHRITIS. 

Catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  urethra  ;  discharge  containing  bacteria. 
Prepuce  and  surface  of  penis  may  be  affected.  Not  uncommon  in 
dogs  and  bulls  ;  contagious. 

Copper  sulphate,  zinc  chloride,  or  silver  nitrate  injected  in  dilute  warm 
solution,  2  to  5  grains  to  an  ounce  of  water,  sol.  resorcin  2  to  3 
per  cent. 

Thorough  cleanliness.     Diluents  ;  alkalies. 
Copaiba  and  eucalyptus  are  useful  anodynes  and  antiseptics. 
Prevent  occlusion  by  cautious  introduction  of  clean  catheter. 
Persistent  obstruction  from  inflammation  or  gravel  in  male  sometimes 
requires  perineal  opening.     See  URINARY  CALCULI. 

UTERUS,  INFLAMMATION  OF.     See  METRITIS. 
VAGINITIS. 

Infective  inflammation  of  mucous  membrane  of  vagina,  sometimes 
extending  to  uterus ;  a  frequent  cause  of  sterility  and  abortion  ; 
contagious  ;  occurs  in  all  females. 

Isolate  affected  animals,  disinfect  cowsheds,  loose  boxes,  and  attendants. 
Irrigate  vagina  with  antiseptic  solutions,  corrosive  sublimate,  protargol, 

lysoform,  or  lysol. 
Disinfect  sheath  of  bull  that  has  served  affected  cow  ;  repeat  disinfection 

after  each  service,  using  warm  solution  of  lysol  (two  per  cent). 
Cows    affected   with    metritis   should    be   fattened  ;    cows    that    have 
recovered  should  be  disinfected  before  service  ;  sol.  soda  bicarb. 

VARIOLA  OVINA. 

Sheep-pox.  A  contagious,  inoculable,  eruptive  fever,  probably  depend- 
ing upon  a  microbe.  The  incubation  stage  four  to  seven  days. 
Papules  appear,  passing  into  vesicles  and  pustules.  The  mortality 
ranges  from  10  to  20  per  cent.,  but  is  greater  in  the  confluent 
malignant  form  occasionally  occurring.  Animals  attacked  are  sub- 
sequently immune.  Goats,  swine,  and  dogs  have  been  infected. 

Infected  and  in-contact  subjects  should  be  slaughtered,  and  the 
measures  adopted  in  other  contagious  diseases  rigorously  carried  out. 

As  the  disease  runs  a  definite  course,  treatment  consists  in  good 
nursing  and  guarding  against  complications. 

Inoculation  of  healthy  sheep  with  attenuated  virus  is  not  desirable, 
for  the  attack  produced  is  distinctly  contagious,  rather  severe,  and 
the  mortality  averages  2  per  cent. 

Variola  vaccina,  or  cow-pox,  results  from  accidental  retro-vaccination 
from  recently  vaccinated  human  patients,  and  similar  eruptions 
in  like  manner  occur  in  swine  and  occasionally  in  dogs. 

A  variola  equina  may  be  similarly  produced,  but  the  conditions 
described  as  horse-pox  are  not  variolous,  and  appear  to  be  pustular 
stomatitis  and  eruptions  on  the  genital  mucous  membrane  (Frohner, 
Trasbot). 


800  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

VERTIGO  IN  HORSE.     See  MEGRIMS. 

VILLITIS. 

Coronitis.    Inflammation  of  the  coronary  substance  in  horses.    Occurs 
from  standing  in  cold  water  or  snow.     Prevails  in  America  among 
horses  grazed  on  alkaline  marshes,  where  secretion  of  crust  checked 
or  arrested,  and  hoof  sometimes  gradually  separates. 
Remove  shoes  ;   antiseptic  fomentations  and  a  laxative  abate  inflam- 
mation. 

Stimulate  coronet  with  a  mild  blister  so  soon  as  inflammation  removed. 
Where  even  one  hoof  is  undergoing  separation  the  horse  for  months 
requires  attention. 

VOLVULUS. 

Ileus.     Twist  of  bowel.     Affects  small,  occasionally  large,  intestine 

of  horse. 

Cannot  be  rectified  by  medical  treatment,  but  laparotomy,  if  under- 
taken early,  may  be  successful.  Rectal  exploration  useful  in  twisted 
large  colon. 

WARBLES  IN  CATTLE. 

Cystlike  swellings  on  the  back  due  to  the  presence  of  the  larvae  of  the 

Hypoderma  bovis  or  warble-fly. 

To  prevent,  before  turning  cattle  out,  smear  their  backs  once  or 
twice  during  summer,  with  Stockholm  tar.  The  larvse  can  be  removed 
from  the  skin  by  squeezing  the  swellings.  Similar  warbles  occur 
sometimes  in  horses  at  pasture. 

WARTS. 

Verrucse.     Excrescences  on  the  skin  formed  by  hypertrophy  of  the 
papillae  and  epidermis.     Occur  in  all  veterinary  subjects :    most 
common  in  young  animals. 
Remove  by  excision,  torsion  or  ligature. 

Those  about  the  penis  liable  to  reappear  unless  their  site  is  cauterised. 
Acetic,  nitric,  and  chromic  acids,  and  silver  nitrate,  destroy  warts. 

WEED.    See  LYMPHANGITIS. 

WHISTLING  IN  HORSES.     See  ROARING. 

It  is  a  higher-pitched  sound  than  roaring,  and  is  manifested  chiefly  in 
the  lighter  breeds. 

WIND-GALLS. 

Distended  synovial  bursse  ;  articular  and  tendinous. 
Equable  pressure  by  flannel  or  wash-leather  bandages  ;  bandages  wetted 

with  white  lotion. 
Rest,  hand-rubbing,  blisters  or  firing ;  aseptic  aspiration.     Recurrence 

is  common. 

WITHERS,  FISTULOUS.    See  FISTULA  and  ABSCESS. 
WORMS. 

WORMS.   VERMES.    THE  ENTOZOA  MOST  FREQUENTLY  FOUND  INFESTING  THE 
DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  : — 

ROUND  AND  THREAD  WORMS.     NEMATODA. 

Ascaris  equorum,  intestine  and  stomach  of  horses. 
As.  vitulorum  or  calf  ascarid,  intestine  of  calves. 
As.  suis,  intestine  of  swine. 

As.  marginata  and  As.  mystax,  intestines  of  dogs  and  cats. 
Heterakis  papillosa  and  other  species,  intestines  of  fowls  and  pigeons. 
Trichinella  spiralis,  in  immature  form,  occurring  in  pork  or  bacon, 
which  when  eaten  causes  trichiniasis  in  man  and  animals. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  801 

WORMS — continued. 

Oxyuris  compar,  intestine  of  the  cat. 

Oxyuris  curvula  or  pin-worm,  rectum  of  horses. 

Oxyuris  mastigodes,  large  intestine  of  horses. 

(Esophagostomum  inflation,  large  intestine  of  cattle. 

Trichocephalus  affmis  or  whipworm,  large  intestine  of  ruminants. 

Trichocephalus  depressiusculus,  caecum  of  the  dog. 

Sclerostomum  equinum  or  palisade  worm,  intestine  and  blood-vessels  of 
horses. 

ScL  tetracanthum  or  four-spined  sclerostome,  large  intestine  of  horses. 

ScL  hypostomum,  intestine  of  ruminants. 

Spiroptera  megastoma,  wall  of  horse's  stomach. 

Sp.  strongylina,  stomach  of  pig. 

Sp.  sanguinolenta,  stomach  and  blood-vessels  (aorta)  of  the  dog. 

Sp.  microstoma,  stomach  of  the  horse  and  ass. 

Strongylus  Axei,  stomach  of  the  ass. 

St.  filicollisy   St.   vicarius,   and  St.  convolutus,  fourth   stomach   and 
intestine  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats. 

St.  contortus,  St.  cervicornis,  St.  gracilis,  and  other  species,  in  abomasum 
of  ruminants  ;  St.  gracilis  also  occurs  in  stomach  of  horse  and  pig. 

Ollulanus  tricuspis,  stomach  of  the  cat. 

Strongylus  strigosus,  stomach  of  the  rabbit  and  hare. 

St.  ventricosus,  small  intestine  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  deer. 

Strongyloides  longus,  intestine  of  sheep. 

Strongyloides  suis,  intestine  of  swine. 

Echinorhynchus  gigas,  small  intestine  of  swine. 

(Esophagostomum  dentatum,  caecum  and  colon  of  swine. 

Trichocephalus  crenatus,  intestine  of  swine. 

Anchylostomum  trigonocephalum  and  Anch.  stenocephalum,  intestine 
of  the  dog,  cat,  and  fox. 

Strongylus    micrurus  or  pointed-tailed  threadworm,  air-passages  of 
young  cattle  causing  husk  or  hoose. 

St.Jilaria,  bronchi  of  sheep,  goats,  deer,,  and  cattle. 

St.  rufescens,  bronchi  and  lungs  of  sheep  and  goats. 

St.  pulmonaris,  bronchi  of  calves. 

St.  Arnfieldi,  bronchi  of  horse  and  ass. 

St.  paradoxus,  bronchi  of  swine. 

St.  pusillus,  bronchi  of  cat. 

St.  commutatus,  causes  verminous  bronchitis  in  rabbit  and  hare. 

Syngamus  trachealis,  air-passages  of  poultry,  causing  'gapes.' 

Filaria  immitis,  heart  and  pulmonary  artery  of  dog. 

Strongylus  vasorum,  heart  and  blood-vessels  of  dog. 

Filaria  Medinensis  or  Guinea-worm,  subcutaneous  connective  tissue 
of  man,  dog,  ox,  and  horse. 

Filaria    hcemorrhagica,    subcutaneous    connective    tissue  of    horses, 

causing  haemorrhage  from  skin. 

In  horses  and  cattle,  aloes,  oil  of  turpentine,  bitters,  creolin,  lysol. 
Ferric  chloride  solution,  copper  sulphate,  arsenic,  salt  in  manger. 
For  dogs  and  cats,  santonin,  with  extract  of  male  fern,  repeated  at  in- 
tervals of  two  days,  and  second  dose  followed  by  laxative. 
For  worms  in  rectum,  enemas  of  weak  vinegar,  salt  solution,  infusion  of 

quassia,  or  creolin  solution. 
Strongyli  infested  horses  and  sheep  are  fasted,  and  receive  a  cathartic 

conjoined  with  oil  of  turpentine,  or  thymol. 
For  the  S.  contortus  in  sheep,  give  solution  of  lysol  (1  per  cent.). 
For  dogs  and  cats  santonin  and  male  fern  extract,  or  areca  nut  and 

linseed  oil. 
For  the  S.    micrurus  in  air-passages,  turpentine  in  drench,  or  intra- 

tracheally  for  two  or  three  consecutive  days. 

Sulphurous  or  chlorine  inhalations.     Liberal  concentrated  dietary. 
Remove  from  rough  old  pastures  to  seeds,  or  to  closely-cropped,  recently- 
mown  dry  grass  ;  house  calves  at  night. 


802  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

WORMS — continued. 

In  poultry,  the  tip  of  a  partially-stripped  feather,  introduced  into  the 

fauces  and  twisted  round  a  few  times,  usually  withdraws  some  of  the 

parasites. 
The  feather,  moistened  with  oil  of  turpentine  or  petroleum  and  similarly 

introduced,  destroys  many  worms.    Fumigation  with  tobacco. 

FLUKE-WORMS.     TREMATODA. 

Distomumhepaticum,  causing  liver-rot  in  sheep,  rabbits,  and  hares,  and 

occasionally  cattle. 

Furnish  affected  sheep  with  concentrated  dry  food. 
Common  salt  and  ferrous  sulphate  dissolved  in  water,  given  daily,  mixed 

with  bran  or  crushed  grain. 
To  prevent  affected  sheep  losing  condition  and  disseminating  the  disease 

slaughter  as  soon  as  possible. 
Keep  sound  sheep  from  pastures  on  which  affected  sheep  have  grazed, 

from   low-lying  wet   land,    or   from  grazings  with   stagnant   pools — 

situations  which  nurture  the  fluke  embryo,  and  the  fresh-water  snail 

which  constitutes  the  intermediary  host. 
Other  species  of  distomata  occur  in  the  liver  and  organs  of  sheep  and 

other  animals. 

TAPEWORMS.     T^NI^E.     CESTODA. 

Most  animals  infested  with  one  or  more  species,  in  their  mature  stage 

inhabiting  the  intestine. 

Anoplocephala  (tcenia) : — perfoliata,  plicata,  mamillana,  in  horse. 
Moniezia  (tcenia) : — expansa,  alba,  planissi?na,  in  cattle. 
Moniezia  (tcenia) : — expansa,  alba,  planissima,  trigonophora.    Benedeni, 

Neumanni ;  Stilesia  (tcenia)  centripunctata,  and  Stilesia  globipunc- 

tata;  Thysanosomum  actinioides  and  Th.  Giardi,  in  sheep. 
Tcenice: — serrata,  marginata,  Krabbei,  ccenurus,  serialis,  and  echino- 

coccus  ;  Dipylidium  caninum  ( T.  cucumerina),  Mesocestoides  lineattis  ; 

and  Bothriocephahis  latus  and  B.  cordatus,  in  the  dog. 
Davainea  cesticillus  (T.  infundibuliformis),  and  seven  other  teenise,  in 

poultry. 
The  measles  of  pork,  beef,  and  mutton  are  taeniaB  larvse,  found  chiefly 

in  the  muscles.     Each  produces  its  particulate  tapeworm. 
The  ccenurus  cerebralis,  the  hydatid  causing  sturdy  or  gid  in  sheep,  is  the 

encysted  larva  of  Tcenia  ccenurus,  and  attains  its  mature  form  in  the 

intestines  of  the  dog,  which    in  turn  disseminates  the  ova  which 

undergo  further  development  in  the  brain  of  the  sheep. 
Patients  should  be  fasted  twenty-four  hours  before  they  receive  the 

taaniacide. 

Horses  and  cattle,  eating  tolerably  clean  vegetable  food,  are  not  so  fre- 
quently infested  as  the  dog  or  pig,  are  given  oil  of  turpentine  and  male 
fern  extract  in  milk  for  two  or  three  consecutive  days,  and  after  the 
last  dose  a  cathartic. 

Dogs  swallow  the  larval  forms  of  ten  different  tsenise.     Treated  with 

areca  nut  ten  to  sixty  grains  (according  to  size),  aloes,  or  male  fern 

extract  ten  to  fifteen  minims,  given  with  oil,  syrup  of  buckthorn,  or 

mucilage  ;  dose  repeated  in  two  days. 

For  poultry,  areca  nut  five  to  thirty  grains,  repeated  in  two  or  three 

days,  followed  by  a  dose  of  oil. 

Taeniasis  prevented  by  isolating  and  curing  infested  subjects,  burning 
their  excreta,  and  preventing  animals  eating  uncooked  viscera  of 
sheep,  hogs,  rabbits,  or  other  animals  in  which  tsenia  larvae  are  liable 
to  occur. 

WOUNDS. 

A  wound  is  defined  as  a  breach  of  continuity  of  any  part  of  the  body. 
Wounds  may  be  open  or  subcutaneous.  The  open  are  classified  as 
Incised,  Punctured,  Lacerated,  Contused,  and  Poisoned. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  803 

WOUNDS — continued. 

Every  variety  requires  attention  to  the  following  conditions  : — 

(1)  Absolute  asepsis. 

(2)  Perfect  arrest  of  haemorrhage. 

(3)  Accurate  apposition  of  severed  parts. 

(4)  Physiological  and  mechanical  rest. 
To  secure  asepsis — 

Foreign  bodies,  grit,  sand,  etc.,  are  removed  from  accidental  wounds. 

Adjacent  skin  is  shaved  or  closely  clipped. 

In  wounds  of  soft  parts,  the  edges,  if  very  dirty  or  damaged,  are  carefully 

trimmed. 
The  wound  and  adjacent  parts  are  thoroughly  and  freely  washed  with 

an  effectual  germicide,  such  as— Carbolic  acid,  1  part  to  20  of  boiled 

water. 

Corrosive  sublimate  1  part,  common  salt  8  parts,  water  1000  to  2000. 
Zinc  chloride  1  part,  water  40  to  80  parts  ;  hydrogen  peroxide. 
When  wounds  are  inflicted  several  of  these  germicides  should  be  used  in 

succession. 
Wounds  may  be  dusted  with  a  dry  dressing  of  iodoform,  tannoform, 

zinc  oxide,  boric  acid,  or  chinosol ;  special  cases  with  dried  tetanus 

antitoxin. 
When  an  aseptic  state  has  been  secured,  less  powerful  agents  suffice  to 

maintain  it,  such  as  solutions  of  boric,  salicylic,  or  sulphurous  acid, 

or  chlorinated  soda. 
Large,  lacerated,  contused  wounds  are  provided  with  drainage,  a  piece 

of  rubber  tubing  being  introduced  into  the  deepest  part,  and  a  depen- 
dent opening  secured. 

Introduction  of  fermentable,    putrefactive,    or  infective  material    pre- 
vented by  covering  with  several  folds  of  antiseptic  lint,  cotton  wool, 

or  oakum. 
Antiseptic  precautions  to  be  further  observed  as  to  instruments,  hands 

of  operator,  etc. 
Haemorrhage  is  arrested  temporarily   by  application  of  a  tourniquet, 

permanently  by  ligature,  torsion,  pressure,  water  at  a  temperature 

of  about  120°  Fahr.,  styptics  or  cautery. 
Accurate  apposition  of  severed  parts  effected  by  careful  suturing  with 

aseptic  catgut,  horse-hair,  silk,  silver  wire,  etc. 
Physiological  rest  is  secured  by  analgesics  ;    belladonna   liniment  and 

tincture    equal   parts,    diluted   with   60   to    100   water.      Laudanum 

diluted  ;  morphine  hypodermically. 
Anatomical  rest  obtained  by  equable  pressure  of  dressings  and  bandages, 

support  of  splints  or  adhesives,  and  slinging,  of  the  larger  animals. 
Wounds  properly  dressed  and  going  on  satisfactorily  should  be  disturbed 

as  little   as   possible,    except   for   cleansing    and    replacing  external 

dressings  ;  there  need  be  no  hurry  in  removing  aseptic  sutures. 
If  a  wound  become  inflamed  or  painful,  the  dressings  must  be  removed, 

sutures  cut  out,  clots  or  other  irritants  removed,  the  wound  irrigated 

or  syringed  with  an  antiseptic,  and  redressed  as  before. 
Opium  and  belladonna  used,  with  fomentations  and  antiseptics,  when 

there  is  much  pain. 
Excessive  granulation  checked  by  pressure,  astringents,  occasional  use 

of  caustic,  and  exposure  to  the  air. 

Attention   to   state  of   bowels,    cooling   digestible   diet,  and  healthful 
surroundings  essential  to  successful  treatment. 


INDEX  OF  MEDICINES 


PAGE 

ABSINTHIN      .        -    .                    613 

Acid,  muriatic    . 

PAGE 

334 

Absinthol 

613 

nitric     .             .             . 

337 

Absorption  of  medicines 

27 

nitro-hydrochloric        ; 

338 

cutaneous 

30,  713 

oleic       .          .-  .             . 

346 

gastric 

27 

phenic  . 

408 

intestinal 

28 

phosphoric 

339 

respiratory 

29,  712 

picric     .             t     '        . 

339 

subcutaneous    . 

30,  713 

prussic  . 

429 

Abstracts         . 

721                 pyrogallic          .             400, 

647 

Acacia,  gum    . 
A.  C.  E.  anaesthetic  mixture 

654                 pyroligneous     .             « 
76  \              salicylic 

342 

565 

Acetanilide 

398  i               strychnic 

503 

Acetate  of  ammonia    . 

171 

sulpho-carbolic 

418 

copper  . 

247 

sulphuric 

329 

lead       . 

234 

sulphurous 

332 

morphine 

470 

tannic   . 

645 

potash  . 

188 

tartaric 

344 

zinc 

242 

tartrate  of  potash 

188 

Acetates 

342 

valerianic 

596 

Acetic  acid      .            . 

342 

Acids   . 

325 

ether 

367 

general  actions 

327 

Acetophenone 

388 

Acoine              .             .             ». 

527 

Acetopyrine     . 

398 

Aconite 

546 

Acetozone 

407  i              experiments  with 

549 

Acid,  acetic 

342                extract  of 

552 

aconitic 

547                Fleming's  tincture 

552 

arabic    . 

654 

poisoning 

549 

arsenious 

271 

Aconitine 

547 

benzoic 

649 

Acorns 

575 

boric  or  boracic 

346 

Actions  of  medicines  explained 

25 

cacodylic 

283 

how  modified    . 

27 

camphoric 

630 

local  and  general         •« 

26 

carbolic 

408 

physiological     . 

25 

carbonic 

341 

in  different  patients     . 

32 

chromic 

340 

on  cattle 

33 

citric 

345 

on  dogs 

34 

crotonoleic 

453 

on  horses 

33 

ergot  inic         ". 

620 

on  pigs           .   ; 

35 

formic   . 

348 

on  sheep             .            *r- 

34 

gallic     . 

645 

on  the  bladder 

127 

gentianic 

571 

on  the  brain 

67 

glycerophosphoric 

307 

on  the  circulation 

94 

hydrobromic     . 

341 

on  the  digestive  system  99- 

115 

hydrochloric     . 

334 

on  the  eye 

88 

hydrocyanic     . 

429 

on  the  organs  of  generation  130 

igasuric  or  strychnic 

503 

on  the  intestines 

107 

lactic    . 

344 

on  the  liver 

115 

meconic 

468                on  the  mammary  glands 

131 

804 


INDEX    OF  MEDICINES 


805 


PAGE 

Actions  of  medicines  on  muscle        63 

on  the  nervous  system  66 

on  the  nerves    .  .           85 

on  respiration  .  .           89 

on  the  skin       .  .         121 

on  the  spinal  cord  .          82 

on  the  stomach  .         101 

on  tissue  change  .         133 

on  the  urinary  organs  .         124 

Actions  of  volatile  oils  .         589 

Activity  of  antiseptics  .          44 

Actol   .             .             .  .251 

Actual  cautery            .  .    .       58 

Acupuncture  .          ...  .          58 

Adeps,  hog's  lard        .  .         679 

induratus          .  .         681 

lanee      .             .  .         681 

Adhesives        .         233,  234,  685,  729 

Adjuvants       .             .  .701 

Administration  of  medicines  700,  704 

Adrenalin        .            .  .681 

Adulterations              .  „        701 

^Egyptiacum  ointment  .         247 

JErugo              .             .  .247 

yEther              .         ,..  ..        363 

acetic     .             .  .         367 

chloric  .  .         379 

nitrous .            .  .         368 

sulphuric           .  .         363 

^Etheris  nitrosi  spiritus  .         368 

Age  of  patients            .  .          35 

Airol    .            .            .  .225 

Akazga,  African  ordeal  plant         504 

Alcohol            .            .  .352 

absolute            .  .         352 

amylic  .  *..,.''.         354 

ethylic.            ..  .355 

methylic            .  .         353 

90  per  cent.      .  .         352 

70    „       ,,  .         353 

60    ,,       „         .  .         353 

45    „       „  .         353 

20    „       „         ..  .         353 

poisoning          .  .         359 

Aldehyde         .             .  .352 

Ale       .             .             .  .         354 

Alkalies,  general  actions  173,  174 

Alkaloids         .             .  .701 

Allopathy        ...  38 

Allspice            .            .  :  .         582 

Aloe,  characters  of     .  .         437 

Aloes,  Barbados          .  .        437 

Cape      .             .  .438 

comparative  effects  .         440 

East  Indian      .  .         438 

Natal    .             .  .438 

Socotrine           .  .         438 

solutions  of       »  .         445 

tinctures  of      .  .         445 

Aloetic  masses  444 


PAGR 

Aloin    .  .  .  .445 

experiments  with,         446,  447 
Alphol  .  .  .404 

Alteratives,  138,  181,  201,  247,  278, 

296,  315,  319,  324. 

Althsea  radix  .  .         652 

Alum  (ammonia)  .         220 

(potash)  .         221 

Alumen  exsiccatum  .         223 

Aluminium  chloride  .         223 

sulphate  220,  223 

Ammonia  alum  »  .         220 

Ammoniacum  gum  .         587 

Ammoniated  mercury  .         301 

tincture  of  quinine       .         565 

Ammonium  and  its  compounds        165 

acetate .  .171 

bromide  .         172 

carbonate  .         169 

chloride  .         165 

liquor    .  .         166 

spirit  of  .         167 

Amygdalin      .  f          .         429 

Amylene  hydrate  .         388 

Amyl-nitrite    .  .         389 

alcohol  .  .354 

Amyloform      .  .         392 

Amyloiodoform  .         392 

Amylum,  wheat-flour  .         662 

Analgesics  (Anodynes),  71,  309,  341, 

379,  381,  385,  395,  396,  398,  401, 

405,  480,  493,  500,  517,  521,  522, 

524,  534,  551,  557,  570. 

Anaphrodisiacs  .         131 

Anaphylaxis    .        ......          .  20 

Anaesthesia      .  76,  78,  79 

intraspinal 

narcosis  .  80 

Anaesthetics,    .  74,  376,  380 

administration  .  79 

local,       75,  366,  426,  526,  527, 

528,  529. 

Anethol  .  .  .590 

Anhydrotics    .  .  .123 

Anise,  seed      .  .  .589 

oil          ...         590 

Anodynes  (see  Analgesics)       71,  309, 

341,  379,  381,  385,  401,  405,  480, 

493,  522,  534. 

Antacids,    102,    168,    170,    179,    191, 

205,  207,  212,  225,  291. 

Anthelmintics  (see  Vermicides)  117, 

245,  258,  270,  279,  296,  339.  349, 

396,  425,  443,  460,  600,  604. 

Anthemidis  flores        .  .         595 

Antidotes        .  .     144,  145,  146 

Antifebrin       .  .  .398 

Antilithics       .  .„    -        .         128 

Antimony  and  its  compounds         262 

chloride  .         264 


806 


INDEX    OF  MEDICINES 


PAGE 

Antimony,  oxide         .  .         263 

sulphide  .  .         263 

tartarised        ' .  .          .         265 

wine  of  .  .271 

Antiparasitics  (see  Insecticides),  192, 

194,  223,  272,  321,  322,   333,  396, 

402,403,409,416,421,424,648,651. 

Antipathy       ...  39 

Antiperiodics  .  .  .  54 

Antipyretics,  141,  142,  171,  181,  216, 

344,  345,  396,  398,  404,  405,  406, 

407,  650. 

Antipyretics,  general  actions,         141 

Antipyrine       .  .  .         396 

Antiseptics,  42,  44,  46,  160,  185,  192, 

194,  197,  203,  209,  221,  223,  224, 

240,  241,  251,  252,  262,  279,  298, 

302,  312,  315,  333,  336,  347,  360, 

386,  388,  391,  393,  395,  399,  400, 

401,  403,  405,  407,  409,  413,  418, 

423,  432,  529,  562,  568,  592,  609, 

635,  637,  653. 

Antiseptics,  general  actions       42,  46 
intestinal,  213,  225,  226,  345, 
393,  400,  401,  402,  403,  424, 
425,  418,  419,  648. 

Antiseptic  compresses  .         708 

surgery  .  .    46,  47 

Antisialics        .  .  .100 

Antispasmodics,    72,    360,   365,    369, 

379,  380,  383,  385,  389,  487,  500, 

521,  587,  592,  594,  596. 

Antistreptococcic  serum          .         698 

Antitoxins       .  .  .        5,  6 

Antitoxin  treatment  .  .  6 

Antizymotics  ...  42 

Aperients  (see  Laxatives)        108,  323 


Aphrodisiacs   .  .     130,  617,  619 

Apomorphine  hydrochloride  .         470 

Apothecaries'  weights,  etc.    .         734 

Aqua    .  .  .  .         152 

camphorse          .  .         633 

chloroform!       .-  .         379 

fortis     .  .  337 

regia      .  .  .'338 

Arabin  ,-  .  .654 

Arbutin  .  .         545 

Areca  catechu  .  .         611 

Areca-nut         .  .  .611 

Arecoline  hydrobromide         .         611 

Argentum  colloidale  .  .         251 

Argenti  nitras  ,  .         248 

Argentol  .  -.  .         251 

Argol  or  crude  tartar  .         188 

Argonin  .  .  .,         252 

Aristol  .  .-  .428 

Arnica  .•  .-          • .         588 

Arnicin  .  .•  .         588 

Aromatic  carbon  compounds .         394 

oils  '  ,         589 


PAGK 

Arrhenal          .             .  .284 

Arrowroot       .             .  .         663 

Arsenic  and  its  compounds  .         271 

antidotes           .  .         277 

poisoning          .  .         275 

Arsenical  sheep-dips  .  .         279 

solutions            .  .         283 

Arsenious  acid             .  .         271 

Artemisia  absinthium  ;  .         612 

maritima       .    .  .         612 

Asafcetida        .             .  .         586 

Ascarides         .             .  .-       119 

Aseptic  suture  twist  .  .         418 

Aseptol             .             .  .         418 

Aspidium  filix-mas      .  .         616 

Aspirin             .  .         570 

Astringents,  60,  205,  207,  209,  221, 

223,  225,  232,  235,  238,  239,  242, 

245,  247,  249,  262,  330,  643,   645, 

647. 

Atoxyl              .            .-  <  *      284 

Atropa  belladonna      .  .         486 

Atropine          .            .'  486,  496 

Autumn  crocus             .•  .         627 

Avoirdupois  weight    .  .         734 

Axunge  or  hog's  lard  .  .         679 

BACTERIA         .            .  .  3, 9,  14 

Bacterial  invasion       .  .           15 

products             .  5,  18,  19 

Bactericides  (see  also  Antiseptics  and 

Germicides),  42,  46,  48,  261,   252, 

|      283,  284,  402,  407,  409,  422,  426, 

653. 

Bacteriology    . 
Balls  or  boluses 
Ball  mass 
Balsam,  Canada 

Friar's  . 

of  Gilead 

of  Peru . 

of  Tolu . 
Balsams 

Balsamodendron  myrrha 
Barbados  aloes 


tar 

!  Barbaloin 
;  Barium  chloride 
Bark,  cinchona 

oak 

|  Barley 

j  Barley  sugar    . 
\  Barm    . 

!  Bassorin  .  ,  • 

Baths  . 

cold       . 

hot 

medicated 

sponge  . 

vapour  or  Turkish 


3 

703 
703 
599 
650 
599 
651 
651 
651 
580 

437,  442 
436 

.  446 
218 
558 
574 
652 
666 
653 
655 
704 
704 
705 
705 
706 
705 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


807 


Bearberry  leaves 
Beer     . 
Beeswax 
Belladonna 

compared  with  opium 
poisoning 
preparations     . 
Benzin — petroleum  spirit 
Benzene 

Benzene  or  benzol  series 
Benzoated  lard 
Benzoates 
Benzo-naphthol 
Benzoic  acid    . 
Benzoin 

compound  tincture  of 
Beta-naphthol 
Betel-nut 
Betol    . 
Bhang  . 
Bicarbonate  of  potash 

soda 
Bile      . 
Bismuth  salts  . 
Bismuth  benzoate 

beta-naphthol  . 
dithio-  salicy  late 
liquor    . 
oxide     . 
oxycarbonate    . 
oxy-iodo-gallate 
oxynitrate 
salicylate 
subgallate 
tribromophenol 
Bisulphate  of  potash  . 
Bitters,  440,  448,  508,  545,  563,  571, 

573. 
Black  alder      . 

bone  or  ivory    . 
sugar     .  '. 

wash 

Black-quarter  vaccine 
Bladder,    urinary,    drugs   acting   on, 
127,  129,  395,  400,  • 
406,  41 1,420,  494, 54£ 
Blast  furnace  oils 
Bleaching  powder 

Blisters  (see   also  Counter-irritants), 
59,  270,  289,  290,  303,  455,  669. 

application  of  . 
Blood-letting  . 
topical  . 
Blue  pill 

ointment 
Prussian 
stone 
vitriol   . 

Boluses,  how  made,  etc. 
mass  for 


PAGE 

545 

Bone  or  ivory  black     . 

PAGE 

350 

354 

Boracic  acid     . 

346 

694 

Borax  .... 

192 

486 

Boric  acid 

346 

489 

Borneo  camphor 

630 

489 

Boro-chloretone 

386 

495 

Boro-glyceride              .              348, 

688 

395 

Bots  in  horses  . 

118 

395 

Brain,  medicines  acting  on     . 

67 

394 

Brandy             . 

354 

650,  680 

Brayera 

615 

649 

Bryonia 

459 

404 

Brimstone 

321 

649 

British  gum     . 

655 

649 

Bromide  of  ammonium 

308 

650 

potassium 

308 

403 

sodium  . 

309 

611 

strontium 

309 

404 

zinc 

310 

499 

Bromides      c  . 

308 

,        177 

Bromine 

308 

190 

Bromism 

309 

116 

Bromol 

310 

224 

Broom 

544 

224 

Brucine  or  brucia 

503 

225 

Buckthorns 

448 

226                syrup  of 

448 

225 

Buchu  .... 

545 

224 
224 

Burgundy  pitch 
Burnett's  disinfecting  liquid  . 

600 
241 

225 

Burning 

51 

224 

Butter  of  antimony     . 

264 

224 

zinc 

241 

225 

Butyl-chloral  hydrate 

385 

225 

Buxine 

546 

181 

563,  571, 

CACODYLATE  of  soda   . 

283 

of  iron  . 

283 

448 

Cacodylic  acid 

283 

350 

Cade,  oil  of 

593 

662 

Caffeine 

497 

292 

citrate  .            .             497 

,498 

.         697 
cting   on, 

Cajuput 
Calabar  bean  . 

591 
511 

403,  405, 

Calabarine 

571 

,650,671. 

Calcined  magnesia 

212 

409 

Calcii  carbonas 

206 

209 

Calcium  and  its  compounds    . 

203 

irritants), 

oxide  of 

204 

5,  669. 

carbonate 

206 

60 

chlorata 

209 

142 

chloride 

211 

144 

phosphate          ,    ' 

208 

291 

Calisaya  bark  . 

559 

288 

Calomel 

292 

429 

Calumba  bark 

573 

244 

Calvert's  disinfecting  powder 

409 

244 

Calx  chlorinata 

209 

703 

Camphor 

630 

703 

artificial 

630 

808 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


PAGE 

Camphor,  Borneo        ,  .         630 

compound  liniment      .         633 

oil                      .  .         632 

monobromata  .  .         631 

spirit     .             .  .         633 

Camphorated  oil      .  .  .         633 

Camphoric  acid           .  .         630 

Camphors        .             .  .630 

Canada  balsam        -    .  .         599 

Cane  sugar       .             .  .         666 

Cannabin         .             .  .499 

Cannabis  indica           .  .         499 

Cantharides     .             .  .669 

liniments  of      .  .         676 

ointments  of     .  .         675 

plasters  of         .  .         676 

tinctures  of      .  .         675 

vinegars  of        .  .         675 

Cantharidin     .             .  ...       660 

Cantharis  vesicatoria .  .         669 

Capsaicin         .           '.;  .         583 

Capsicum         .             .  .         583 

Caraway           .             .  .591 

Carbo  animalis            .  .         350 

hydrates            .  ..         662 

ligni      .             .  .         350 

Carbolic  acid  .  .   '          .48,  408 

tow        .  .          .  .418 

wool      .             .  .418 

Carbon              .             .  .         350 

disulphide        .  .        349 

Carbonate  of  ammonia  .         169 

iron       .            .  .256 

lead       .            .  .         232 

of  lime .            .  .206 

magnesia           .  ._        212 

potash  .             .  .         177 

soda      .             .  190 

zinc        .             .  .         239 

Carbonic  acid .             .  .         341 

Carbo  sapol     .             .  .418 

Cardamoms     .             .  .         593 

Cardiac  sedatives        .  .           98 

stimulants         .  .           96 

tonics,  97,  540,  543,  544. 

Carminatives   (see  also   Stomachics), 

113,  207,  364,  369,  563,  573,  577, 

581,  583,  585,  586,  587,  590,  593, 

596,  603. 

Carron  oil        .  .         206 

Cascara  sagrada          .  :.         448 

evacuant           .  ,.         448 

Cascarilla  bark            .  .         574 

Cascarillin       .            .  .        574 

Castor  oil         .             .  '.         449 

seeds     .             .  .         449 

Cataplasmata  (poultices)        .        729 

Catechin          .             .  .643 

Catechu  pale  .             .  .'        642 

black     .            .  .642 


PAGB 

Catechu  infusion         .  .         644 

tincture  .  .         644 

Cathartics,   107,   181,  189,  193,  199, 

212,  216,  218,  291,  295,  440,  448, 

449,  453,  456,  457,  458,  460,  463, 

516,  660. 

Cathartics  for  cattle,  and  sheep, 
111,  193,  199,  216,  455,  458, 
660. 

dogs,  111,  291,  451,  448,  456, 
459,  463,  465,  660. 

horses,  110,  193,  199,  216,  455, 
458. 

pigs  112,  442,  451,  459. 
Caustic  ammonia         .  .         166 

lunar     .  .  .248 

potash  .          .  .  V        175 

soda       .          •".''        .         190 
Caustics,  57,  166,  177,  190,  221,  223, 
241,  247,  249,  262,  265,  279,  303, 
330,  337,  340,  391. 

Cautery,  actual  .  .  58 

Cayenne  pepper  .  .         582 

Cera  alba         .  .  .694 

flava      .  .  .         694 

Cerates  .  .  695,  728 

Cerebral  sedatives      .  .  69 

stimulants         .  .  69 

Cerevisiae  torula  or  yeast       .         653 

Cetaceum         .  .  693 

Cevadilla         .  .  .556 

Chalk  .  .  .  .         206 

mixtures  .  .         207 

Chamomile  flowers      .  .         595 

Charcoal,  animal         .  .         350 

wood     .  .  .         350 

Charges  .          ^  .         728 

Chenopodium  oil         .  .         614 

Chillies         »  .  .  .         582 

Chinaseptol     .  .  .         405 

Chinese  twist  .  .  .418 

Chinosol  .  .  .407 

Chiretta  .  .  .574 

Chloralamide  .          .'.  .         385 

Chloral  hydrate  .  76,  380 

Chloralum        .  .  .223 

Chlorate  of  potash      .  .         184 

Chloretone       .  ...         385 

Chloric  ether  .  .  .279 

Chloride  of  ammonium  .         165 

antimony  .  .         264 

barium .  .  .         218 

lime       .  .  .211 

sodium .  .  . '       196 

zinc       .  .  .         241 

Chlorides  of  mercury  .  293,  298 

Chlorinated  lime         .  .209 

soda       .  .  .202 

Chlorine  .  .  .310 

Chlorodyne     .  .  .        380 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


809 


PAGE 

Chloroform      .  .  .371 

compared  with  ether   .         376 

precautions  in  using  .         375 

spirits  of  .  .         379 

Cholagogues  (see  Hepatic  stimulants) 

109,  115,  116,  181,  337,  440,  457, 

460,  464. 

Chondrin         .  .  .685 

Chrysarobin    .  .  .         648 

Chrysophan     .  .  .         648 

Chrysophanic  acid       .  .         648 

Chromic  acid  .  .  .         340 

Churrus  .  .  .499 

Cinchona          .  .  .-        558 

alkaloids  .  .         560 

grey  or  pale      .  .         559 

red  .  .         559 

tinctures  .  .         565 

yellow  .  .  .         559 

Cinchonidine  .  .  .561 

Cinchonine       .  .  .561 

Cinchonism      ,  .  .         563 

Cinnabar          .  .  .         285 

Cinnamon        .  .  .         585 

oil  .  .         586 

Circulation,  actions  of  medicines  on  94 

Cocaine  hydrochloride  .         523 

substitutes       .  527,  528 

Citrate  of  iron  and  quinine  .         256 

Citric  acid       .  .  .345 

Citrine  ointment         .  .         303 

Classifications  of  medicines  .     21,  22 

Claviceps  purpurea     .  .         619 

Climate  modifying  medicinal 

action  ...  36 

Clysters  or  enemata    .  .         717 

Coal  tar  .  .         436 

Codeine  .  .  .         470 

Cod-liver  oil    .  .  .677 

for  feeding  purposes  .         677 

Colchicine       .  .  .627 

Colchieum  autumnale  .         627 

Cold  applications         .  .         157 

a  natural  tonic.  .         157 

sponging  .  .         706 

Collargolum    .  .  .         251 

Collodion  contractile  .  .         367 

flexible.  .  .         368 

styptic  .  .  .         368 

Collunaria        .  .  .724 

Collutoria        .  .  .724 

Collyria  .  724 

Colocynth        .  .  ,459 

Colophony — resin        .  .         608 

Common  mass .  .  .         668  J 

salt        .  .  .196  | 

Compound  powder  of  catechu         644  I 

Confections     .  .  .         732 

Conine  hydrobromide  518,  521 

Conium  maculatum     .  .         517 


PAGE 

Constipation    .             .  .112 

Continuous  irrigation  .         707 

Convolvulus  Scammonia  .         458 

Copper  and  its  salts    .  .         242 

Copper  acetate            .  .         247 

iodide   .             .  .246 

poisoning          .  .         343 

resinate              .  .         246 

sulphate             .  .         244 

Coriander        .             .  .         593 

Corn  flour,  Oswego     .  .         663 

Cornutine        .             .  .620 

Corrosive  sublimate    .  .         298 

Correctives      .             .  .         701 

Corrosives,   175,  248,  271,  298,  325, 

334,  337. 

antidotes  for  '  .  .         299 

poisoning  by     .  .         288 

Cotton              .             .  .652 

Counter-irritation       .  .           55 

Counter-irritants    (blisters),    54,    58, 

168,    270,  289,  290,  303,  455,   669 

Cough   mixtures,   93,    94,  171,   383, 

482,  541,  668. 

Cough,  treatment  of  .  .           93 

Cramp.             ...  73 

Cream  of  tartar           .  .188 

Creolin             .             .  .422 

Creosote           .             .  .419 

Cresol  ....         422 

Creta  praeparata          .  .         206 

Croton.            .             .  .452 

cake      .             .  .453 

oil          .             .  .         452 

seeds     .             .  .452 

Croton-oleic  acid         .  .         452 

Cubebs  pepper             .  .         582 

Cumulative  medicines  .           31 

Cuprea  barks  .             .  .         559 

Cupri  acetas    .             .  .         247 

iodidum             .  .         246 

sulphas               .  .         244 

Cuprum           .             .  .         242 

Curare              .             .  .         533 

Curarina          .             .  .         533 

Curative  systems         .  .           38 

Cusso  .             .             .  .615 

Cyllin  .            .            .  .425 

DAMIANA         .            .  .        619 

Danda  oil  or  Assu  juice  .         449 

Datura  stramonium    .  .         522 

Deadly  nightshade      .  .         486 

Death  during  anaesthesia  .           78 

Decoctions       .             .  .         709 

Delphinium  staphisagria  .         614 

Demulcents,  62,  652,  653,  655,  659, 

665,  668,  680,  694. 
Deodorisers,  43,   53,   187,   194,   210, 

311,  333,  340,  350,  416,  423,  636. 


810 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


PAGE 

Dermatol         .  .  .        225 

Desiccants,  207,  221,  223,  232,  237, 

251,  293,  350,  392,  394,  418,  427, 

428,  429,  432,  570,  693. 
Detergents      .  .  .179 

Dextrin  .  .  655,  664 

Dextrose — grape  sugar  .         667 

Diachylon  plaster        .  .         233 

Diaphoretics   .  .     121,  171,  181 

Diarrhoea         .  .  .         113 

Dieting  .  .  .134 

Digitalein        .  .         535 

Digitalin          .  .  .         535 

varieties  .  .         542 

Digitalis          .  .         534 

experiments  with         .         538 
Digitonin         .  .  .         535 

Digitoxin         .  .  .         535 

Diluents          .  .  .  63,  156 

Diphtheria  antitoxin  .  .  6 

Diseases   treated   by   inoculation     7 
Diseases    modify    actions    of 

medicines    ...  37 

Disinfectants,   43,   45,    49,    51,    187, 

194,  210,  311,  333,  340,  350,  407, 

416,  423,  581,  592,  636. 
Dithion  .  .  .570 

Diuretic  mass  .  .         184 

Diuretics,    124,    165,   171,    179,   183, 

185,  188,  189,  192,  297,  319,  370, 

398,  498,  541,  543,  544,  545,  593, 

600,  608,  628,  650. 

Diuretin  .  .  .         498 

Dogs,  emetics  for,  107,  237,  240,  245, 

247,  297,  470,  555,  628. 

vermicides  for .  .         119 

Donovan's  solution     .  .         283 

Doses  of  medicines      .  700,  709 

Douches  .  .  .         706 

Dover's  powder  .  .         485 

Drastic  cathartics       .  .         109 

Drenches,  draughts,  or  drinks       716 
Drenching  horn  .  .         718 

Dried  alum      .  .  .         223 

Drying  milch  cows      .  .         132 

Duboisine        .*  .  .         522 

Duotal  422 


EASTON'S  syrup 
Ecbolics 
Elaterium 
Elective  affinity 
Electricity 
Electrotherapy 
Electuaries 
Elemi  resin 
Elimination     . 
Elixir  phosphori 
Elixirs 
Embrocations . 


256,  510 

131,  624 

456 

30 

86 

.    86,88 

.  93,  732 

581 

32 

306 

734 

727 


Emetics,  103,  170,  237,  239,  240,  245, 
247,  266,  297,  460,  470,  555,  597, 
628. 

Emetine  .  .  .         556 

Emollients,   62,    656,  660,  661,  665, 

694. 

Emplastra        .  .          ,  .         728 

Emulsions        .  .  .         724 

Endermic  application  of  medi- 
cines .  .  .713 
Enemata          .             .  .         717 
Enzymes          .             .             .     11,  43 
Epsom  salt      .             .             .        215 
Ergot  .             .             .             .619 
Ergotin             .             .             .619 
Ergotinic  acid              ,             .         620 
Errhines           ...  91 
Erythroxylon  coca      .            ,.         523 
Escharotics  (see  Caustics)       .  57 
Eserine            .             .            ,.511 
Eseridine         .        — -.           . .         517 
Essential  oils  .             .             .         725 
Ether  .            .            .            .363 
acetic    .             .             .         367 
chloric  .             .             .279 
nitrous .             .             .         368 
sulphuric           .             .         363 
Ethereal  oil     .             .             .367 
Ethyl  alcohol  .             .             .352 
bromide             .             .         353 
chloride             .            .         353 
nitrite  .             T            .         368 
Eucaine           .            .            .        527 
Eucalyptus  globulus  .             .         591 
Eucalyptol       .             .             .591 
Eulyptol           .            ,.           „        592 
Euonymin        .                           .         456 
Europhen         .             /            ..       428 
Evacuants        .             .             .157 
Excipients,  661,  662,  665,  667,  681, 

690,  703. 

Excitants — stimulants          •  .  68 

Exalgin  .  .  .         405 

Exhilarants     .  .  .69 

Expectorants,  91,  168,  170,  171,  181, 

265,  319,  519,  532,  544,  545,  555, 

581,  587,  600,  650,  651. 

Extract,  Goulard's      .  .        234 

Extract  of  belladonna  .         495 

ergot          .  .         624 

Indian  hemp          .         502 

male  fern   .  .616 

nux-vomica  .         510 

opium        .  ,        485 

Extracts  .  .  .720 

Eye,   remedies    acting   on,   88,   222, 

236,  245,  496,  516,  533,  588. 


6.67 


sacchari  . 
Faradism 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


811 


PAGE 

Fats  and  fixed  oils      .             .         724 

Gentian  infusion 

PAGE 

573 

Febrifuges  (see  Antipyretics)  133,  139, 

tincture 

573 

140,  141,  181,  216,  344,  345,  396, 

Gentiana  lutea 

570 

398,  404,  406,  407,  562,  567. 

Gentianin 

570 

Fennel              .             .             .593 

Germicides,  43,  160,  251, 

252,   283, 

Fenugreek        .             .             .         593 

284,  300,  333,  345,  401, 

402,   404, 

Ferments          .             .             .           11 

407,  409,  414,  418,  422, 

425,   426, 

organised           .             .           12 

562,  592,  637,  653. 

unorganised      .             .           11 

Ginger 

584 

Ferri  carbonas             .             .         256 

preserved 

584 

carbonas  saccharatus  .         256 

tincture 

585 

iodidum             .             .         259 

Gingerin 

585 

peroxidum  humidum    .         260 

Gins 

354 

pernitratis         .             .         261 

Glauber  salt     . 

193 

sulphas              .             .         257 

Globulins 

17 

Ferric  perchloride       .             .         260 

Glonoin 

391 

Ferrous  salts  .             .             .252 

Glucose  or  dextrose     . 

667 

sulphate            .             .         257 

Glucosides 

703 

Ferrum             .             .             .252 

Glue     . 

685 

Ferrum  redactum        .             .         255 

plasters 

685 

Ferratin           .     .         .             .256 

Glusidum  (saccharin) 

400 

Fever  medicines  (see  Antipyretics)  142 

Glutol  . 

392 

Fibrolysin       .            .             .         580 

Glycerin 

686 

Flax,  common         ...           .         657 

of  alum 

222 

Flexible,  collodion      .             .         368 

,,  belladonna    . 

496 

Flies,  blistering           .             .         669 

,,  boric  acid 

348 

Flowers  of  sulphur      .             .         321 

,,  borax 

193 

Fluid  extracts              .             .         720                ,,  carbolic  acid 

417 

Fomentations  .             .156,  704,  707 

,,  iodine 

317 

Fool's  parsley  .             .             .         509 

„  pepsin 

692 

Formaldehyde              .             .         391 

,,  starch 

665,  687 

Formalin          .             .             .391 

,  ,  tannic  acid   . 

647 

Formates          .             .             .348 

Glycerina 

688 

Formol             .             .             .391 

Glycerophosphoric  acid 

307 

Fowler's  solution         .             .         283 

Glycerophosphates 

307 

Foxglove          .             .             .         534 

calcium 

307 

Frankincense  .             .             .         599 

iron 

307 

Freezing  mixtures       .             .         157 

quinine 

307 

Friar's  balsam              .             .         650 

Glycoformal     . 

392 

Frick's  wound  gelatin              .         686 

Glycyrrhizse  radix 

662 

Friction            .             .             .           56 

Glycyrrhizin    . 

662 

Fuller's  earth  .         .    .             .         223 

Glyphocal  emulsion     . 

307 

Fumigations    .           ...            .         722 

with  formates  . 

349 

Gossypium 

652 

GALACTAGOGUES  .        .            .        132 

Goulard's  extract 

234 

Galbanum        .             .             .         587 

Grape  sugar     . 

667 

Gallic  acid       .             .             .         645 

Green  vitriol   . 

257 

Galls  or  Gallse          /  .            .         644 

Gregory's  mixture 

465 

Galvanism       .             .             .   *       86 

Grey  powder   . 

291 

Gamboge          .             .            ^  ;      457 

Guaiacol 

422 

Gargles  and  sprays     .           ,.  "        93 

Guarana 

497 

Gastric    stimulants    or    tonics,    103, 

Gum  acacia 

654 

240,  252,  256,  260,  277,  306,  330, 

ammoniacum     . 

587 

336,  337,  339,  340,  349,  358,  360, 

Arabic  . 

654 

448,  509,  556,  571,  573,  632.. 

Bassorin 

655 

sedatives           .             .         371 

benzoin 

649 

Gelatin             .            .             .684 

British  . 

655 

solutions            .             .         685 

resins     . 

731 

Gelsemine         .             .             .         504 

Senegal 

654 

Gentian            .                                  570 

tragacanth 

655 

812 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


Gun  cotton 
Gunjah 


PAGE 

367 
499 


HABIT  modifies  the  action  of 

medicines     ...  36 

Haematiriics— blood  tonics,  133,  138, 

253,  256,  257,  259,  261. 
Haematoxylon  (logwood)         .         643 
Haemoglobin    .  .  .  10 

Haemostatics,  61,  62,  211,  234,  261, 
331,  351,  407,  480,  586,  603,  624, 
682,  685. 

Hard  paraffin  .  .  .         433 

Hartshorn        .  .  .166 

Haschisch        .  .  .499 

Heart,  medicines  acting  on  the,  95, 96, 

97,  98,  540,  543,  544. 
Heat    ....  51 

and  moisture     .  .  51 

a  disinfectant   .  .  51 

a  stimulant       .  .         708 

Hemlock          .  .  .         517 

succus   .  .  .         521 

Henbane  or  hyoscyamus        .         522 
Heroin  .  .  .         485 

Hoffmann's  anodyne    .  .         367 

Hollands          .  .  .354 

Holocaine        .  .  .527 

Homatropine  hydrobromide  .         496 
Homoeopathy  .  .  .38,  39 

Honey  or  mel .  .  .         667 

Horse,  action  of  medicines  on          33 
Hordeum          .  .  .         652 

Horses  do  not  vomit  .  .         105 

Hot  fomentation          .  .         156 

Hot  iron  ...  58 

How  heat  is  lost          .  .         141 

Huile  de  cade .  .  .         593 

Hyderabad— chloroform     ex- 
periments    .  .  .    77,  78 
Hydragogue  cathartics,  109,  452,  456, 

457,  459. 

Hydrargyri  bichloridum         .         298 

chloridum         .  .         292 

cum  creta          .  .         291 

emplastrum       .  .         290 

iodidum  .  .         302 

linimentum       .  .         290 

nitratis  .  .         303 

unguentum         .         303 

oleas      .  .  .         290 

oxidum  flavum  .         292 

nigrum   .  .         291 

rubrum  .  .         292 

perchloridum    .  .         298 

pilula    .  .  .291 

subchloridum   .  ,.         292 

unguentum       .  .         288 

Hydrargyrum  .  .        285 

Hydrobromic  acid       .  .         341 


PAGE 

Hydrochloric  or  muriatic  acid        334 

Hydrocyanic  or  prussic  acid  429 

Hydrogen  peroxide     .  159 

Hydronaphthol  .  404 

Hydrotherapy  .  122 

Hydroquinone  .  400 

Hygienic  remedies       .  135 

Hyoscine          .  .  522 

Hyoscyamine  .  .  522 

Hyoscyamus  niger       .  522 

Hypnone          .  .  388 

Hypnotics  produce  sleep,    69,    381, 

384,  385,  386,  387, 388,470,  500, 523 

Hypodermic  injections,  27,  145,  284, 

307,  318,  365,  367,  379,  386,  390, 

398,  402,  406,  422,  471,  477,  484, 

490,  496,  498,  510,  516,  521,   523, 

527,  528,  533,  534,  542,  545,  523, 

554,  556,  557,  558,  565,  612,  624, 

629,  632,  651,  654,  684,  685,  698,  699 

Hypodermic  syringe  .  .         714 

Hypochlorite  of  calcium         .         209 

ICE  .         158 

Ice-bag  .  .  158,708 

Ichthyol  .  .  .692 

Idiosyncrasies  .  .  37 

Indian  hemp    .  .  .         499 

tobacco  .  .         499 

Infusion  of  catechu     .  .         644 

cinchona  .  .         564 

ergot     .  '..  .        624 

gentian  .  .         573 

tobacco  .  .         642 

Infusions          .  .  .         723 

Inhalations      .         333,  375,  421,  721 
Injectio  apomorphinae  hypo- 
dermica         .  .  .         471 

atropinae  hypodermica          496 
ergotae  ,,  .         624 

morphinse          ,,  .         484 

Injections,  intramammary      711,  715 
intramuscular    .  .  27,  715 

intraperitoneal  .  711,  713 

intra-spinal         .  527,  528 

intratracheal,  27,  315, 317,  318, 
320,  321,  384,  398,  415,  484, 
491,  517,  521,  533,  542,  565, 
605,  606,  629,  651,  711. 
intra-uterine     .  711,  720 

intravenous,  27,  160,  220,  383, 
402,  415,  484,  491,  517,  521, 
534,  612,  684,  711. 
rectal    .  .  29 

subcutaneous     (see     Hypoder- 
mic), 27,  711,  713,  714. 
Intestinal  antiseptics   and  disinfect- 
ants (see   Antiseptics),    115,    225, 
226,  345,  393,  400,  401,  402,  425, 
593,  648. 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


813 


Intestinal  astringents 

PAGE 

411 

Keratin 

PAGE 

690 

stimulants         .      113 

,  218,  511 

Kermes  mineral 

263 

Iodide  of  copper 

246 

Kino    .... 

643 

iron 

259 

Koch's  experiments    . 

45 

lead 

233 

Kousso,  a  vermifuge  . 

615 

mercury 

302 

Krameria  triandra 

643 

potassium 

318 

starch    . 

312,  664 

LABARRAQUE'S  soda  disinfect- 

sulphur 

321 

ing  fluid 

202 

Iodine  . 

311 

Lactillin 

345 

ointment            . 

317 

Lactobacilline             « 

345 

solutions 

317 

Lactone            .            .            , 

345 

tinctures           »    • 

317 

Lactose 

666 

lodipin,             .          .   .    ' 

317 

Lanoline 

681 

lodism               .         s     ; 

314 

Lsevulose  —  left-handed  sugar 

667 

lodoform 

426 

Lapis  infernalis 

248 

lodoform  substitutes,  225, 

251,  392, 

Lard    .... 

679 

393,  418,  428,  429. 

Larkspur  or  stavesacre 

614 

lodoformal 

429 

Laudanum  or  tincture  of  opium 

485 

lodoformin 

429 

Laughing  gas  .            . 

75 

lodol    . 

428 

Lavender 

594 

lodum  . 

311 

Laxatives,   108,  189,    213,  323, 

325, 

lodo-salicylic  acid 

428 

440,  448,  465,  656,  660,  668. 

Ionic  theory    . 

160,  163 

Lead  and  its  compounds 

226 

Ipecacuanha    .             . 

554 

acetate  . 

234 

Iron  and  its  salts 

251 

carbonate         .. 

232 

and  quinine  citrate 

256 

iodide    . 

233 

arsenate             .- 

255 

oleate    . 

233 

cacodylate 

283 

oxide     .             .           '. 

232 

carbonate           . 

256 

plaster  . 

233 

chloride 

;;.         260                poisoning  with               227 

,229 

hydrated  peroxide 

260  !                     antidotes  for 

232 

iodide    .          .  • 

259                sugar  of 

234 

phosphate 

255  ;              white    .             ... 

232 

saccharine  carbonate 

256    Lecithin 

306 

sulphate 

257    Leopard's  bane  or  arnica 

588 

tincture 

261     Leucocytes 

10 

Irrigation,  continuous 

707 

Lime,  burnt    . 

204 

Isinglass 

685 

carbonates,       .            . 

206 

Itrol     . 

251 

chloride 

211 

Izal      . 

425 

chlorinated 

209 

phosphate 

208 

JABORANDI 

529 

saccharated 

206 

Jaborine 

529 

water    . 

205 

Jalap    . 

458 

Liniment  of  ammonia 

169 

Jamaica  ginger 

584 

belladonna 

496 

pepper  . 

582 

camphor 

633 

James's  powder  . 

263 

cantharides 

673 

Jesuits'  bark  . 

559 

croton  . 

456 

Jonah's  gourd 

449 

lime 

206 

Juniper  tops  and  berries 

593 

mercury 

290 

Juniperus  communis  . 

593 

opium   . 

485 

sabina  . 

593 

soap 

690 

oxycedrus         . 

593 

turpentine 

607 

Jute     . 

657 

Liniments        .             . 

726 

Linseed            . 

657 

KALADANA  purgative  seeds 

459 

cake 

657 

Kalium  or  potassium  salts 

173 

meal 

657 

Kamala,  a  vermifuge  . 

617               oil 

657 

Kaolin 

223    Lint     .... 

657 

814 


INDEX   OF  MEDICINES 


PAGE 

Linum  usitatissimum,  *         657 

Liquid  paraffin  .  .         433 

Liquor  ammonise  fortis  ...        166  I 

acetatis  .  .         171 

arsenicalis         .  .         283 

arsenici  et  hydrargyri 

iodine  .  .         283 

atropinae  sulphatis       .         496 
calcis    .  .  .205 

carbonis  detergens       .         436 
chlori    .  .  .310 

ethyl  nitritis     .  .         368 

ferri  perchloridi  .         261 

hydrargyri  perchloridi         298 
iodi       .  .  .317 

pancreatis         .  .         692 

picis  carbonis  .  .         436 

potassse  .  .         175 

strychninse,       .  .         570 

trinitrini  .  .         391 

Liquors  ..  i.  .         723 

Liquorice  root  .  •          .         662 

sugar     .  .  .         662 

Litharge— oxide  of  lead          .         232 
Lithoutriptics  .  127,  128 

Liver,  drugs  acting  on  .         115 

Lobelia — Indian  tobacco         .         641 
Local  ansesthetics        .  .  75 

Logwood  an  astringent  dye   .         643 
Long  pepper    .  .  .         582 

Loretin  .  .  .         428 

Losophan         .  .  428  l 

Lotions,  183,  188,  193,  196,  203,  217,  \ 
222,  223,  236,  238,  240,  242,  246, 
251,  252,  262,  292,  301,  317,  321,  ; 
335,  338,  344,  348,  362,  392,  407,  j 
408,  413,  417,  418,  425,  483. 
Lubricants       .  .  435, 680  j 

Lugol's  solution  .  ..         317  j 

Lunar  caustic  .  .  .         248  | 

Lysoform         .  .  .         392  j 

Lysol    .  ...         425 

MACDOUGALL'S  disinfectants  .         409 
Magnesium  and  its  compounds       212 
calcined  .  .         212 

carbonate  .  .         212 

oxide      .  ,  .         212 

sulphate  .     213,  215,  217 

Maize  starch     .  ..  .         663 

Male  fern          .  .  .616 

Mallein  .  ,  .8,  695 

Malt  extracts   .  .  .653 

Maltose  .  .  .         666 

Mammary  glands,  drugs  act- 
ing on  .  .  .         131 
Mandrake        .             .  .         460 
Mange  and  scab  dressings  (see 

Parasiticides)  .  .  54 

Marjoram         .  ..  .         594 


Marsh -mallow 
Mass,  common 


PAGE 

652 

660, 668 
56 
1 

582 
460 
627 
734 
735 
468 


Materia  Medica,  definition  of 
Matico  leaves  .  .  « 

May  apple  or  podophyllum    . 
Meadow  saffron  .  .« 

Measures,  pharmaceutic 

domestic  .  . 

Meconic  acid   . 
Medicines,  absorption  of,  26,  27,  28, 
29,30 

acting  on  the  digestive 

system  .  .  99 

acting  by  counter-action        39 
acting  generally  .  26 

acting  hypodermically  27 

acting  intratracheally .  29 

acting  locally    .  .  26 

acting  by  mouth,          .          27 
acting    by    pulmonary 

membrane     .  .  29 

acting  by  rectum          .  29 

acting  by  skin  .  .  ?0 

circumstances   modify- 
ing. .  .    36,  38 
classification  of  .  21 
curative  action  of          .  38 
doses     .             .             700,  709 
elective  affinity              .  30 
on  different  patients,  32,  34,  35 
physiological  action  of     25,  26 
therapeutic  action  of    .     25,  26 
Mel — honey     .             .             .         667 
boracis  .             .             .193 
Mentha  piperita          *-            w         594 
pulegium            .             .         595 
viridis   .            ..             .         595 
Menthol            .'             .             .         595 
Mercurial  compounds .             .         285 
liniments            .             .         290 
ointments,         .     288,  290,  303 
pill         .            .             .291 
plaster  .             .             .290 
Mercurialism  .             .             .         287 
Mercuric  salts              .             *         285 
Mercurous  salts           .             ,         285 
Mercuro-zinc  cyanide               .         302 
Mercury  and  its  compounds  .         285 
ammoniated      .             .         301 
chlorides            .             .         298 
corrosive  sublimate      .         298 
iodides  .             .            ..  -       302 
liniment            -.    '         .         290 
nitrate .             .             ..        303 
nitrate  ointment           .         303 
ointment           ..        '     ,         288 
oleate    .             .            .         290 
oxides   .             .          •  „•        292 
pill         .             .             .291 


INDEX   OF  MEDICINES 


815 


PAGE 

Mercury  poisoning      .             .         288 

NAPHTHALIN  . 

PAGE 

402 

plaster  .            .             .290 

Naphthalol 

404 

with  chalk        .             .         291 

Naphthol  camphor 

404 

Methylated  spirit       .             .         354 

Naphthols 

403 

Methyl  alcohol             .             .         353 

Narceine 

472 

chloride             .             .         354 

Narcotics         .             .       70,  472 

,500 

conine   .             .             .         518 

Narcotine 

472 

morphine           .             .         470 

Nataloin 

445 

salicylate           .             .         570 

Natural  orders  of  plants 

22 

strychnine         .             .         504 
violet    .             .             .401 

Negri-bodies    . 
Nerve  paralysers 

3 

85 

Methylal          .             .             .  '         76 

stimulants 

86 

Methylene       .             .             .           76 

Nervous  system,  drugs  acting  on 

66 

blue        .            .             .;       402 

Neutral  organic  principles 

703 

Metric  weights  and  measures         736 

Nicotiana  tabacum 

638 

Micro-organisms          .             .     13,  14 

Nicotine 

638 

Milk  sugar       .             .             .666 

Nicotianin 

638 

Milk  of  sulphur           .            ;         322 

Nitrate  of  Mercury     . 

303 

Minder  erus  spirit        .             .         171 

potash   . 

182 

Mineral  Kermes,         .             .:        263 

silver     . 

248 

oils         .             .            V        726 

soda 

201 

Mixtures          .             .             .         724 

Nitre  or  saltpetre 

182 

freezing              .             .         158 
Molasses—  treacle        .             .  667-668 

sweet  spirit  of 
Nitric  acid 

368 
337 

Monkshood      .            .             .546 

Nitrite  of  amyl 

389 

Morphine         .                          465,  469 

ethyl      . 

268 

acetate  .             .             .470 

sodium  . 

391 

hydrochloride  .             .         469 

Nitro-glycerin 

391 

muriate              ..            .         469 

hydrochloric  acid 

338 

tartrate             .             .         470 

Nitrous  ether 

368 

Morrhuae  oleum           .             .         677 

oxide  gas 

75 

Mortars            .             .             .731 

Normal  saline  solution      10,  162 

,199 

Motor  depressants       .             .    85,  86 

Novocaine 

528 

Moulds             .             .             .13 

Nuclein, 

653 

Mucilages        .             .             .         654 

Nuclein  solution 

654 

Muriate  of  ammonia  .             .         165 

Nut-galls 

645 

antimony           .             .         264 

Nutrients,    134,   656,   659,   662, 

664, 

mercury             .             .         298 

667,  678 

morphia             .             .         469 

Nutrient  enemata, 

719 

soda       .             .             .196 

Nux-vomica     . 

502 

Muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid         334 

alkaloids  of 

503 

Musk   .             .            ...  '         .         725 

poisoning 

505 

Muscle  stimulants,      .             .  65,  516 

drugs  acting  on             .     63,  64 

OAK  bark 

574 

Muscular  spasm           .             .           64 

galls       . 

644 

Mustard           .             »  .           .576 

Oakum 

658 

applications      .             .         579 

Oatmeal 

663 

black     .             .             .577 

(Enanthe  crocata 

509 

compared    with    other 

Oil,  anise 

590 

irritants         .             .         577 

Carron  .             .             206 

,  658 

oil  of     .          .  .           v        577 

castor    . 

449 

white     .             .             .576 

chamomile 

595 

Mydriatics,  dilators  of  the  pupil     89 

cod-liver 

677 

Myotics,  contractors  of  the  pupil    89 

croton   . 

452 

Myricin             .             .             .694 

drying  .             .    '         658 

661 

Myristin          .             .             .         677 

expressed  or  fixed 

724 

Myrosin           ,            .            v        577 

linseed  . 

658 

Myrrh               .             ..        •  -v       580 

olive 

655 

tincture  of        .             .         581 

of  cade 

593 

Myrrhol           .            .             .         581                cinnamon 

586 

816                                INDEX 

OF  MEDICINES 

PAGE                                                                                                      PAGE 

Oil,  eucalyptus 

591 

Opium,  poisoning  by               .         476 

juniper 
mustard 

593 
580 

preparations  of             .         469 
purity  and  strength  of          468 

myrrh    . 

581 

Smyrna              .           -.        467 

peppermint 

595 

tinctures  of                •'  ,         485 

pine       .             .             . 

607 

Turkey              .            .        467 

Scotch  fir 

607 

Organic  animal  extracts         .         703 

Oil  of  savin      .            .             593, 

625 

Orphol              .             .             .225 

tar 

610 

Orthoform       ,.             *             .         528 

thyme    . 

594 

Osmosis,           .             .             .         161 

turpentine 

601 

Ossein  .             .             .             .685 

Valerian 

596 

Oxide  of  antimony      .             .         263 

vitriol   . 

229 

calcium             .            •        204 

wine 

367 

iron       .             .'          .        260 

Wintergreen     . 

570 

lead       .            .            '.         232 

Oils,  volatile   . 

589 

magnesia           *             .         212 

Ointments,  how  made,  etc.    . 

727 

mercury            ..            .         292 

Ointment,  blistering  . 

673 

zinc        .          .  .            .         236 

boric 

348 

Oxygen             ,           V          .         158 

cantharides       .             . 

673 

Oxymel             .        --.'            .         344 

carbolic 

417 

Oxytocics  or  ecbolics       130,  131,  619 

citrine  . 

303 

Ozone  .             .            .,            .         159 

iodide  of  sulphur 

321 

iodine    . 

317 

PAIN  relievers  (see  Analgesics)         71 

mercury 

288 

PalmaChristi              .             .         449 

red  iodide 

302 

Papain                                       .         692 

resin 

608 

Papaver  somniferum  .             .         465 

silver  nitrate     . 

248 

rhoeas    .             .             .466 

simple   . 

695 

Paraffins           .             .             .433 

sulphur 

325 

Paraldehyde    .             .             .388 

zinc  oxide 

236 

Paralysants,  85,  86,  430,  519,  524,  534 

Oleates             . 
Oleate  of  lead 

727 
233 

Paramorphine               .             .         471 
Parasiticides  (see  also  Vermicides),  54, 

Oleic  acid         .            ,. 

346        117,  244,  257,  270,  278,  296,  316, 

Oleo-resins       .            .  '          597, 

732 

321,  322,  339,  349,  365,  396,  402, 

Oleum  anisi      .            .        -    . 

590 

403,  408,  415,  424,  557,  558,  590, 

anthemidis 

595 

594,  609,  610,  614,  633,  635,  637, 

crotonis 

452 

639,  648,  651,  693. 

juniper! 

593 

Pareira             .             .             .         546 

lini 

658 

Parturients      .             .             .         131 

menthae  piperitse 

595 

Pastes          •    .                         .727 

morrhuse 

677 

Pearl  ashes      .             .            .         177 

olivse 

655 

barley   .             .            .         652 

picis 

609 

Pennyroyal      .             .             .         594 

ricini     .                     -    . 

449 

Peppers            .           .  .             .         582 

terebinthinse     . 

601 

Pepper,  Cayenne          .             .         582 

tiglii      . 

452  |         "    cubebs  .             .             .582 

Olibanum  or  frankincense 

580    Peppermint     .             .             .594 

Olivse  oleum    . 

655 

oil          .            .            *•        595 

Olives 

656 

spirit     .             .            .         595 

Olive  oil 

655 

water    .             ..           .        595 

Opodeldoc 

589 

Pepsin              .            .             .         691 

Opium             .            ...-;. 

465 

Percolation                                          733 

alkaloids 

469    Perhvdrol        .             .             159,  160 

ammoniated  tincture   . 

485 

Period  ate         .             .             .428 

Opium  antidotes          ,. 
camphorated  tincture  . 

479 

485 

Permanganate  of  potash         .         186 
Peroxide  of  hydrogen              .         159 

Egyptian          .            . 

467 

iron       .            .            .260 

extract  .            . 

485 

zinc       .             .            .238 

Indian  .            . 

467 

Peru  balsam    .             .             .651 

INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


817 


Peruvian  bark 
Petrolatum 
Petroleum  benzin 

vaseline 
Petroleums 
Pharmacology 
Pharmacy 

Phenic,  or  carbolic,  acid 
Phenacetin      .  ;. 

Phenol 

-acetamide 

-salicylate 

Phenazone  (antipyrine) 
Phenyform 
Phlebotomy     . 
Phosphate  of  iron 

lime 

Phosphoric  acid 
Phosphorus 
Physic  masses 
Physiology  of  vomiting 
Physostigmatis  semina 
Physostigmine  sulphate 
Picrotoxin 
Picric  acid 
Pill,  blue 

Pilocarpine  nitrate 
Pimento  or  allspice     . 
Pimpinella  anisum 
Pines   . 

Pinus  Sylvestris 
Piper  album    . 

Chili      . 

cubeba  . 

longum 

nigrum 

Piperazine       . 
Piperidine 
Piperine  , 

Pitch   . 
Pix  Burgundica 

liquida  . 
Plasters,  adhesive      .     233, 

blistering 

glue 

lead  or  sticking 
Plasters,  how  made,  etc. 
Plumbi  acetas 

emplastrum      .    , 

iodidum 

oxidum 

Plumbi  carbonas 
Plumbism 
Plumbum 
Podophyllum  . 
Poisons  and  antidotes,  144, 

149,  150. 

Pomades          .  . 

Poppy  heads  . 

oil 


PAGE 

559 
435 
435 
435 
433 
1 

700 
408 
404 
408 
398 
401 
396 
418 
142 
255 
208 
339 
304 
444 
104 
511 
511 
72 
339 
291 
529 
582 
589 
598 
601 
582 
583 
582 
582 
582 
404 
582 
582 

598,  610 
600 
609 

234,  685 
676 
685 
233 
728 
234 
233 
233 
232 
232 
227 
226 
460 

145,  146, 

728 
466 
466 


Poppy  seed  cake 
Porter  .  . 

Potash  salts    . 
Potassii  acetas 

aqua  or  liquor  . 

fusa  or  caustica 
Potassium  and  its  compounds 

acetate  . 

bromide  .  181 

carbonates 

caustic  . 

chlorate  . .  .,  ' , 

citrate  . 

fusa 

hydrate 

iodide    . 

nitrate  . 

permanganate  . 

picrate  ,  .-., 


sulphate 

snlphurata 

tartrates 
Potash  alum  . 
Poultices 

bran 

charcoal 

linseed  .  . 

mustard  .  . 

yeast 
Powder,  Dover's 

Gregory's 

James's 

Powders,  how  made,  etc. 
Precautions  with  anaesthetics 
Precipitated  chalk 
Precipitated  sulphur  . 
Prepared  chalk  ..  . 

Prescribing      . 
Prescriptions  .  .  .4 

Pressure  .  .  , 

Preventive  inoculation 
Proof  spirit 
Protargol 

Protective  vaccines     . 
Protecti  ves 
Prussic  acid 


PAGE 

466 
354 
173 
188 
175 
175 
173 
188 
308 
177 
175 
184 
188 
173 
175 
318 
182 
186 
339 
688 
181 
180 
188 
221 
729 
729 
351 
659 
579 
653 
485 
465 
263 
731 
79,  80 
206 
322 
206 
700 
700 

56 
4,5 
353 
252 

19 

367,  368,  435,  688,  695 
429 


antidotes  for     . 
poisoning  with  .         431 

Pure  air  ...  93,  135 

Purgatives  (see  Cathartics  and  Laxa- 
tives) 107,  181,  189,  193,  199,  212, 
216,  218,  291,  295,  442,  448,  449, 
453,  455,  456,  457,  458,  460,  464 
Pustulants       .  .  57 

Pyridine          .  .         406 

Pyoktanin       .  .  .         401 

Pyrocatechin  .  .  .         400 

Pyrogallic  acid  .         400 

Pyroligneous  acid        .  .         342 


3  F 


818 


INDEX   OF  MEDICINES 


QUANTITIES  of  medicines 

Qualities  of  medicines 

Quassia 

Quassin 

Quercin 

Quercus  cortex 

Quicklime 

Quicksilver      . 

Quinine  citrate 

hydrochloride  . 

lactate  . 
Quinine 

sulphate 

hydrochloride  . 
Quini-chloral  . 
Quinidine 
Quinoline 

RANGOON  petroleum  . 

Rabies 

Rapeseed  oil    . 

Rectified  spirit 

Red  cinchona  bark 

Red  corpuscles 

Refrigerants,  100,  157,  166,  181,  183, 

197,  343. 

Remedies,  hygienic     . 
Remijia  barks 
Resin  or  rosin 
Resins 

Resinate  of  copper 
Resorcin 

Respiration,  medicines  acting  on     89 
Rest  a  restorative 
Restoratives,  133,  136,  197,  208,  253, 

306,  307,  497. 
Rhamnus  catharticus 

frangula 

purshianus 

syrupus 
Rhatany 
Rheum 
Rhubarb 

compound  powde 
Rice  starch 
Ricini  oleum    . 
Ricinus  communis 
Rosemary 
Rosin  or  resin 

black  or  fiddler's 

yellow  . 

Rubefacients  (see  also  Counter- 
irritants)      .  56, 
Rum    .            » 
Ruminants,   action  of  medi- 
cines on 
Rye,  ergot  of  . 

SABADILLA  or  Cevadilla 
Sabina  or  savin 


PAGE 

709 

Saccharated  lime         .            . 

PAGE 

206 

701 

Sacchari  f  sex    .         .'  .            . 

667 

575 

Saccharin         .             .            , 

400 

575 

Saccharoses 

666 

575 

Saffron,  meadow          .            , 

627 

575 

Sago  starch     .             .        •    . 

663 

204 

Salacetol 

401 

' 

285 

Sal-ammoniac 

165 

565 

Salicylates       .             .             » 

565 

t 

559 

Saline  diuretics 

125 

565 

purgatives 

109 

t 

558 

solution             .       10,  162 

,  199 

559 

Salol    .... 

401 

, 

559 

Sal-prunelle     .             .             . 

182 

, 

565 

Sal  -volatile      .             .            . 

167 

560 

Salicin 

565 

405 

Salicylate  of  sodium   . 

566 

Salicylic  acid  .             ,~ 

565 

, 

434 

Salt  action       .             . 

160 

3 

Salt,  common           —??-**      .  .  « 

196 

t 

660 

Epsom  .           •'»- 

215 

352 

Glauber             .    i 

193 

. 

558 

Saltpetre         .           -.            . 

182 

10 

Salt  poisoning 

196 

181, 

183, 

Sanitas 

633 

Sanoform 

428 

135 

Santonica 

612 

, 

559 

Santonin          .             , 

612 

608 

Santoninoxim 

614 

597 

Sapo  durus 

688 

246 

Saponin            .            «            . 

535 

399 

Savin   .... 

625 

igon 

89 

Scilla   .             .                     ,    . 

544 

136 

Scillain 

544 

208, 

253, 

Scillitoxin 

544 

Scoparin 

544 

. 

448 

Scopolamine    . 

522 

448 

Secale  cereale              . 

619 

, 

448 

Sedatives  or  depressants  (see  Para- 

448 

lysants),  85,  83,  70,  71,  309, 

341, 

, 

643 

385,  390,  398,  432,  463,  529, 

551, 

463 

557. 

. 

463 

Semina  crotonis 

452 

§ 

465 

ricini 

449 

663 

Senegal  gum    . 

654 

§ 

449 

Senna  leaves    .             » 

459 

449 

Setons 

57 

. 

594 

Shampooing 

56 

608 

Sheep,  actions  of  medicines  on 

34 

, 

608 

cathartics  for    . 

111 

608 

dips       .             .            * 

279 

jr- 
583, 

601 
354 

precautions  in  dipping 
Sialogogues 
Silver  and  its  compounds 

282 
99 
248 

i- 

citrate  . 

251 

.34, 

111 

colloid  .            . 

251 

619 

lactate  . 

251 

nitrate  .             .             • 

248 

, 

556 

oxide     .             .            . 

250 

593, 

625 

Sinalbin  and  sinigrin  .             . 

577 

INDEX   OF   MEDICINES 


819 


Sinapisms  or  mustard  applica- 
tions            .  .  .57,  579 
Size — weak  glue  .  .  685 
Skin,  medicines  acting  on  121,  713 
Smelling-salts  .  .  171 
Soaps  .            .  .  .,  688 
Castile  .  ./  .  689 
glycerin  ..  .  689 
hard  or  soda  .  .  688 
medicinal  .  .  689 
Soap  liniment  .,  .  690 
soft  or  potash  .  .688 
Socaloin           .  .  .  445 
Socins'  paste    .  .  241 
Soda  salts        .  .  .  189 
Soda  water      .  .  .  191 
Sodium  and  its  compounds    .  189 
bicarbonate  .  .  190 
biborate  .  .  192 
bromide  .  „  308 
carbolate       -  .  .  418 
carbonates  .  .  190 
chlorata  .  .  202 
chloride  .  .  196 
ethylate  solution  .  189 
fluoride  .  .  203 
hydroxide  or  caustic  soda  190 
hyposulphite  .  .  194 
iodide    .  .  .319 
liquid,  Labarraque's     .  202 
nitrate  .  .  .  201 
perborate  .  .  193 
Sodium  nitrite  .  .  391 
phosphate  .  .  193 
soap      .  .  '  .  688 
sulphate  .  .  193 
sulphite  .  .  194 
thiosulphate  .  .  194 
Soft  paraffin    .  .  .  433 
Soft  soap         .  .  .688 
Solutio  arsenicalis  .  .  283 
chlori    .  .  .310 
plumbi  diacetatis  .  234 
Solutions          .  723 
Solutol             .  ..  -.  425 
Solveol             .  .  .  425 
Soporifics         .  .  .  69 
Sour  milk        .  .  .  345 
Sozoiodol         .  .  .428 
Spanish  flies    .  .669 
Sparteine         . ,  .  ,  544 
Spearmint        .  .  .  594 
Species  of  patient  differently 

affected  by  drugs  .  .  32 

Spermaceti— cetaceum  ,  693 

Spinal  anaesthesia  .  82 

depressants  .  .  83 

stimulants  .  .  83 

Spinal  hot-bag  -.  .  708 

ice-bag .  .  .  708 


PAGE 

167 
379 
363 
334 
601 
352 
353 
352 
734 


Spirit  of  ammonia 

chloroform 

ether 

salt 

turpentine 

wine 
Spirit,  proof    .  . 

rectified 

Spirits  or  essences 
Spiritus  setheris 

setheris  nitrosi 

compositus        .  .         367 

Mindereri         .  .         171 

rectificatus        .  .         352 

Spongiopiline .  .  157,  730 

Sprays  .  ,»  ,         .    .       93 

Spurred  rye     .  .  .         619 

Squill  .     '  .  .544 

Squire's  chemical  food  .         256 

Staphisagrine .  .  .         614 

Starch  .  .  .662 

iodide  of  .  .         664 

Stavesacre  seeds          .  .         614 

Steam  a  disinfectant  .  .  51 

Steaming  horse's  head  .  91 

Steel,  tincture  of     •  .  -          .         261 

Sternutatories  .         <•  «  91 

Stibium  (antimony)    .  .         262 

Stimulants,  69,  168,    170,  179,   289, 

290,  292,  360,  364,  369,  370,  470, 

479,  489,  497. 

aromatic,  577,  582,  585,  586, 
590,  592,  594,  596. 

cerebral  .  .  69 

glandular          .  ,          .         531 

spinal    ...  83 

Stomachics  (see  also  Carminatives), 
113,197,207,364,369,465,577,581, 
583,  585,  586,  587,  590, 593  596, 503 
Stopping  for  horses'  feet 
Stovaine 
Stramonium  . 
Strongyli  .  r  ,. 
Strontium  bromide  . 
Strophanthin  . 
Strophanthus  Komb6 
Strychnine  .  . 

arsenite 


610 
528 
522 
118 
309 
542 
542 
503 
511 

poisoning          .  505 

Styptic  colloid  .  647 

Styptics   (see  also    Astringents    and 

Haemostatics),    61,  211,  222,    234, 

261,  368,  407,  600. 

Styrax  .  .  .651 

Subcutaneous   injections  (see 

Hypodermic)  .  27 

Sucrose  .  .         666 

Sudorifics        .  .        121 

Suet     .  .680 

Sugar  .  .    .  .665 


820 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


Sugar,  cane 

PAGE 

666 

grape     . 

667 

liquorice 

662 

of  fruits 

667 

of  lead  .            . 

234 

of  milk  —  lactose 

666 

Sulphate  of  alumina  and  potash 

221 

copper  . 

244 

iron       .             ,            . 

257 

magnesia 

213 

potash  . 

181 

quinine  . 

559 

soda 

193 

zinc 

239 

Sulphates 

181 

Sulphite  of  soda 

194 

Sulphur 

321 

anhydride 

332 

flowers  of 

322 

iodide    . 

321 

liniments  of 

325 

milk  of  . 

322 

ointments  of 

325 

precipitated 

322 

roll  or  stick 

322 

sublimed 

322 

vivum    . 

322 

Sulphide  of  antimony 

263 

potassium 

180 

Sulpho-carbolic  acid  . 

418 

carbolates 

418 

phenic  acid 

418 

Sulphonal 

386 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 
Sulphuric  acid 

323 
329 

ether     .            .             . 

363 

Sulphurous  acid 

332 

Sumbul  or  musk  root  .             587, 

596 

Sunlight 

135 

Suppositories  . 

720 

Suprarenin 

681 

Surgeon's  lint. 

657 

Surroundings  modify  actions 
of  medicines 

38 

Sweat  glands,  action  on 
Sweet  spirit  of  nitre  . 

121 
368 

Syringes,  enema 

719 

Syrups 

732 

Syrup  simple  . 

668 

iodide  of  iron   . 

259 

Easton's 

256 

Squire's 

256 

Syrupus  chloral 

385 

rhamni  . 

448 

rhei       . 

465 

TABLES  of  weights  and  mea- 

sures            .            .    734,  735, 

736 

Tablets 

715 

Tannalbin 

648 

PAGE 

Tanuigen         .             .  648 
Tannin  or  tannic  acid  .         645 
Tannoform      .             .  .         393 
Tapeworms      .             .  .         118 
Tapioca  starch             .  ..         662 
Tar       .             .             .  598,  609 
Barbados           .  434,  609 
coal       .             .  ^         436 
oil  of     .             .  .         609 
ointment            .  .         610 
Rangoon            .  -  .         436 
Tartar,  cream  of         .  .         188 
emetic  .             .  .         265 
Tartaric  acid  .             .  .344 
Tartarised  antimony  .  .         265 
experiments  with  .         267 
Tartrate  of  potash      .  .*       188 
Tseniacides      .          .  .'*  .         119 
Tea      .             .             .  .         498 
Temperature    modifying  ac- 
tions of  medicines  .  .           36 
high,    destroys  micro- 
organisms     .  ;           51 
Tenaline          .             .  .612 
Terebene          .             .  .         607 
Terebinthinae  .             .  .         598 
oleum    .             .  .601 
Terpene           .             .  .         607 
Terpinol          .             .  .608 
Tetanus  antitoxin       .  .    7,  697 
Thalline           .             .  .406 
Thebaine          .           ,«  .         471 
Theine              .             .  .         497 
Theobromine  .             .  .498 
Therapeutic  action  of  medicines      25 
Theriaca  (treacle)        .  .         667 
Thermometers             .  .         737 
Thioform         .             ..-  .         226 
Thiol    .-.'&'•'-*         693 
Thus  (Frankincense)  .  .         599 
Thyme             .             .  594,  636 
Thymol            .             .  .636 
Tinctura  aconiti          .  .         552 
aloes      .             .  .         445 
arnicse    .             .  .         588 
belladonnas       .  .         495 
benzoini  composita  .         650 
calumbae            .  .         573 
cannabis  indicse  .         502 
cantharidis        .  .         673 
cascarillse           .  .         574 
catechu .             .  .         644 
chiratse .             .  .         574 
chloroformi     et     mor- 

phinae  composita  .         380 

cinchonae            .  .         564 

colchici.            .  .        629 

croton    .          •. .  .         456 

digitalis             .  .         542 

ergotae  ammoniata  .         624 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


821 


Tinctura  ferri  perchloridi 

PAGE 

261 

Urinary  sedatives 

PAGE 

129 

gentianse 

573 

tonics    . 

129,  130 

hyoscyamus 

523 

Urine,  secretion  of 

124 

iodi        . 

317 

Urotropine 

392 

,,     decolorato 

317 

Uses  of  antiseptics 

46 

,,     oleosa 

317 

diuretics 

126 

myrrhse 

581 

Uses  of  disinfectants  . 

49 

nucis  vomicse     . 

510 

deodorisers 

53 

opii        .            . 

485 

emetics  . 

106 

,,     ammoniata 

485 

purgatives 

112 

strophanthus     . 
zingiberis 

543 
585 

VACCINES         , 

-  .      9,  20 

Tinctures,  how  made,  etc. 

733 

Valerian 

596-597 

Tobacco 

638 

Valerianic  acid 

596 

alkaloids 

638 

Van  Swieten's  solution 

301 

enemas                ; 

641 

Vapour  bath     . 

705 

Tolu  balsam     .             . 

651 

Vapours  or  inhalations 

721 

Tonics,  137,  208,  252,  256,  260, 

277, 

Vascular  stimulants    . 

96 

306,  330,  336,  337,  339,  340, 

349, 

tonics    .            ;. 

.      97-99 

358,  464,  508,  563,  572. 

Vaso-constrictors         .    . 

99 

Tonics,   blood,    138,    253,    256, 

257, 

Vaso-dilators   . 

96 

259,  261. 

Vaseline 

435 

gastric,  103,  240,  277,  335, 

360, 

Vehicle 

701 

448,  509. 

Veins,  injection  into   . 

27 

heart   and   vascular,   98, 

540, 

Venesection 

142 

543,  544. 

Venice  turpentine 

598 

nerve,  86,  509. 

Ventilation 

135 

Tow      .... 

657 

Veratrine 

556 

Tragacanth 

655 

Verdigris 

247 

Treacle 

667 

Verdigris  liniment 

247 

Trilactine 

345 

Vermicides  and  vermifuges 

,  118,  119, 

Trinitroglycerin           t 

391 

245,  258,  270,   279,   296, 

339,  349, 

Tropacocaine    .             . 

527 

396,  425,  587,  600,  604, 

611,  613, 

Trypanblue 

402 

614,  615,  616,  617,  626,  637. 

Trypanred 

402 

Vesical  sedatives 

129 

Tuberculin 

696 

tonics     . 

130 

Tumenol 

693 

Vesicants  (see  Counter-irritants),  56, 

Turkey  opium 

467 

577,  669. 

Turkish  baths 

705 

Veterinary  Pharmacy 

700 

Turpentines     .           _.             597, 

598 

Vienna  paste    . 

175 

Turpentine,  oil  of 

601 

Vinegar 

343 

Tuson's  disinfectant    . 

258 

of  cantharides   . 

673 

of  colchicum 

629 

UNGTJENTA 

726 

of  opium 

485 

Unguentum  cantharidis 
cupri  acetatis    . 

673 

247 

Virginian  tobacco 
Vitriol,  blue 

638 
244 

gallse  cum  opio  .             » 

483 

green 

257 

hydrargyri 

288 

oil  of 

329 

hydrar-iodidi  rubri 
nitratis  . 

302 
303 

white 
Volatile  oils 

239 

589 

iodi 

317 

Volckmann's  antiseptic 

637 

resinae    . 

608 

Vomica,  nux    . 

502 

simplex              .             608, 

695 

Vomiting,  how  produced 

104 

sulphuris 

325 

checked 

107 

veratrinse 

558 

zinci  oxidi 

236 

WASH,  black    . 

292 

Urari  or  curara 

533 

yellow    . 

292 

Urethane 

387 

Water  . 

49,  152 

Urinary  deposits 
disinfectants     .            * 

128 
129 

impurities 
actions  and  uses 

153 
154 

822 


INDEX   OF   MEDICINES 


Water  dressings 

lime       .  f 

mineral  V 

tar 

Watering  of  horses 
Wax     . 

Weights  and  measures 
Wet  pack 
Wheat  flour     . 
Whisky 
White  arsenic 

lotion     . 

mustard  seed     . 

oil 

pepper  . 

vitriol    . 

wax 

Whiting 
Wines  . 
Wintergreen    . 
Wolfsbane 
Wood  charcoal 

naphtha 

tar 

woo 


PAGE 

157 
205 

Woorara  or  curara  poison 
Wound  gelatin 

154 

Wounds            .            , 

609 

155 

XEBOFOBM 

694 

734 

YEAST  . 

706 

Yeasts  . 

662 

Yellow  cinchona  bark 

354 

resin 

271 

wash 

239 

wax        .             .  ••( 

576 

Yohimbine       .         .    *.J 

169 

582 

ZINO  and  its  compounds 

239 

acetate  . 

694 

butter  of 

206 

carbonate 

354 

chloride          --f 

570 

oxide     .             ,<, 

546 

peroxide 

350 

sulphate 

353 

sulpho-carbolate 

598 

Zingiber  officinale 

598 

Zingiberis  tinctura    .  . 

PAGE 

533 

686 
47 

225 

653 
13 
559 
608 
292 
694 
617 

236 
242 
241 
239 

241 
236 

238 
239 
240 

584 
585 


Printed  by  T.  and  A.  CONSTABLE,  Printers  to  His  Majesty 

at  the  Edinburgh  University  Press.  <y*+  j£ 

-& 


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LIBRARY 

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